December 2007
Volume 45 Number 6

Features

Building Disaster-Resilient Families, Communities, and Businesses

Franklin E. Boteler
Deputy Administrator, Economic and Community Systems
Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service
Washington, D.C.
fboteler@csrees.usda.gov

Introduction

Experts predict that the United States will continue to experience an increase in the severity, and perhaps number of, critical incidents (Cutter 2006, IPCC 2007). Earthquakes, tsunamis, tornadoes, wildfire, drought, contagious disease, and terrorist events regularly occupy headline news. "Every year, natural and technological hazards in the United States cost an estimated $1 billion per week in the form of lives lost and public and private properties destroyed" (OSTP 2005). "In 2004 and 2005, approximately 2,000 U.S. citizens lost their lives due to hurricanes" (NSB Task Force, 2007). The Spatial Hazard Events and Losses Database (SHELDUS) indicates a pattern of elevating losses (Cutter 2006). In response, states, localities, agencies, nongovernmental organizations (NGO's), and businesses have been augmenting their disaster preparedness plans to prepare for these significant challenges to sustainability.

Disaster Mitigation--A Growing Body of Scientific Literature

The first published disaster-related scientific work was Price's (1920) dissertation on the explosion of the munitions laden SS Mont Blanc in Halifax harbor that killed over 2,000 people. Since then, a significant body of scientific knowledge has developed. From a recent review of the literature, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) (2006) concludes, "there is a solid knowledge base, at the household level, on vulnerability assessment, risk communication, evacuation and other forms of protective action."

Much of the work has centered on evacuation. The NAS (2006) review indicates evacuation is a collective decision. There is an:

Emergent norm theory of collective behavior which posits that groups faced with the potential need to act under conditions of uncertainty (or potential danger) engage in interaction in an attempt to develop a collective definition of the situation they face and a set of new norms that can guide their collective behavior" (NAS, 2006, p. 126).

As a result, when warnings are issued, people interact with one another in order to identify appropriate responses to it. A number of factors affect people's decisions to evacuate--perceptions of risk/personal safety, knowledge about a specific area, constraining factors (e.g., mobility, pets, family), and fear of the evacuation process. NAS concludes that instead of concentrating on communicating too many warnings, leaders need to focus on how to penetrate the group normalcy process and "provide directives that are detailed enough to follow during an emergency" (NAS, 2006, p.128).

In a 2006 Congressional briefing (and recent publications), Susan Cutter, Director of the Hazards Research Lab at the University of South Carolina, indicated that socio-economic status and age explain the majority of variance in vulnerability. Scientists working in the field have developed a "social vulnerability paradigm" which holds that people experience socially created vulnerability--an elevated probability of loss, injury, death, and/or reduced ability to recover from critical incidents due to a range of social, political, and economic processes. Cutter's research has also found that evacuation plans are confounded because people evacuate as families, taking every vehicle in the household, rather than one principal vehicle as many evacuation plans assume.

Working from the foundation established by White and Hass in their 1972 Assessment of Research on Natural Hazards, Dennis S. Mileti (1999) developed a comprehensive review of the disaster science literature in Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States. Mileti (1999, p. 105) found that "losses from hazards and disasters in the United States in the next millennium will be determined, as in the past, by a large number of variable factors [which can be] grouped into three broad categories:"

• The natural environment--earth's physical systems (e.g., climate).


• Human systems--(e.g., population, culture, technology, social class, economics, and politics).


• The constructed system--(e.g., buildings, roads, bridges, housing).

A National Academies of Science Report (2006) refers to these basic categories as physical vulnerability, hazard exposure, and structural vulnerability. A hazard vulnerability analysis (HVA) incorporates an analysis of these three variables. The National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP), which includes FEMA, NIST, NSF, and USGS, continues to support research to expand the sophistication and accuracy of hazard prediction and impact models.

From his comprehensive review, Mileti (1999, p. 239) concluded:

Effective preparedness and response activities help save lives, reduce injuries, limit property damage, and minimize . . . disruptions.

The theoretical approach to disaster preparedness has moved from a functional view to one that recognizes the tremendous influence social norms, and public perceptions and expectations have on the occurrence, effects of, and recovery from disasters.

A great deal has been learned about who prepares for disasters (households with higher socioeconomic status and those of non minorities), but why they do so is still a mystery.

The myth of human dysfunction in the immediate emergency period after disasters has been thoroughly dispelled.

Extension Activities in Critical Incident Preparedness

Extension plays a significant role in enabling families, communities, and businesses to successfully respond to these critical incidents. Local Extension agents often function as a critical node of communication in rural areas--particularly when normal communication systems have temporarily broken down following a disaster. Indeed, in reviewing responses to Katrina, some observed that when Extension agents were closely tied to the state's disaster response team, communications flowed much more quickly to affected individuals. In another example, Cornell Extension maintains a Web page enabling New York residents to easily access comprehensive information resources for recovery from 9/11 affects. And Michigan State University (2000) has developed a "Critical Incident Protocol" guiding public and private partnerships in developing disaster preparedness plans.

Several Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES) programs advance knowledge about disaster preparedness and response. The Extension Disaster Education Network (EDEN) is recognized as a significant information system for sharing disaster preparedness and response information. Recently, CSREES completed work with several other agencies in augmenting EDEN to include information on the development of disaster preparedness plans for small businesses. Also, CSREES's Information Technology program has been actively engaged with 4-H youth and the National Geographic Society to identify GIS/GPS-based disaster evacuation routes and shelter sites for local communities in the hurricane impact zone of the U.S. coast spanning from Texas to New Jersey.

And the Southern Rural Development Center (SRDC) has been facilitating training of cooperative Extension faculty in post-trauma outreach to individuals, families, and communities affected by Rita and Katrina. Shortly after Katrina, SRDC joined with CSREES and the Rural Sociological Society in hosting a National Summit to begin implementation of a comprehensive rural development strategy for rural, affected areas of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. During the Summit, land-grant system specialists, agency officials, foundation leaders, and university research and Extension faculty met to identify current capacity and professional development needs for long-term responses to disasters that support sustainable community and economic development in disaster-affected areas.

Towards a Framework for Extension's Response

Mileti (1999, p. 122) emphasized that critical incidents should not be viewed as isolated problems. The effects of such incidents are exacerbated by systemic factors such as amount of investment in social capital, energy, and transportation systems. He called for "a fundamental shift in the character of how citizens, communities, governments, and businesses conduct themselves in relation to natural environments they occupy . . . the [challenge is to] create and install sustainable hazards mitigation into the culture of the nation" (1999, p. viii).

The Natural Hazards Center at the University of Colorado serves as a clearinghouse for disaster-related research and publishes a bimonthly Natural Hazards Observer that includes thoughtful articles, research summaries, and post conference and training opportunities. A 2001 publication by the Center, Holistic Disaster Recovery: Ideas for Building Local Sustainability After a Natural Disaster, was used as a basic reference guide for post-Katrina recovery. The publication identifies (2001, p. 1-3) six principles of community sustainability:

• Maintain and, if possible, enhance resident's quality of life.


• Enhance local economic vitality.


• Ensure social intergenerational equity.


• Maintain and, if possible, enhance environmental quality.


• Incorporate disaster resilience and mitigation.


• Use a consensus-building, participatory process when making decisions.

In August 2006, the USDA sponsored a "Partners Conference" focused on NGO leaders of socially disadvantaged groups. During a workshop on disaster mitigation, participants noted that government must find better ways to partner with grass roots organizations in order to more effectively respond to disasters. Some suggestions included developing improved communications with local faith-based organizations (e.g., using them to base immediate emergency response supplies) and posting bulletins on Spanish speaking radio.

Working from this information, a basic framework of Extension's role with critical incident preparedness and response can be derived. The framework is based upon the recognition that Extension has a science-based communication, education, facilitation, and information role in enabling communities and businesses to respond to critical incidents through two basic mechanisms: serving as nodes of communication dispersal of science-based information and facilitating holistic preparation and planning efforts.

In regard to communications, science-based information resources are available for Extension agents to use in guiding community and small business activities in developing disaster preparedness plans. Some of these resources include the critical incident protocol developed by Michigan State University, publications available from the Natural Hazards Center at the University of Colorado, and information sources listed on EDEN such as guidelines for small business disaster preparedness plans.

In regard to facilitating preparation and planning efforts, the research literature indicates that a holistic perspective is called for in order to "create and install sustainable hazards mitigation into the culture of the nation" (Mileti 1999, p. viii). This includes:

• Building resilient community economies,


• Enhancing environmental systems so they can sustain and function to ameliorate impacts,


• Being cognizant of the social norms that affect evacuation and recovery efforts (e.g., emergent norm theory of collective behavior)


• Being aware of social justice concerns (e.g., social vulnerability paradigm), and


• Facilitating partnerships between all stakeholders (e.g., levels of government, NGO's, grass roots organizations, faith based organizations, and local citizens) in coordinating planning efforts using a consensus building, participatory process to develop plans.

Research Needs and Opportunities

The Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction of the National Science and Technology Council released a report in 2005 on the Grand Challenges for Disaster Reduction. The Subcommittee found that "high-priority science and technology investments, coupled with sound decision-making at all levels, will dramatically enhance community resilience and thus reduce vulnerability." It identified six great challenges to reduce loses from disasters:

1. Provide hazard and disaster information where and when it is needed.
   • Improve data collection to increase understanding of the ways in which hazards evolve.
   • Create standards for sharing, storing, and analyzing data.


2. Understand the natural processes that produce hazards.
   • Improve models and visualization techniques.


3. Develop hazard mitigation strategies and technologies.
   • Create resilient structures and infrastructure systems using advanced building technologies.
   • Support structural advances with effective nonstructural mitigation.
   • Quantify the monetary benefits of disaster mitigation using economic modeling.


4. Recognize and reduce vulnerability of interdependent critical infrastructure.
   • Develop science and technology to prevent cascading failures in public infrastructure systems.
   • Enhance the ability to protect public health before and after a hazard event.


5. Assess disaster resilience using standard methods.
   • Support intelligent community planning and investment strategies and protect natural resources with comprehensive risk assessments.
   • Assess the resilience of the natural and human environment.
   • Learn from each hazard event.


6. Promote risk-wise behavior.
   • Raise public awareness of local hazards.
   • Warn people with consistent, accessible, and actionable messages and a national all-hazards emergency communication system.
   • Develop policies that promote risk-wise behaviors and are based in social science research.

Continued research in disaster preparedness will increase knowledge and understanding of rural community vulnerabilities to critical incidents; increase capacity to respond to disasters, shocks, and stresses; and develop methods to help rural governments, communities, families, and businesses achieve resiliency. To adequately address these factors, Cutter (2006) calls for the integration of natural science, engineering science, and social science data and perspectives.

When applied to disaster preparedness this integrated approach is referred to as "vulnerability science." Focus areas for applied scientific work in vulnerability science would include the effects of economic structure, governance, and family systems on the potential for resiliency; identification of cost-effective communication methods to successfully alert and evacuate people; preparation of vulnerable communities for emergency response and disaster recovery; and identification of effective coping strategies for families, communities, and businesses.

Major federal research agencies have been providing support for vulnerability science. The National Science Foundation (NSF) has a long history of supporting disaster-related work--including supporting the Natural Hazards Center at the University of Colorado and the comprehensive review of the literature by Mileti. NSF was able to support research teams to examine the causality of the Katrina-related catastrophy shortly after the event. Also, the National Earthquakes Hazard Reduction Program, supported by FEMA, NSF, NIST, and USGS, has been very active in supporting ongoing research on disaster preparedness and response.

Recently, the National Institutes of Health have initiated new programs to examine the human dimensions of vulnerability science. The National Institute on Aging is interested in research on the elderly in disasters, especially elderly residents of institutions and frail elderly in the community. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development is supporting research on children and other vulnerable populations in disasters. And the National Institute of Nursing Research is interested in research that will develop interventions to improve outcomes for persons affected by natural and manmade disasters.

Finally, the National Science Board, a 24-member independent advisory body to the President and Congress, has called for a major new National Hurricane Research Initiative (NSAB 2007). In the report, the Board "calls for a wide interdisciplinary and organizational approach to address priorities needed for the nation to become "more resilient" to hurricane impacts."

In Conclusion

With the projected increase in severity of critical incidents, the United States will be subject to continued catastrophic losses. Extension plays a significant role in enabling families, communities, and businesses to enhance resiliency, reduce risk, and minimize loss due to impacts from critical events. An extensive scientific literature on disaster preparedness and response is available in the form of academic reports, texts, and practical guides to assist Extension efforts. The literature indicates that the United States should adopt a sustainable hazards mitigation perspective. Working from this literature, Extension can enhance community resiliency and significantly reduce adverse effects.

Disclaimer

The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the policies or views of the USDA.

References

Cornell University. Terrorism and war: Context and aftermath of September 11. Retrieved April 17, 2007, from http://www.einaudi.cornell.edu/9-11/atcornell.asp?go=Resources

Cutter, S. L. (2006). Hazards, vulnerability, and environmental justice. London and Sterling, VA: Earthscan.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2007). Climate change 2007. Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Society.

Jones, Kowalk, & Miller (2000). Critical incident protocol--A public and private partnership. Retrieved April 17, 2007, from http://www.cj.msu.edu/~outreach/CIP/CIP.pdf

Mileti, D. (1999). Disasters by design: A reassessment of natural hazards in the United States. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.

National Academy of Sciences. Committee on Disaster Research in the Social Sciences. (2006). Facing hazards and disasters: Understanding human dimensions. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Science and Technology Council Committee on Environment and Natural Resources--Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction. (2005). Grand challenges for disaster reduction. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President, NSTC.

Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, University of Colorado. (2001). Holistic disaster recovery: Ideas for building local sustainability after a natural disaster. Fairfax, VA: Public Entity Risk Institute.

National Science Advisory Board. (2007). Hurricane warning: The critical need for a national hurricane research initiative. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.

Prince, S. (1920). Catastrophe and social change. New York: Longmans, Green, and Company.

White, G., & Haas, E. (1975). Assessment of research on natural hazards. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

4-H Youth Development Apprenticeship Program: A Pilot of a New Certification in Youth Development

Sandra J. Bailey
Associate Professor & Extension Specialist
Montana State University Extension
Bozeman, Montana
baileys@montana.edu

Mary Katherine Deen
Associate Professor & Extension Specialist
Washington State University Extension
Pullman, Washington
mdeen@wsu.edu

The field of youth development has expanded in the past 15 years (Quinn, 2004). With this expansion is a need for Extension 4-H personnel to gain expertise in the field without leaving their jobs to return to school. To address this need, the 4-H Youth Development Practitioner Apprenticeship (YDPA)* program was developed under the guidance of the National Association of Extension 4-H Agents (NAE4-HA) and National 4-H Council through funding from the U. S. Department of Labor. This article discusses findings from an evaluation of the YDPA first year pilot to determine the effectiveness and feasibility of continuing the program.

YDPA is an Extension education and training initiative targeting frontline practitioners who deliver comprehensive services to youth. Through a structured apprenticeship program of Related Instruction (RI) and On-the-Job Training (OJT), practitioners develop skills needed to effectively serve youth. Upon completion of the program, the Practitioner Apprentices receive a certificate from their State Department of Labor. The goals of the initiative are to:

• Provide training standards for the youth development practitioner occupation,


• Increase the number of youth workers receiving extensive, quality training,


• Increase retention of youth workers,


• Provide training and mentoring opportunities,


• Provide a career path, and


• Provide national recognition for successful completion of the apprenticeship

Program Description

The National 4-H YDPA program was piloted beginning in the fall of 2002. A national design team made up of youth development professionals from 14 land-grant universities developed the procedures, policies, and requirements for program participants. In September 2003, five land-grant universities became pilot sites for the program. A total of 14 Apprentices and 14 Master Practitioners enrolled in the program.

The Apprenticeship Program consists of 345 hours of RI and 3,000-4,000 hours of OJT based on core competencies for each apprentice. There has not been consensus in the broader youth development field as to the core competencies needed for youth workers (Astroth, Garza, & Taylor, 2004). Even defining youth development has been challenging (Hamilton, Hamilton, & Pittman, 2004). The YDPA program however was able to base its content on the 4-H Professional Research and Knowledge Competencies (Coleman et al., 2004) that were in use in 2002. Included were the following areas:

• Youth Development


• Youth Program Development


• Organizational Systems


• Partnerships


• Volunteerism

RI consists of educational experiences (training, workshops, courses, etc.) that engage the Apprentice in content and subject matter information about youth development. RI is designed to provide the Apprentice a strong academic research base and understanding to enhance the ability of the Apprentice to offer and implement programs and activities that are appropriate, effective, sustainable, and justifiable as "best practices" of youth development.

OJT supplements the RI requirements through involving the Apprentice in systematic application and practice. Here Apprentices demonstrate their professional knowledge, including individual planning, program design and delivery, assessment, and communication with youth, adults, the community, and co-workers.

Each Apprentice works towards certification under the guidance and supervision of a Practitioner. Successful completion of an apprenticeship takes from 2 to 3 years. Apprentices with prior youth development work experience can receive credit up to 100 hours credit for RI and up to 1,000 hours for OJT. Upon successful completion of RI and OJT, Apprentices can be certified by the state Department of Labor as a Youth Practitioner Journey Worker.

Sample

The pilot for the YDPA program consisted of 14 pairs of enrolled Practitioners and Apprentices from across the United States. Of this group, 13 pairs completed the pilot program. One Apprentice left work with Extension for personal reasons during the pilot.

The Practitioners had a substantial number of years in Extension, ranging from a minimum of 6 years to a maximum of 33. Practitioners were Specialists or County Agent/Educators. Practitioners ranged in age from 41-63 years. Twelve of the 13 Practitioners had graduate degrees, and the other held a Bachelor's degree with some graduate credit.

The Apprentices held one of three job titles: five were classified as Program Assistants, five were Program Coordinators, and the remaining three were Extension Educators. Six of the Apprentices had some college education, three had a Bachelors degree, and four had graduate school classes or degrees. The age range of Apprentices was 23 to 56 years of age. The Apprentices had less experience with the Extension system than the Practitioners, with an average of 3.9 years and a range of one to 9.5 years.

Methods and Results

This pilot study included qualitative and quantitative data collection. Data were gathered electronically with the participants emailing their responses to the evaluator.

Monthly Logs

Practitioners and Apprentices were asked to keep monthly logs of their experiences in the pilot. A set of open-ended questions was electronically mailed to the participants at the first of each month asking that they reflect back on the previous month's experience. A content analysis was conducted on these data where the evaluator examined emerging themes (Krippendorff, 2004).

Time Spent with Practitioners

Apprentices and Practitioners met on a regular basis, with an average of 2.7 meetings per month. (Total range of meetings is a low of one per month to a high of 17 times per month.) Thirty-nine percent of the meetings were held face-to-face, followed by email contact, which made up 32% of the meetings. Phone contact was used by several pairs who were not located in the same office. The average length of time per meeting was 1 hour and 20 minutes.

On-the-Job Training

More than 6,678 hours of On-the-Job Training (OJT) were provided during the 9 months of the pilot. The average number of hours per month is 57, with a range of 5 to 179 hours. One Apprentice listed unreasonably high amounts of OJT each month. Her hours were not reflected in these results.

YDPA-Related Instruction

Apprentices participating in this pilot project attended more than 1,153 hours of YDPA approved training during the 9 months. The range was 0 to 50 hours per month.

Support to Participants

Nearly all Apprentices and Practitioners reported that they had the support and resources needed to participate in the pilot. Sources of support reported include:

• Youthworks Self Study Guides


• Tools from the YDPA training


• Family and coworkers


• Planning guide


• University and other educational opportunities


• Materials from other states

Professional Growth

Professional growth in Apprentices was noted from the first month of reporting. Although some reported it was too early to tell, others cited:

• Excitement and enthusiasm


• Taking time to think


• Working with advisory boards


• Resource management


• Learning to take one thing at a time


• Understanding of youth development

Excitement and enthusiasm about one's job were more frequently reported by Practitioners than by Apprentices. One Practitioner reported about her Apprentice,

As a result of participating in the Galaxy conference, she has a broader view of Extension in the (state) and in the nation. She has lots of excitement and enthusiasm for youth development work. She is willing to take a risk to do the right things for kids.

New areas of professional development noted in month two included:

• Leadership


• Ability to handle criticism


• Broader view of Extension


• Confidence and preparedness


• Ability to handle stress


• Developing skills to work with teens


• Time management

The development of leadership is demonstrated in the following quote from a Practitioner about her Apprentice:

This month she conducted several major 4-H events in her county, with increasing self-confidence and preparation awareness. She is assuming chairmanship of our Multi-County 4-H staff meetings for the next two years after a very successful two-year stint as recorder for the group.

The Practitioner reported in the following month, "She conducted an annual Leaders' Banquet incorporating many (some new) recognition techniques. Her organization and preparation skills are excellent!"

Constructive criticism can be difficult for people to hear. Some Apprentices found that they were learning to handle criticism better as illustrated in this quote,

I have been able to withstand taking criticism throughout the past month. I have learned that criticism is good and will help me to better my programs and myself. In the past I have had a problem with taking criticism and thought people were being too difficult/hard on me but now I can see things differently and positively.

Evidence of a broader view of Extension became a stronger theme over the course of the pilot. One Apprentice reported midway through the pilot,

I believe things are truly beginning to sink in. In my first year people would discuss issues that did not seem to either make sense or apply to me but now I can see how everything at one time or another will be a factor in what I am trying to accomplish.

Confidence also grew as the Apprentices became more comfortable in their roles. This Apprentice wrote, "I see myself becoming more confident in the presentation and delivery of curriculum, policies, etc."

In the third month Apprentices reported such development as:

• Professional organization


• Collaboration


• Conducting leader training on his/her own


• Expanding training modules to include additional information


• Strategic planning

Professional approach, leadership, and confidence were noted by the Practitioners. One Practitioner reported,

I continue to see her adapting and changing record keeping, program delivery methods, and work habits to best fit different situations. She is also beginning to realize the importance of balancing work and personal life and setting time in her schedule for herself.

In the following months, few new areas of professional development emerged. There was, however, stronger evidence that Apprentices had gained more confidence and ability to do their jobs, particularly in the areas of leadership and seeing the larger picture of youth development and Extension. One Practitioner stated:

(She) is getting better at multitasking. . . . She has been struggling with a teen group that she works with because she wants to be liked. This month she realized that she can not continue to do their role--and she let them know it. She feels bad because she alienated some youth. It is a hard lesson to learn to be an effective educator versus being their friend.

Another Apprentice summarized her experience during the pilot in the following manner:

It has been a very challenging year for me. I have been in constant conflict with coworkers in my office and as a result, some 4-H volunteers. This past month I sat down with the university ombudsman and received training on conflict resolution. I also talked at length with my Practitioner and I have been to three professional counseling sessions. After all of this, I have been able to take a look at my job and myself and determine what's really important. I've been able to sort everything out and put it in perspective. I've also learned a lot about balancing work and home. I am still trying to manage many on-going conflicts, but I feel I have been growing a little bit every month to this point--now I think I'm able to manage them better.

Effectiveness of Master Practitioners

Overwhelmingly the Apprentices reported that their Practitioners were of great assistance. Practitioners provided guidance and assistance in balancing work and family, and offered support. For example,

(My Practitioner) helps me look at things using different perspectives, not always traditional. This has helped me to address topics that need to be discussed, however, the traditional approach resulted in adults going on the defensive and therefore it had never been resolved. I feel that I can now approach this topic from another angle and have a complete discussion.

Time management and the balancing of work and family was a theme that arose throughout the pilot. One Apprentice said of her Practitioner,

She has been a source of information and guidance beyond anyone's expectations. She has continued to serve in a capacity that is both professional and understanding. When I feel overwhelmed with the job and its expectations, she gets me pointed in the right direction.

The lack of time to spend for Apprentices to work with Practitioners was a problem. One participant stated, "The Practitioner can only be as effective as time permits. Both of our schedules have been very busy and it has been hard to find times to meet. We are working to schedule monthly preset meetings."

One Practitioner reported in his last log that his busy schedule had prevented him from participating in the program to the full extent. He suggested that in the future, Practitioners and Apprentices be located in close proximity to one another, preferably in the same office, to better facilitate communication and mentoring.

Workload also presented challenges. One Practitioner reports, "I want to avoid adding to the workload of the Apprentice." Another stated, "I feel I may not be doing enough for my apprentice." Several participants responded that the reporting was time consuming and the computer forms were difficult to use.

Practitioner Apprentice Survey Results

Quantitative data were gathered from the Apprentices through a survey assessing job satisfaction (Spector, 1997) and level of youth development competencies that was developed for this project. The pretest was given to the Apprentices in early September, 2003, and the posttest in early May, 2004 yielded a 100% return rate. Travel funds to attend a conference were given as an incentive to participate. Limited change was found from pretest to posttest, possibly due to the small sample size and the short time frame of the pilot.

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction was assessed through the Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1997). This measure has nine subcategories of job-related satisfaction. There were no statistically significant differences from pretest to posttest on the entire scale or any subscales with the exception of "promotion." At the posttest there was a statistically significant gain in the respondents believing they had an opportunity for promotion, t(12) = 2.59, p = .02 (2-tailed).

Understanding of Youth Development

This portion of the survey was developed for the pilot and assessed competencies in the five areas of youth development covered in the YDPA pilot project. Internal reliability was not assessed due to the small sample size. Face validity was assessed by the YDPA administration and others in the youth development field reviewing the instrument prior to implementation. There were no statistically significant differences from pretest to posttest on these constructs. Further exploration of a tool to measure the understanding of youth development is needed.

Challenges in Implementation

Three main challenges emerged in implementing the Apprenticeship program: time, balancing work and family, and distance between Practitioner and Apprentice.

• Time was perhaps the greatest challenge in implementing the programs. Both Practitioner and Apprentice reported being very busy and not having time to meet, particularly face-to-face.


• Gaining experience and expertise while one balances work and family commitments is challenging. During the pilot, two male Apprentices went on paternity leave, and one female Apprentice went on maternity leave. These family issues limited the Apprentices' ability to obtain approved instruction and on-the-job training hours. Practitioners reported trying to assist Apprentices with balancing work and family--a competency area not assessed in this pilot but certainly one that is important in the field of Extension.


• Distance was a barrier for some Practitioner/Apprentice pairs, with each living and working in different communities. This was compounded by winter weather making travel to meetings difficult at times during the year.

Implications for Continuing the YDPA Program

There are several implications for improving the program based on the pilot.

• The lack of time to meet between Practitioner and Apprentice as well as time to complete job tasks and the YDPA project tasks was a theme that repeatedly surfaced during the pilot. Ideally, supervisors would allow a reduction in responsibilities for both the Practitioner and Apprentice during the apprenticeship process. Because the apprenticeship could last several years depending upon how quickly an Apprentice completes the required RI and OJT, perhaps a more realistic reduction of activities could be given during the first 9 to 12 months of the apprenticeship. This would allow the Practitioner and Apprentice to spend more time together and allow a greater opportunity to process what is learned.


• Distance was an issue for some of the Practitioner and Apprentice pairs. The face-to-face meetings appear to be the most beneficial for the Apprentices. Finding a way to locate the Practitioner and Apprentice within the same office would be suggested. However, having said that, there was one pair who did not meet "officially" as they were in the same office and often had casual meetings as needed. When located in the same office it would be important for the Practitioner and Apprentice to schedule meeting times rather than rely on quick spur-of-the-moment contact or meeting.


• Some of the Practitioner and Apprentice pairs met with other pairs when this was possible. Developing local groups of pairs would support the Practitioner and the Apprentice. Even if the local groups covered a few neighboring states, the pairs may have a better opportunity to network with one another.


• Program documentation of OJT and training hours should be examined. Many of the Apprentices commented that the record keeping was time consuming. Additional training on this would be advised.

Conclusion

Although this pilot evaluation had a small sample size and was limited to following participants for 9 months, conclusions can be drawn. First, the qualitative results of the YDPA pilot indicate that this is a feasible way to train youth development workers who are already in Extension but need more expertise. The strongest theme revealed from the qualitative data was that the Apprentices and Practitioners took greater interest and enthusiasm in their jobs.

An overall sense of greater professionalism among the Apprentices was apparent in both the Practitioner and Apprentice monthly logs. Although no increase in knowledge was found in the quantitative data, results suggested that this program increases the Apprentices' sense of opportunity for job advancement. YDPA appears to be one means for youth development workers to gain experience and expertise in the field without having to leave the job to return school.

Afternote

The YDPA program is now called the 4-H Youth Development Apprenticeship Program and is sponsored by National 4-H Headquarters. See <http://www.national4-hheadquarters.gov/comm/4h_prodev_tpd.htm> for more information.

References

Astroth, K. A., Garza, P., & Taylor, B. (2004). Getting down to business: Defining competencies for entry-level youth workers. New Directions for Youth Development: Theory Practice and Research (104), 25-37.

Coleman, N., Deen, M. Y., Garza, P., Groh, A., Guion, L., Huebner, A., Strickland, B., Schmiesing, R., Taylor, G., Turner, L. J., Zaniewski, J., Rennekamp, R. & Stone, B. (2004). New foundations for the 4-H youth development profession: 4-H professional research, knowledge, and competencies. National 4-H Headquarters: CSREES, USDA. Retrieved August 14, 2006 from http://www.national4-hheadquarters.gov/library/4-Hprkc_study_010605.pdf

Hamilton, S. F., Hamilton, M. A., & Pittman, K. (2004). Principles for youth development. In S. F. Hamilton & M. A. Hamilton (Eds.) The Youth Development Handbook: Coming of Age in American Communities. pp. 3-22. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Quinn, J. (2004). Professional development in the youth development field: Issues, trends, opportunities and challenges. New Directions for Youth Development: Theory Practice and Research (104), 13-24.

Spector, P. E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Identifying Volunteer Core Competencies: Regional Differences

Ken Culp, III
Sr. Extension Specialist for Volunteerism
Department of 4-H Youth Development
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
ken.culp@uky.edu

Renee K. McKee
Assistant Director of Extension
State 4-H Youth Development Program Leader
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
rmckee@purdue.edu

Patrick Nestor
Extension Specialist, Volunteer Leadership
West Virginia University
Weston, West Virginia
pinestor@mail.wvu.edu

Introduction and Review of Literature

Working with volunteers is an Extension tradition (Patton, 1990) as well as the primary method of delivering 4-H programs. Volunteer leaders have been central to the success of the 4-H program since its inception (Wessel & Wessel, 1982). Extension professionals engage volunteers by involving them in a variety of roles and delegating to them responsibility for projects, programs, events, and activities.

In order to effectively prepare Extension educators for their roles as volunteer administrators, organizational and community needs must be identified. Extension educators also need to determine ways that volunteer efforts can assist in serving both Extension and its clientele in fulfilling these needs. An important next step is developing volunteers to more effectively serve Extension and its clientele.

A perusal of the volunteerism literature in 4-H Youth Development reveals a number of previous studies (Banning, 1970; Clark & Skelton, 1950; Culp, 1995; Culp, 1996; Culp & Schwartz, 1998; Denmark, 1971; Parrott, 1971) that have sought to identify the demographic indicators that describe 4 H Youth Development volunteers. Additionally, "Giving and Volunteering in the United States" (Independent Sector, 2001) provides in-depth, broad-based, documentable information describing a cross section of American volunteers. However, none of these studies have focused on identifying the skills or competencies that volunteers need in order to deliver programs, lead initiatives or activities, or work effectively with their target audiences. Additionally, regional differences in 4 H Youth Development volunteers have largely been unexplored.

Recent studies (Boyd, 2002; Culp & Kohlhagen, 2004; Deppe, 1998; Deppe & Culp, 2000; King, 1998; Kohlhagen, 1999; Stone & Coppernol, 2002; North Carolina Cooperative Extension, 2002) have investigated the administrative competencies needed by Extension professionals who direct programs and coordinate and supervise volunteers. Competencies needed by the volunteers who deliver the program, however, has largely been unresearched.

Volunteers are an essential component of the Cooperative Extension Service in the United States. Nearly 625,000 volunteers deliver 4-H Youth Development programs to American youth annually (National 4-H Headquarters, 2002.) 4-H Youth Development professionals should consider the most effective ways to manage volunteer programs in order to maximize volunteer contributions to Extension. 4 H professionals need to effectively work with volunteers to fulfill the goals of Extension programs.

A competency is an underlying characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). The type or level of a competency has practical implications for human resource planning. Knowledge and skill competencies tend to be visible, and relatively surface, characteristics of people. Self-concept, trait, and motive competencies are more hidden, "deeper," and central to personality (Spencer & Spencer, 1993).

Competencies indicate "ways of behaving or thinking, generalizing across situations and enduring for a reasonably long period of time" (Guion, 1991). Hedges (1995) defined a competency as "an observable and measurable behavior that has a definite beginning and ending, can be performed within a limited amount of time, consists of two or more competency builders, and leads to a product, service, or decision." He further defined a competency builder as "the skills, knowledge, and attitudes needed to perform a given competency" (p. 13).

Background and Setting

The purpose of the study reported here was to identify the competencies that volunteers will need in order to effectively deliver 4 H Youth Development programs and activities in the next decade and to determine if differences in these competencies exist between Extension regions. The manner in which 4-H programs, projects, and activities are structured and delivered in the United States varies significantly between Extension regions. The North Central and Western regions, for example, rely heavily on volunteer-led community clubs as their primary delivery method. 4-H in the Southern Region, conversely, is heavily school-based.

The study reported here will provide State Volunteerism Specialists and county-based 4 H professionals throughout the United States with a national focus and direction related to the levels of competency and the perceived needs of 4-H volunteers working directly with youth. Volunteer development activities, volunteer certification standards, and master volunteer programs can then be developed and tailored to the skills and competencies needed by those who deliver the programs to youth.

Problem Statements

There are a number of reasons why the study is important to 4-H Youth Development professionals. First, national data that identifies the competencies needed to effectively work with 4-H youth is non-existent. Second, the need exists to prioritize at a national level, the identification and development of volunteer core competencies that 4-H professionals can use in supporting, building, and delivering 4-H Youth Development programs. Third, the need exists to prioritize at a national level, the identification and creation of volunteer development resources that 4-H professionals can use in constructing, delivering, and evaluating 4-H Youth Development programs. Fourth, the Cooperative Extension Service provides little education or resources to new professionals regarding volunteer development. The study was designed to address these needs.

Objectives of the Study

Two specific objectives were identified for this research. These objectives are to:

• Identify the competencies that 4-H Youth Development volunteers need in order to conduct programs for 4-H youth.


• Determine if volunteer development competencies are different among Extension regions.

Procedures

Research Design and Subject Selection

The exploratory survey research reported here is descriptive and correlational in nature and was conducted utilizing mail questionnaires as outlined by Dillman (2000). The target populations for the census were identified as adult volunteers who interact directly with youth in the 4-H Youth Development program, 4-H Youth Development agents, and state volunteerism specialists in the United States.

State volunteerism specialists were instructed to assemble a random sample of 100 adult volunteers who served in direct-contact roles with youth in each state. Three states were purposefully selected from each of the four Extension Regions (North East, South, North Central and West), with an additional state selected from the South and North Central, to more accurately represent the 4-H member and adult volunteer population distribution in the United States. A total of 14 states were originally selected and agreed to participate in the study, yielding a sample of 1,400 volunteers.

The names of current field staff members selected to participate in the study were obtained from the Cooperation Extension Service personnel directory in each of the target states. The 12 states completing the study are included in Table 1. Fifty (50) 4-H agents, employed 6 months or more, were sampled in the 12 states. A census survey was employed for the state volunteerism specialists at 1862 land-grant universities (N=50). (Note: Not every state specialist, however, followed the request specifically and assembled a sample consisting of exactly 100 volunteers and 50 agents. This provides a discrepancy in the sample size.)

Instrumentation, Data Collection, and Analysis

The instrument used in the study was developed to identify the demographic differences between volunteers, agents, and state volunteerism specialists. Face validity was established by a panel of experts drawn from 4-H volunteers, agents, specialists, and experts in the field of volunteerism and research methodology who were not involved in the study.

The samples were mailed questionnaires as outlined by Dillman (2000). Questionnaires contained one qualitative and two quantitative components. The quantitative components focused on the characteristics of the respondent's volunteer program, including number of 4-H members, youth and adult volunteers, middle managers, and agents working with 4-H, as well as the respondent's demographic characteristics.

Questionnaires and a cover letter inviting participation in the study were distributed electronically to specialists and agents. Both groups were directed to access the appropriate version of the questionnaire via the University of Kentucky 4-H Youth Development Web site. Responses were transferred to a data set located at Purdue University. A reminder message was electronically mailed to the samples 3 weeks after the initial mailing. Because the data that were submitted to the Purdue database were anonymous, no further attempt at non-respondent follow-up was made.

Questionnaires were disseminated to the volunteer samples in each state via U.S. Mail, along with a cover letter and a self-addressed, stamped return envelope. Reminder postcards were mailed to non-respondents 3 weeks after the initial mailing, asking for a response within 2 weeks.

As noted in Table 1, the following return rates were achieved: 38.38% for volunteers, 41.12% for agents, and 86% for specialists, for a combined rate of 42.57%. Data from the quantitative questions were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square, and analysis of variance utilizing SAS (SAS, 2002) to determine differences between the three populations. An alpha level of .05 was set a priori.

Results and Discussion

In Part I of the questionnaire, all respondents were asked to "identify current or future skills or competencies which ... will be needed by volunteers who work directly with youth in order to effectively deliver 4-H programs." Neither a minimum nor maximum number of skills or competencies was requested. As expected, respondents provided input in a variety of ways. Single words, phrases, complete sentences, and paragraphs were all provided.

Using the system of three raters (Culp & Pilat, 1998) three researchers from three different Extension Regions read all questionnaires and came to consensus on the proper qualitative category for each individual response in Part I before assigning a quantitative code. The three raters began by identifying qualitative categories by coding the Specialists' responses as this was the smallest and most manageable data set. They proceeded to Agent responses and finished with the volunteers' data set.

Identification of Competencies

Table 2 lists the 32 competencies that were identified by the participants, stratified by the four Extension Regions. The top 12 competencies, which were identified by the 15% or more of the aggregate sample, included: Communication; Organization/Planning Skills and Records; Subject Matter Skills; Interpersonal Skills; Leadership; Ages & Stages of Youth Development; Technology & Computer Skills; Youth/Adult Partnerships, Enjoy Kids; Patience; Time Management & Availability; Organizational Structure: 4-H and CES; Group Skills/Facilitation/Teamwork; and Teaching Skills and Program Delivery (Table 2).

Communication was the most frequently identified competency for volunteers to effectively deliver 4-H programs. It was identified by 41.26% of the respondents. With a chi-square value of .0597, this competency approached significance with the highest frequency in the West (47.18%) and the lowest in the South (33.55%). Agents and specialists should plan volunteer development activities that focus on developing, applying, and teaching speaking, writing, listening, and non-verbal communications skills.

This may be accomplished by offering communication workshops, building communication components into most 4-H programs and activities, and teaching volunteers to speak in a youth vernacular in order to further develop this skill. A communication component should be integrated into as many 4-H projects, programs, and activities as possible. Additionally, administrators, specialists, agents, volunteers, parents, and members should all be expected to inclusively share organizational information and practice open communication with all participants and stakeholders.

The second competency, Organization/Planning Skills and Records, was listed by 36.78% of respondents. On a regional comparison, this was the most highly significant competency identified with a chi-square value <.0001. Organization/Planning Skills and Records" was identified twice as frequently in the West (45.97%) as in the South (22.37%) with intermediate values reported in the North East and North Central (33.10% and 38.15%, respectively). Teaching volunteers record-keeping skills, how to manage paper, learning how to leave a paper trail, and teaching file and record maintenance (how to organize information and resources) should improve their level of performance.

Subject Matter Skills, ranked third, was listed by 31.61% of respondents and was significantly different among regions. This competency was identified most frequently in the West (39.11%) and least frequently in the North Central (24.92%), although it was ranked fourth in importance in the North Central. Specialists should consider developing statewide volunteer certification programs or organize state or regional volunteer forums or educational conferences by subject-matter tracks so that volunteers may acquire the technical information which they believe is necessary for them to fulfill their role.

The fourth competency, Interpersonal Skills, was listed by 31.11% of all respondents. Frequently identified descriptors in the interpersonal skills category were extroverted personality characteristics, including "outgoing," "fun-loving," and "easy to talk to." The research team determined that interpersonal skills was not a competency (as it cannot be taught) and therefore removed this descriptor from the competency list for the second study. However, interpersonal skills is included as a personality trait that may be important to consider when recruiting, screening, or engaging volunteers and is included in a separate category in phase two of the study. This competency also posted significantly different rankings among regions with the highest frequency being in the North Central and South (34.46% and 33.87%, respectively.)

The fifth competency, Leadership, was identified by 21.72% of the combined sample. One of the basic tenets of 4-H Youth Development programming is to develop leadership skills in both youth and adults. Agents and specialists should, therefore, continually seek ways to teach volunteers to develop leadership skills or teach leadership education workshops to youth. These topics could include parliamentary procedure and how to plan and conduct a meeting, event, or activity, as well as modeling, teaching, and developing leadership skills in youth. This category was identified least often in the South (12.50%).

The sixth competency, Ages and Stages of Youth Development, had a combined listing of 21.49%. Opportunities to integrate ages and stages information into subject-matter workshops or as a component of larger or more engaging workshops should be sought.

The scores for the seventh and eighth competencies were tied. Technology and Computer Skills was tied as the seventh most frequently identified competency, with a combined total of 21.26%. Agents and specialists should provide educational opportunities for volunteers to become more computer literate and develop technological and computer skills. Additionally, teaching volunteers to access and use the Internet and county, state and national 4-H Web sites will increase their capacity to gather information, ideas, resources, and curriculum. Finally, volunteers should be taught to utilize the computer as an instructional tool as well as how and where to seek grants for educational resources and technology.

The category Youth/Adult Partnerships; Enjoy Kids was also tied as the seventh most frequently identified competency, with an aggregate score of 21.26%. Agents and specialists should create opportunities for youth and adults to collaborate on projects and activities and mentor each other and integrate youth and adult interactions into the 4-H curricula wherever possible. With a score of 13.16%, the South identified this competency one-third less frequently than the other three regions.

The ninth most frequently identified competency, Patience, presented one of the most interesting and challenging categorical variables to the research team and was not significantly different among regions. While the combined score was 17.13%, the research team determined that patience was not a skill or competency, but rather a personality trait. This descriptor was, therefore, removed from the competency list for the second study. Patience is included as a personality trait that may be important to consider when recruiting, screening, or engaging volunteers and is included in a separate category in the second study.

Rounding out the top ten was the competency Time Management and Availability, which received an average frequency score of 16.78%. Time management and availability ranked tenth in importance and was significantly different among regions, with the highest frequency scores being found in the West (22.98%) and the lowest found in the South and North East (10.53% and 12.41%, respectively.) Agents and specialists should consider offering time management workshops as volunteer development opportunities and make greater use of the Web, a county homepage, and e-mail as means to communicate information to those who cannot visit the Extension office during business hours. Considering that the majority of volunteers are employed, agents should also consider offering extended office hours one day each week and be realistic and honest about time requirements when developing position descriptions and during recruitment efforts.

Organizational Structure: 4-H and CES ranked 11th. It was identified twice as frequently in the North Central (20.92%) as in the South (11.18%). The researchers determined that this item was not a skill or competency but rather a topic that should be presented during volunteer orientation. In order to effectively lead or deliver 4-H programs, events, and activities, volunteers must understand the structure of the organization which they serve and the connection between 4-H and Cooperative Extension.

Group Skills/Facilitation/Teamwork ranked 12th and was identified significantly more frequently in the West. Because volunteers largely work with groups of youth (and, to a lesser extent, adults), developing the skills to facilitate group activities and build teams will be highly important.

Teaching Skills and Program Delivery ranked 13th. This competency was identified three times more frequently by the West (22.18%) than by the North East (7.59%). Whether volunteers teach subject matter, leadership, parliamentary procedure, communications, creative arts, or demonstrations, developing the ability to teach and convey information is a critical component of a 4-H volunteer's role. Volunteers could, however, instruct other volunteers teaching and program delivery skills.

Regional Differences

Nearly two-thirds (20) of the 32 competencies were found to be significantly different when compared by Extension Region. This finding illustrates that the beliefs about volunteer roles in the 4-H program, perceptions about volunteer skills or competencies needed to deliver 4-H Youth Development programs, and the manner in which volunteers deliver 4-H programs and activities are vastly different among Extension Regions. The 20 competencies that were significantly different when compared across Extension Regions included:

• Organization/Planning Skills and Records;
• Subject Matter Skills and Knowledge;
• Leadership;
• Youth/Adult Partnerships, Enjoy Kids;
• Time Management and Availability;
• Organizational Structure: 4-H and CES;
• Group Skills/Facilitation/Teamwork;
• Teaching Skills and Program Delivery;
• Care, Compassion, Love, Understanding;
• Diversity;
• Behavior Management/Conflict Resolution;
• Ethics, Honesty, Integrity, Being a Role Model;
• Risk Management and Liability;
• Recruitment and Parent Involvement;
• Motivation;
• Financial Resources/Fund Raising;
• Community Capacity Building, Service Learning, and Community Service;
• Willing to Learn and Change; Marketing and Publicity; and
• Assessment/Evaluation/Accountability.

Additionally, two competencies, Communication and Risk Management and Liability, approached significance when subjected to the Chi-square test (p = .0597 and .0544, respectively.)

It is noteworthy to point out that the frequency with which these significantly different competencies were identified was the lowest in the Southern region for 14 of the 22. (Table 2.)

Implications

• Twenty (20) of the 32 competencies identified in the preliminary study were significantly different among Extension Regions. The relative importance of the competencies needed by volunteers to effectively deliver 4-H Youth Development programs in the next decade, therefore, is somewhat different among regions. This would indicate that the competencies needed by volunteers have greater regional differences than has been previously thought. Care should be taken, therefore, not to assume that materials developed for volunteers in one region are completely interchangeable with another region.


• Of the 20 competencies identified as being significantly different among regions, roughly two-thirds (14 of the 20) had the lowest frequency values in the Southern Region. This could imply that 4-H volunteers are the most uniquely different in the South, due, in part, to the greater emphasis on school-based and agent-delivered programming.


• Volunteer competencies were found to be most similar in the North Central and Western Regions, where strong leader-led community club programs are the cornerstones of county 4-H programs. Agents in the North Central and West should feel comfortable in sharing and interchanging materials developed for volunteers in these two regions.


• Volunteer competencies that were not found to be significantly different between regions (Communication, Ages and Stages of Youth Development, Technology and Computer Skills, Patience, Risk Management and Liability, Experiential Learning, Empowerment and Delegation, Learning Styles, Needs Assessment, Problem-Solving Skills, Club Management, and Recognition) could become the focus of a national volunteer development curriculum. This national curriculum could be developed for use by all states and regions that focus on either these 12 competencies; or those that were ranked most frequently by the respondents.

References

Boyd, B. L. (2002). Competencies for leaders of volunteers during the next decade: A national delphi study. Proceedings of the 2002 National Agricultural Education Research Conference. Las Vegas, NV.

Clark, R. C. Jr., & Skelton, W. (1950). The 4-H club leader. New York State College of Agriculture, Bulletin 94. Ithaca: Cornell University.

Culp, III, K. (1996). Factors affecting length of service of adult volunteer 4-H leaders in Indiana. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.

Culp, III, K., & Kohlhagen, B. S. (2004). Kentucky 4-H agents' perceptions of their level of competency and frequency of use of volunteer administration functions. The Journal of Agricultural Education 45 (2) 1-13.

Culp, III, K., & Pilat, M. A. (1998). Converting qualitative feedback into quantifiable categories. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998october/iw3.html

Culp, III, K. & Schwartz, V.J. (1998). Recognizing adult volunteer 4-H leaders. The Journal of Extension [On-line], 35(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998april/rb3.html

Denmark, K. L. (1971). Factors affecting the identification, recruiting and training of volunteer 4-H adult leaders in Texas. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Texas A & M University, College Station.

Deppe, C. A. (1998). Ohio 4 H agents' perceptions of the level of importance and frequency of use of the eighteen components of the GEMS model of volunteer administration. Unpublished master's thesis. The Ohio State University.

Deppe, C. A., & Culp, III, K. (2000). Ohio 4-H agents' perceptions of the level of importance and frequency of use of the eighteen components of the GEMS model of volunteer administration. The Journal of Agricultural Education 42(4) 33-43.

Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ericksen-Mendoza, H., & Heffron, A. (1998). The importance of volunteers. Civnet Journal, 2(4).

Guion, R.M. (1991). Personnel assessment, selection, and placement. In M.D. Dunnette & L.M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (p. 335). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Independent Sector (2001). Giving and volunteering in the United States: Findings from a national survey. Retrieved November 30, 2007 from:http://www.independentsector.org/programs/research/gv01main.html

King, J. E. (1998). Ohio 4-H agent=s perceptions of the importance of and their competence with selected volunteer management competencies. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Ohio State University. Columbus, OH

Kohlhagen, B. S. (1999). Kentucky 4 H agents' perceptions of the level of competency and frequency of use of volunteer development activities. Unpublished master's thesis. The Ohio State University.

McClelland, D. C. (1971). Assessing human motivation. New York: General Learning Press.

Murk, P. J., & Stephan, J.F. (1990). Volunteers enhance the quality of life in a community...or (How to get them, train them and keep them). Salt Lake City, Utah: (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 326 639).

National 4-H Headquarters (2002). National 4-H Youth Enrollment Report, Fiscal Year 2000. Retrieved November 29, 2007 from: http://www.reeis.usda.gov/discoverer/viewer?
cn=cf_a1327&wskdel=6&nlsl=en-us&wbk=4-H_VOL_SERVICE_RACE_CLASS&pg=1&_act=apply&_poqpv=off& _podat=on&_polws=off&_popim=on&_pocht=off&_podri=on&_poexp=on&_porrq=on&_poset=reset

Parrott, M. A. (1977). Motivation, personal and social characteristics of 4-H leaders. Unpublished M.S. thesis. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Editor's introduction. Journal of Extension [On-line], 28(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990fall/ed1.html

SAS 8.01 (2002). SAS Institute, Cary, NC.

Spencer, L. M., Jr., & Spencer, S. M. (1993). Competence at work: Models for superior performance. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Stone, J.M. (1983). How to work with groups: Guidelines for volunteers. Springfield, IL: CC Thomas.

Wessel, T. & Wessel, M. (1982). 4-H: An American idea 1900-1980. Washington, D.C.: National 4-H Council.

Research to Action: A Campus-Community Partnership to Address Health Issues of the Food Insecure

Kimberly Greder
Associate Professor and Family Life Extension State Specialist
Department of Human Development and Family Studies
Ames, Iowa
kgreder@iastate.edu

Steven Garasky
Associate Professor
Department of Human Development and Family Studies
Ames, Iowa
sgarasky@iastate.edu

Susan Klein
Nutrition and Health Extension Field Specialist
Des Moines, Iowa
sklein@iastate.edu

Iowa State University

Introduction

Cooperative Extension values grass roots identification of public needs and interests as the basis for local programming. Across the U.S., Extension educators link the resources of over 100 land-grant universities and colleges to the needs of communities (CSREES, 2006). Perry Holden, the founder of Cooperative Extension in Iowa, once said, "Our endowed and state universities and colleges and high schools will do more than wait for the pupils to come to them. They will go out to the farm and factories and mines and homes and slums to serve humanity in order to build a greater Iowa" (Iowa State University Library, University Archives, p. 7).

Community-based Extension educators communicate local issues and problems to campus-based Extension faculty. Together, they conduct community-based research in order to design educational programs that address local needs.

In this article, we describe a partnership among a local community, an Extension educator, and campus-based Extension and non-Extension faculty. The team assessed the food insecurity and health of a defined community population (i.e., food pantry participants), shared the results with local partners, and then obtained funding for an education program designed to meet specific nutritional and health-related needs of food pantry participants.

Importance of the Project

Between 22-25 million people (9 million children; 3 million seniors) in the U.S. received food from food pantries in 2005. Families who go to food pantries are among the most vulnerable people in communities and often lack financial and social resources to solve food and health problems. They continually face choices between food and housing, utilities, and health care (Hunger in America, 2006). While food pantries meet some of their needs, many of the foods offered are low in vitamins (e.g., A, C) and minerals (e.g., calcium) that are essential for good health (Akobundu, Cohen, Laus, Schulte, & Soussloff, 2004), thus placing families at risk for nutritional deficiencies (Tarasuk et al., 1998).

Of the 8.6 million households served by the America's Second Harvest (A2H) food pantries in 2005, over 6 million (70%) experienced food insecurity (Hunger in America, 2006). That is, they experienced times during the year in which their access to enough food was limited due to a lack of money and other resources (Life Sciences Research Organization, 1990). This is in comparison to a food insecurity rate of 11% in 2005 for all U.S. households (Nord, Andrews, & Carlson, 2006).

Individuals who experience food insecurity are at increased risk for developing chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease, as they typically do not consume the recommended number of servings of vegetables and fruits (ADA, 2002). The risk of heart disease is more than 25% higher for persons with low incomes than for the overall population, and the incidence of cancer and the prevalence of hypertension and obesity vary inversely with socioeconomic status. Iron deficiency is more than twice as common among children from low-income families compared to children in the total population (U.S.D.A. Foreign Agricultural Service, 1998).

The consequences of being food insecure are numerous. Chronic diseases and health issues have contributed to soaring health care costs that have been absorbed by U.S. citizens who have health care insurance, as well as by the U.S. public through taxes. Poor health also limits the ability of people to be active, contributing community members and effectively care for, nurture and guide their children (Smith, Cudaback, Goddard, & Myers-Walls, 1994).

Adults who are well nourished have fewer chronic health issues than those who are not well nourished, and are more likely to engage in and contribute to their communities. Children who are adequately nourished perform better academically and socially than those who are not well nourished. Children who have difficulty learning and getting along with others are less employable later as adults (Braun, 1997).

Thus, food insecurity affects not only the mental and physical health and behavior of individuals, but it also impacts the economic welfare of communities. Historically, and increasingly Cooperative Extension is involved in economic development efforts in communities across the U.S.

Understanding the circumstances under which families who visit food pantries live is vital to addressing many of the problems that permeate U.S. communities. Given their increased risk of chronic disease, and that the foods available at food pantries are often low in essential vitamins and minerals, families who are food insecure, have low incomes, and who access food at food pantries could benefit from participating in nutrition education programs (Akobundu, Cohen, Laus, Schulte, & Soussloff, 2004).

With exposure to nutrition education, participants can use foods available at pantries and from other sources to create safe and nutritious meals that meet recommended daily servings for their families. Cooperative Extension, with its local presence, direct ties to the land-grant university system, and capacity for research, is uniquely positioned to strengthen society's ability to address critical family issues such as food insecurity through research, education, and community development.

Project Overview

Des Moines is the capital of Iowa and the county seat for Polk County. It has the largest population (194,311 people in 2004) in the state (Census Bureau, 2006). According to the U.S. Current Population Survey, Iowa is more food secure (89.1% of households) than the nation as a whole (88.6%) (Nord et al., 2006). However, when selected inter-city neighborhoods in Des Moines are surveyed, the concern for food insecurity is larger. For example, a random survey of a Des Moines central city neighborhood revealed that 79% of those who responded lived in a food insecure household (Morton, Oakland, Bitto, & Sand, 2003). Thus, food security at the local level can appear very different from food security at the national and state levels.

In an effort to design and deliver nutrition education to meet the needs of inner city residents of Des Moines, Iowa State University Extension (ISUE) invited the Des Moines Area Religious Council (DMARC) to participate in a food insecurity and health survey at each of the food pantries in the county. DMARC is an interfaith organization whose purpose is to provide a common means of responding to basic human needs in ways beyond the abilities of single congregations (DMARC, 2007). DMARC also provides a context for interfaith dialogue, support, education, and fellowship as it is a liaison between over 150 member congregations and the greater Des Moines area community. DMARC provides leadership for eight local food pantries that provide emergency food packages to over 3,000 families and individuals monthly in Des Moines and the surrounding area.

Methods

The project is the continuation of efforts to assess the extent of food insecurity in local communities (Greder, Garasky, Jensen, & Morton, 2002). Earlier studies focused on how the local food environment affects household food insecurity across a range of communities in Iowa (Garasky et al., 2004). The survey instrument employed for that project captured broadly the conditions under which food pantry clients attempted to meet the nutritional needs of members of their households. More specifically, respondents were queried about their: (1) food security, (2) access to the normal food system and community food resources, (3) participation in assistance programs, (4) amounts and sources of income, (5) employment, and (6) personal characteristics. That instrument was modified for the reported here study by including questions about the health of household members.

The purpose of the survey was to obtain information that would reflect changes over time in household food security and the health status of household members. Food pantry staff distributed a four-page questionnaire to adults who accessed food at eight pantry sites in Polk County, Iowa, during March/April, 2004. Three thousand surveys were distributed to food pantries to be shared with individuals who came to the pantries. Completed surveys were received from 997 individuals.

Regarding food security, the survey instrument included six questions about behaviors and experiences known to typify households under pressure to meet their food needs (Bickel, Nord, Price, Hamilton, & Cook, 2000; Nord, 2003; Nord & Andrews, 1999). These questions were developed by the USDA to provide a standardized assessment of household food security along a continuum that can be divided into three ranges: food secure, food insecure without hunger, and food insecure with hunger. Using this standardized assessment tool allows researchers to compare results across populations and over time.

Table 1 provides a listing of the food security questions. The first response category for each question was considered an affirmative ("yes") for computing the respondent's food security scale value. If a respondent answered "no" to the stem question (Q3), a "no" response was inferred to complete the follow-up questions (Q4-Q6). The resulting scale values for the "yes" responses were:

• Food secure--0 to 1 questions;


• Food insecure without hunger--2 to 4 questions; and


• Food insecure with hunger--5 to 6 questions.

Results

Demographics

Slightly more of the respondents were female (53.4%) than were male (46.6%). The median age of the respondents was 41 years. On average, each responding household had 2.5 members, although 42.4% of the respondents lived alone. A similar share of households (43.1%) had two-four members. The remaining households (14.5%) had five or more persons, with a maximum of 12 members. Less than 3% (2.7%) of the respondent households had a member who was age 65 or over; 16.7% of the households had a child under age 5. Respondents typically had limited education. Almost half in this sample (45.2%) did not receive a high school diploma.

Income and Employment

These households also had low incomes. The median reported household income was $750 per month. Almost half (41.8%) of the respondents reported monthly household incomes of less than $500. Only 6.4% of the household reported incomes over $1,500 each month, or annualized over $18,000 each year.

Most survey respondents (74.0%) were not working at the time of the survey. Furthermore, almost half reported not working in at least the previous 12 months (38.9%) or never having worked (10.0%). Wages were low among working respondents. One-third (30.1%) reported wages of $6.00 per hour or less. Only 10.3% reported earning over $10.00 per hour. Among those working, over half (62.4%) worked at least 21 hours each week, and 23.7% worked 40 or more hours per week. Only 15.0% of the respondents reported someone else in the household worked.

Food Pantry Usage

Food pantry usage was common among this sample of food pantry participants. More than one-third (36.6%) of the survey respondents reported that they visited a food pantry seven or more times in the last 12 months. A similar percentage of the respondents (41.5%) visited food pantries three or fewer times.

Household Food Security

Using the USDA food security scale and continuum, 12% of the respondents reported that their household was food secure. The remaining households (88%) were food insecure: 28% were food insecure without hunger, and 60% were food insecure with hunger. Over half of the respondents reported that in the last 12 months it was sometimes (41.2%) or often (13.7%) that there was not enough food to eat in their household. Similarly, more than 90% of the respondents said that it was often (32.1%) or sometimes (58.4%) that the food bought just did not last and that there was no money to get more food. Again, most households indicated that they often (28.0%) or sometimes (58.7%) could not afford to eat balanced meals.

The pattern continued for other indicators of food insecurity. Seventy percent of the responding households included one or more adult(s) who cut meal sizes or skipped meals in the last 12 months because there was not enough money for food. For about half of these respondents, this happened almost every month. Similarly, among the respondents reporting someone in the household cut or skipped meals, about 80% (79.3%) said that in the last 12 months they ate less than they felt they should because there was not enough money to buy food, and two-thirds (66.9%) were hungry, but did not eat because they could not afford enough food.

Assistance Program Participation

Food Stamp Program (FSP) participation was common among survey respondents (79.5%), and approximately one-third reported currently being program participants (Table 2). The majority of respondents had not participated in the Family Investment Program (FIP), Iowa's Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program. More than two-thirds (69.3%) of the respondents had never received FIP benefits. Only 7.1% were current FIP participants.

Health of Household Members

Participants also were asked to assess their general health status (Table 3). Slightly more than one-fourth of the participants reported that their health was excellent (10.5%) or very good (17.6%). The percentage of participants who reported that their health was fair or poor was 40.5%.

The survey included a series of questions regarding chronic disease. The chronic disease questions were the same as found in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) and Selected Metropolitan/Micropolitan Area Risk Trends (SMART) for comparison to the food pantry respondents. Survey results were compared with national, state, and county statistics (Table 4.)

Regarding specific ailments, 24.3% of the respondents reported that someone in their household had been told by a health professional that they had diabetes. Seventeen percent of the households had someone with heart disease. Approximately one-third of the households had someone with high blood pressure (32.9%), asthma (29.0%), or allergies (33.8%).

The prevalence of health conditions was comparatively similar regarding food security status. If anything, food secure households are slightly more likely to report that someone has been told by a health professional that they have a particular ailment. Perhaps this result is due to food secure households being more likely to see health professionals when health problems arise. Thus, we may not know the extent of chronic disease among food insecure households if they are not likely to go to health professionals.

Application of the Results

To plan meaningful educational programs, it was important to look at specific population needs. The incidence of chronic diseases was more common among food pantry participants who completed the survey than among the general Polk County population. The incidence of diabetes, however, was considerably higher (almost three times) among the food pantry participants compared to the general Polk County population.

Based on these findings, ISUE and Primary Health Care, Inc. (PHC), an organization in Des Moines that offers medical services to uninsured or under-insured people, determined they would create a partnership (Figure 1) to provide treatment and education to people newly diagnosed with diabetes who receive food from the DMARC food pantries. To pilot this project, several grant applications were submitted including applications to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, local foundations, and non-profit organizations. The local county health department funded the first workshop, which was held in May and June, 2006.

Figure 1.
Circle of Diabetes Support in Making Connection Neighborhoods

PHC promoted the workshops to potential participants and provided: (a) staff for screening, (b) screening materials, (c) a registered/licensed dietician, and (d) follow-up visits with medical staff. ISUE staff analyzed the diabetes screening tool, developed promotional flyers, provided instruction during the workshops, and provided participants with general nutrition counseling.

The goals of this partnership included:

• Screening 300 community food pantry participants using the American Diabetes Association (ADA) risk screening tool. Individuals with elevated risk for diabetes were referred to PHC for diagnosis. Outreach workers from PHC used the ADA seven-point questionnaire to encourage participants to seek further analysis of their diabetes profile at PHC clinics. Persons who had a score higher than 10 were invited to a meeting to learn more about the project and to have a blood screen for diabetes.


• Offering 15 newly diagnosed diabetic patients consultation with a dietician and participation in a four-part workshop on managing diabetes. The 15 patients will be tracked by the Diabetes Collaboration project through PHC to evaluate their "tight control" of their diabetic condition.

Screened individuals were invited to participate in a series of four 2-hour classes after they received a diabetic diet plan from the community dietician. The Healthy Diabetes Plate curriculum (Raidl, 2003) was used to visually teach participants the types and amounts of food they should consume using the My Pyramid (USDA, April, 2005). This curriculum was piloted in Idaho, Oregon, and Colorado by Extension educators and registered dietitians, and reviewed by certified diabetes educators for technical accuracy.

Progress to Date

The American Diabetes Association diabetes risk-screening tool was used to screen 303 food pantry recipients. A score of 10 or higher indicates that a person is at greater risk for having diabetes. One hundred and forty-six (52%) of the 279 screens completed in English scored over 10 points; 7 (29%) of the 24 screens completed in Spanish scored over 10 points. Individuals with scores over 10 were invited to an introductory meeting that includes a fast screening and a food recall. Seventeen of the 116 participants with scores above 10 indicated they would like to participate. At an informational meeting 15 participants had a blood glucose screen and were found to not be diabetic.

The diabetes screening survey at the food pantry disclosed that 57.25% (n=158) of the English speaking participants were overweight or obese--a leading contributor to diabetes. Seventy-five percent (n=18) of Spanish speaking participants and 52% (n=144) of the English speaking participants were under the age of 45. Combining the statistics of age and the incidence of diabetes reveals potential for the early on-set of diabetes. These additional findings supported the decision to move forward with conducting the workshop series as a means for pre-diabetic education.

Using the workshop goals and key concepts found in The Healthy Diabetes Plate curriculum (Riadl, 2003), a list of 20 supportive behaviors was used to create a pre- and post-test survey. The participants (N=8 completing the survey) overall improved their eating behaviors from an average of six recommended behaviors to 14 recommended behaviors. The two most improved eating behaviors were eating at least one fruit at each meal and choosing main dishes with more vegetables when eating away from home.

Following the first series of workshops, five more workshop series have been organized by the original food pantry group, including senior citizen programs, churches, and community center sites.

Conclusions and Implications for Extension

The project reported here illustrates how campus-based university staff collaborated with Extension field staff to use community-specific data to define specific health related needs, set priorities, and provide education that makes a difference in the lives of extension clients.

Many respondents had low educational attainment, relatively few respondents worked, and those who worked had received low wages. As a result, respondent households had little income. Some households subsidized their income with food stamp benefits. Few received cash welfare. Food pantry usage was common as families attempted to meet their food and nutritional needs. Unfortunately, few families in this survey were successful in obtaining enough food for all family members. Most respondent households were food insecure; more than half were food insecure with hunger.

The health of the members of these families was also a problem. Forty percent of the respondents reported their personal health was either fair or poor. Between one-fourth and one-third of the surveyed households had members with diabetes, high blood pressure, asthma, and/or allergies.

As a result of the findings of the study, Extension field staff creatively partnered with a local health agency to design a nutrition education workshop series to target a specific health related need of these families. The first example of this partnership was a workshop series focused on Type II Diabetes. Data collected before, during, and after the workshop series was used to analyze the effectiveness of the nutrition education intervention, as well as explore additional opportunities to educate families on other identified health issues (e.g., high blood pressure, asthma, allergies).

Phone calls to potential participants of the pre-diabetes education workshop series revealed that some potential participants were very interested in addressing their health concerns and ready to learn, while others were less excited to do so. This population faces multiple challenges including poverty and food insecurity (Garasky et al., 2004; Morton et al., 2003; Greder et al, 2002). Addressing their health concerns (i.e., potential for developing diabetes) is not necessarily at the top of their priority list. This is especially true of health issues that are chronic, but not at the acute stage. Even when barriers are considered, survey participants were not likely to set aside time to improve lifestyle behaviors (e.g., diet, exercise) due to their realities of food insecurity and hunger.

Analysis of data from the post workshop evaluations indicated the following:

• Participation in the workshops would increase if the workshops were held when and where the target audience already gathers.


• Participating in a separate workshop series may not be feasible for all food pantry participants. Blood glucose screens and mini-education sessions (5-10 min) must be available on-site at food pantries. Referrals could be made to health care professionals such as individuals who make up the PHC Diabetes Collaborative.

Even though there were 20 African Americans who scored 10 or higher on the diabetes screening tool and were invited to the informational meeting, no African Americans came to the meeting. When additional workshops were held in communities in Des Moines that had a high population of minorities, the workshops were well received. The participants at the senior centers asked to have additional diabetes classes. Thus, as revealed in the data from the post-workshop evaluations, to reach this audience, one needs to go where the audience regularly convenes.

Last, but not least, until a personal relationship is established with members of the target audience who often do not have a history of accessing Extension resources or participating in organized educational sessions, the majority of people will not readily follow through on behavior changes. In order to develop trust and rapport, Extension staff need to learn how to develop relationships with members of communities they serve and not necessarily reside in.

Given the prevalence of chronic disease among food pantry participants and its social and economic cost to society, and Extension's historic and current role in nutrition, health, and economic development, it is fitting for Extension staff to become involved in addressing food insecurity and hunger. One very tangible way for Extension to be involved in this issue is for Extension to tailor nutrition and health education to meet the specific needs of food pantry participants.

Examples of specific ways to tailor educational programming include training food pantry staff and volunteers about the special health issues many food pantry participants experience and helping them identify foods that provide positive health benefits, as well as foods that are high in nutrients (e.g., sodium and fat) that are not healthy choices. In addition, Extension staff, in partnership with a public health agency