April 2007
Volume 45 Number 2

Ideas at Work

Lessons Learned-Service Learning: A New Initiative in Field Experience and Collaboration between Universities, County Extension Offices and Communities

Lee Horrisberger
Associate Professor, Communication
Walsh University
North Canton, Ohio
LHorrisberger@walsh.edu

David C. Crawford
County Extension Director & Extension Educator
4-H/Youth Development
Ohio State University Extension
Stark County, Ohio
crawford.228@osu.edu

Introduction

"We need to market our Extension programs. . . . We don't have a budget for developing a marketing plan let alone costs of printing. . . . Who do we market to? . . . What do we market? . . . Help!!" Does this sound familiar in county Extension offices across the United States? Try a community service learning project with a local university partner.

The Class

Service learning is a combination of classroom concepts, student reflection, and hands-on learning with a service learning partner. In the public relation writing and advertising class at Walsh University, North Canton, Ohio, the service learning component was a perfect combination of field experience combined with classroom instruction. This collaboration was a win-win situation for students and the community partner. Students learned under the direction of a professor and received hands-on experience. The community service partner acquired low-cost professional work and participated in a rewarding experience of mentoring students. Service learning teaches students that communities need to be nurtured to survive.

Public Relations students developed a portfolio and worked with a partner. Team and individual student assignments were added to build the partner's campaign. Students "learned by doing," but learning by thinking about what they are doing enhances their ability for success. Professional portfolios were prepared by students and reviewed by marketing professionals. It is important to remember that the assignments are graded, not the service.

The Partner

Ohio State University Extension, Stark County had become an independent county Extension office. Stark and Summit counties combined resources to form a county Extension office for 13 years. Unrealistic programming goals, low funding, and reduced staffing contributed to the need for becoming independent. After much research, planning and negotiations, a plan to move forward as part of a USDA Service Center, new facility, new partnerships, and a presence in a new location in Stark County became a reality. The challenge was, "How do we get the word out about the best kept secret in the county--Extension."

The Collaboration

The service partner, the professor, and the class should go into the collaboration with high expectations. Prospective partners need to be educated on how service learning works. The class needs to be involved from the beginning. The proposal for the service partner should come from class research. The service partner must know that service learning is collaboration among the class, the professor, and the partner.

A good service partner must make the commitment to be available to work around the class schedule. A partner must be available after hours and to commit to the project from the start. The best approach is for the partner, professor, and a group of students to define the objectives and parameters of the project. A contract should be in place. This ensures that the service partner is not disappointed in the project at its conclusion and that students feel their project is a priority.

The Project

The project goals were to raise awareness of the OSU Extension, Stark County programs, and its new facility and to help increase funding. Another goal was to create branding of OSU Extension, Stark County, while developing Extension marketing materials for staff and volunteers

The class researched the partner's organization to determine challenges and opportunities. The students then formed teams and created campaign proposals that were presented to the partner. The partner and professor selected the best ideas for the campaign.

Assignments

There was no grade for service. Students were graded on completed assignments in both individual and team efforts. The most effective individual work included an appeal letter to sponsors, press releases announcing Extension's Open House, bookmarks (Figure 1), Flyers (Figure 2), and writing reflective journals.

Figure 1.
Bookmark

Figure 2.
Flyer in English and Spanish

Team efforts resulted in several products, including an invitation card (Figure 3), a PowerPoint presentation, displays, Stark County Media Guide, brochure, Hispanic Outreach and Urban Push, along with a Final Report <http://www.walsh.edu/pdf/ServiceLee.pdf>. Several students also presented to a state representative and university officials during a biennial session.

Figure 3.
Invitation

Measurable results of the project included an Open House, attended by 350 individuals. Team members were recruited for a segment on a local cable channel. Extension received 25 inquiries about programs and services. The Hispanic and urban populations have become more aware of Extension and its programs. In addition, two urban youth centers requested collaborative programming.

Strengths of the Project for Students

Major strengths for the students were excellent communication between professor, class, and partner. Timely responses on assignments from the service partner were required, and students learned to work under deadlines. Students improved technology skills as projects were graded and returned electronically. Students developed delegation, organization, and strategy skills among themselves. Although the class became competitive, students respected one another's opinion, and many students became empowered and emerged as leaders. Confidence levels were raised as students offered opinions and began to express themselves. Published pieces were placed in portfolios enhancing employment opportunities. The project generated great interest from the communication industry as demonstrated by their participation and mentorship.

Limitations of This Approach

Although many positive outcomes were experienced, the partners became aware of limitations. Some included students who only wanted to do what was being graded in the class. There were team breakdowns and conflicts early on. One student had some personal problems, and there was a lack of team leadership. Another limitation was the unexpected project costs for the partner, which included printing, postage, supplies, and refreshments. The partner's staff was initially skeptical, but supported the project after coaching.

Summary

Service learning is a rewarding experience for students, faculty, and partners. The partner was able to help educate the class and mentor students. Students involved in service learning became aware of their responsibilities within the community while learning about their profession. Extension has benefited greatly by utilizing concepts and materials developed for local promotion and programming efforts.

Integrating University Service Learning Courses with Community Development Extension Programs

J. Matthew Fannin
Assistant Professor
Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
mfannin@agcenter.lsu.edu

Scuddy J. LeBlanc
County Agent, West Feliciana Parish
St. Francisville, Louisiana
sleblanc@agcenter.lsu.edu

LSU AgCenter

Introduction

Community development Extension professionals address a number of community issues that may require additional knowledge and expertise beyond their skill sets or those of individual community members. Service Learning can be effective in promoting public scholarship, which can affect the long-run sustainability of communities (Ehrlich, 2000). We introduce a strategy of combining participatory research activities from local residents with application of teaching methods and civic engagement by students from a nearby university. This strategy is based on outcomes from the application of a Rural Development Class at Louisiana State University to the relocation decision of a regional livestock show for a local community.

Identifying the Service Learning Opportunity

Residents of St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, recently saw the Southeast District Junior Livestock moved to another parish due to the razing of its existing livestock show facility. Local stakeholders in the parish interested in the return of the livestock show faced an uphill battle convincing an increasingly urbanized community that had provided reduced financial and volunteer support for the show in recent years of its importance to the community. The regional community economic development Extension agent was contacted to assist stakeholders in increasing community awareness of the value of the show to the larger non-agricultural community.

The agent contacted an instructor in LSU's Agricultural Economics Department about ideas to support stakeholders' requests. Both the agent and instructor agreed that a good first step would be to show business leaders and politicians in the community the financial value of the show. The instructor suggested that he could restructure the rural development class as a service learning class that could assist the community stakeholders in assessing the financial value through a participatory research approach. Community stakeholders agreed to the approach.

Integrating Responsibilities

The Extension agent, instructor, and community stakeholders agreed to share specific responsibilities in the participatory process. The agent recruited an advisory panel of stakeholders that in addition to livestock show families for and against the relocation, also included stakeholders from private business and local government. A small proposal was also written by the Extension agent and instructor to pay for the cost of mailing a questionnaire to each parent or guardian of an existing livestock exhibitor asking how much each family spent at the show.

The advisory panel steered the participatory process in three main areas. They (1) developed questions and edited wording of questions from a pre-test in order to minimize error in survey responses, (2) advertised by word-of-mouth the importance to exhibitor families of completing the survey, and (3) helped university students interpret and understand the local significance of the survey results and economic impacts they were receiving.

Students became involved in the process through application of one of three class periods each week devoted to the research. During that period, they followed the approach by Dillman (2000) and disseminated the mail survey through a five-contact procedure that included a pre-notice letter, initial questionnaire, a reminder postcard, a replacement questionnaire, and a second reminder postcard. Students codified survey responses, calculated detailed statistics from respondents, and applied survey results to an IMPLAN™ (Minnesota IMPLAN Group 2000) model to measure multiplier effects on the economy.

Results

The collaboration of academic survey methods applied by the students and local advertisement by the advisory panel resulted in a response rate exceeding 57%. The joint research activity resulted in advisory panel members and students learning from each other. Advisory panel members learned from student reports that financial impacts were larger than opponents of the relocation realized and smaller than many supporters expected. Students learned how to apply tacit knowledge from local stakeholders in interpreting economic data at monthly meetings. Further, they learned how economic data was used by opposing viewpoints and how it assisted communities in the decision-making process, which was a key objective of the rural development service learning course.

The active involvement of the advisory panel resulted in applications beyond the initial results of the research. The survey results indicated what exhibitor households wanted in their livestock show and guided the livestock show manager and volunteer leaders in developing plans for the future shows. Many members of the advisory panel were also selected for the district show board, which took on the task of raising funds and planning the awards program for the show.

Discussion

Extension faculty interested in involving teaching faculty and students in their work should consider several issues.

Examine Service Learning Opportunities

A good place to start is through a university's service learning or outreach office. Extension faculty can let instructors know what community initiatives they are involved in and identify faculty who may be interested in supporting that initiative through a service learning class.

Plan Ahead

Teaching faculty need several months to develop a course syllabus with a new service learning activity. Three to 6 months should be considered a minimum period of time to contact teaching faculty about your service learning opportunity.

Identify Suitable Support Activities for Students

Extension faculty should not expect freshman-level classes to perform advanced research activities in support of community initiatives. Including teaching faculty early in the planning process ensures that expected activities can be performed by students and fit the learning objectives of the class.

Identify Suitable Community Partners for Students

Some community issues may be too controversial for student involvement. Significant conflict between competing stakeholder groups may reduce stakeholder-student interaction and reduce student learning. Extension faculty should identify communities that are willing to allow students to learn through an interactive process between stakeholder and student.

Identify Appropriate Levels of Community Interaction

Depending on the nature of the initiative, there may be more or less interaction with community members. University faculty and/or service learning classes may be brought in to perform independent research as a "consultant," or they may share in the participatory research activities of the community or train stakeholders to conduct their own research as a "collaborator" (Stoecker, 1999).

Extension faculty should also recognize the constraints that distance places on service learning projects. In the LSU case, students interacted with faculty members during four monthly meetings, given that the community was an hour's drive from campus. Community initiatives further removed from campus may restrict the level of interaction between students and community.

Integrating university service learning courses with Extension programs can be an effective model creating and implementing community development initiatives. Extension faculty should consider all benefits and costs before implementing such a strategy.

References

Ehrlich, T. (Ed.). (2000). Civic responsibility and higher education. Phoenix: The American Council on Education and the Oryx Press.

Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Minnesota IMPLAN Group (2000). IMPLAN professional user's guide. Stillwater, Minnesota.

Stoecker, R. (1999). Are academics irrelevant? Roles for scholars in participatory research. American Behavioral Scientist, 42, 840-854.

Community Directed Leadership Programs in Wyoming

Cole Ehmke
University Extension Specialist
Laramie, Wyoming
cehmke@uwyo.edu

Rhonda Shipp
University Extension Educator
Cody, Wyoming
rshipp@parkcounty.us

University of Wyoming Cooperative Extension Service

In recent years the problems of achieving local buy-in for community leadership development programs have pressed educators to create innovative educational services. In Wyoming we have avoided formulating a rigid pattern of approach to designing leadership programs. To the contrary, we have developed a special emphasis on local design to meet varying educational needs. The current approach to community leadership development is a process that engages the local community to construct program content relevant to the local needs.

A local-needs emphasis is not new, of course. Programs that include local input are widespread: examples from this journal include Hughes (1998), Langone (1992) and Tackie, Findlay, Baharanyi and Pierce (2004), among others. But with the Wyoming approach the emphasis is much greater: with each program the curriculum is designed, developed, and delivered by a broad-based collaborative community steering committee.

Wyoming’s approach is called EVOLVE (Extension Volunteer Organization for Leadership, Vitality and Enterprise). The EVOLVE concept has a few broad minimum parameters for what must be included in the program (as opposed to a pre-defined curriculum, or even a menu of program topics). Consequently it is adaptable to any community because the curriculum is created by community volunteers based on their unique needs and resources. As a collaborative endeavor EVOLVE provides the benefits noted by Banach, Zunz, and LaPointe (2006) and Strieter and Blalock (2006). And as a leadership program it can fulfill the training elements suggested by Paxson, Howell, Michael, and Wong (1993).

Core Components

Each EVOLVE leadership institute is guided by a local steering committee composed of representative community residents. This committee designs the curriculum and selects the program participants. While the specific objectives set by the steering committee vary from institute to institute, components core to each leadership institute include:

1. Increasing human capacity by developing individual leadership skills,


2. Increasing social capacity using community-based experiences that strengthen the understanding of resources and issues, and


3. Incorporating a group project to practice what is learned.

The underlying motivation behind the core components is to provide experiences through which program participants may understand issues, become aware of the resources available, develop leadership skills within communities, and increase involvement in the community.

To meet the core component requirement of developing individual leadership skills, program content may include skill-building days; a day of observation and assessment of each individual’s leadership skills, strengths, and weaknesses; reading assignments; and the development of a personal leadership philosophy. Specific skills developed often include teamwork, communication, planning, change and conflict management, and social responsibility.

To meet the community-based experience component, participants are expected each month to undertake at least one outside activity, such as visiting the hospital and health care system, the school system, a business, etc., and making a report on the experience.

Group projects have two requirements. First, every student in the leadership institute must be involved, and second, the project must be of benefit to all the communities involved in the institute. The steering committee may chose to provide general parameters for the project (such as, that it involve children), or the institute may select its own focus. Projects have involved the cleanup of the banks of a popular river, honoring students who serve the community, and the cleanup of 24 miles of highway lying between two alienated communities by members of the communities.

Other Institute Features

The role of the county Extension educator is primarily as coordinator, working in conjunction with the steering committee. The educator might also teach specific elements of the curriculum the steering committee builds. However, the institute is used as a venue to develop skills, so past participants are expected to teach most of the classes. The educator would likely teach presenters how to create and teach good presentations.

EVOLVE leadership development institutes are usually 8 months in length and consist of monthly day-long classes on various topics of importance, opening with a retreat to facilitate participant bonding and to develop enthusiasm for the rest of the institute. Often a year of assessing needs and planning by the steering committee is required before an institute occurs.

Participants are selected to create a purposefully diverse program--one in which all kinds of citizens are represented. As far as leadership skill, students range from those with no experience in leadership roles (but who have potential), to those already in leadership positions.

Community participation in the programs is typically high. For instance, in one program there were 13 committee members, 10 instructors, 19 affiliates (who provided community-based experiences), and 16 sponsors (a total of 58). Each institute is involved in the next, perhaps by sitting on the steering committee or as instructors (in which they have the opportunity to learn more) or as hosts of community-based experiences or in whatever way they best can.

The practices and procedures have evolved over the course of the 10 years leadership institutes have been offered. A distillation of the program has been captured in a notebook containing information, forms, and tools developed by steering committees. This notebook is available from the authors.

Program Outcomes

We believe the key strength of the EVOLVE program to be that it is the local community that makes the final decisions on what is best to include and how to configure their leadership institute. Participant assessments and comments on the individual institutes indicate that the program is of great value. Participants have increased leadership, teamwork, and communication skills. They have also realized the value of collaboration, involvement, and diversity through service learning activities. Additionally they have gained insight into the resources of the community and expanded their personal networks. One participant said that more had been learned about county resources in the 7 months of the program than in the previous 30 years.

The program has been successfully replicated in eight Wyoming counties and one Idaho county. EVOLVE was introduced to Extension community development specialists and educators in neighboring states through a conference underwritten by the Western Rural Development Center in May, 2005.

References

Banach, M., Zunz, S., & LaPointe, N. (2006). Community collaboration: Effective partnerships with steering committees. Journal of Extension [On-line], 44(1) Article 1FEA3. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2006february/a3.shtml

Earnest, G. (1996). Evaluating community leadership programs. Journal of Extension [On-line], 34(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1996february/rb1.html

Hughes, E. (1998). Leadership development program serves as a change agent in community development. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998april/iw2.html

Langone, C. (1992). Building community leadership. Journal of Extension [On-line], 30(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992winter/a7.html

Paxson, M., Howell, R., Michael, J., & Wong, S. (1993). Leadership development in extension. Journal of Extension [On-line], 31(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1993spring/rb2.html

Strieter, L., & Blalock, L. (2006). Journey to successful collaborations. Journal of Extension [On-line], 44(1) Article 1TOT4. Available at: www.joe.org/joe/2006february/tt4.shtml

Tackie, N., Findlay, A., Baharanyi, N., & Pierce, A. (2004). Leadership training for transforming the community: A participatory approach. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(6). Available at: www.joe.org/joe/2004december/rb3.shtml

Experience Economy Strategies: Adding Value to Small Rural Businesses

Ann Marie Fiore
Professor
amfiore@iastate.edu

Linda Niehm
Assistant Professor
niehmlin@iastate.edu

Haemoon Oh
Associate Professor
hmoh@iastate.edu

Miyoung Jeong
Assistant Professor
mjeong@iastate.edu

Cheryl Hausafus
Associate Professor
haus@iastate.edu

Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa

Introduction

Nationally, the number of small, independently owned businesses is substantial, accounting for over 90% of all U.S. business activity (Scarborough & Zimmerer, 2006). Small firms also comprise a majority of rural business establishments (U.S. Small Business Administration, 2004) and are central to rural economic development (Muske & Stanforth, 2000; Muske, Stanforth, & Woods, 2004). In spite of their prevalence and importance, small rural firms have found the business environment increasingly challenging (Henderson, 2002; McDaniel, 2001; Miller, Besser, Gaskill, & Sapp, 2003; Miller & Kean, 1997). To meet this challenge, rural areas need access to education and training as well as assistance from economic development agencies (Connell & Wall, 2004).

Cooperative Extension has provided educational programs to assist small business operators that ultimately enhance rural economic and community development (Muske & Stanforth, 2000). To succeed and grow, small businesses need to create value through innovation (Drucker, 1985). Consequently, many Extension programs have enhanced rural economic development by facilitating creation of value through innovation of goods, particularly agricultural goods (e.g., Marshall, Bush, & Hayes, 2005; See, 2004) and forestry goods (e.g., Leavengood & Love, 1998).

However, Extension professionals have witnessed an expansion in the value-added approaches of interest to, or employed by, their audiences (Kraenzel, 2000; Eckert & Bell, 2005). Newer value-added approaches have moved beyond a focus on innovative goods to inclusion of innovative consumer experiences. Kraenzel (2000) stated, "A growing Extension segment is interested in agri-entrepreneurial, agri-entertainment, and other value-added businesses that pose new challenges for program planning, design, and delivery." To help meet this challenge facing Extension professionals, we:

• Summarize competitive strategies from Pine and Gilmore's (1999) "Experience Economy" approach for innovating consumer experiences,


• Identify elements of business offerings that can enhance consumer experiences, and


• Provide a tool to help operators of an array of small businesses, including retail, tourism, hospitality, and food service firms, assess and develop consumer experience offerings.

The Experience Economy Approach and 4E Strategies

Pine and Gilmore (1999) observed that the U.S. has entered an "Experience Economy" where a business' goods and services should by accompanied by consumer experiences, such as educational and entertainment experiences, to help differentiate their offerings from competitors and increase performance and profitability. Eckert and Bell (2005) provided an example: a goat dairy and cheese-making operation added an "educational retreat" Bed & Breakfast (B&B) to stay small and profitable.

Pine and Gilmore (1999), Postrel (2003), and Richards (2001) agreed that there is a pervasive change in consumers; people are no longer singularly concerned with buying goods and services, but are also concerned with engaging experiences. Pine and Gilmore envisioned that future economic growth in the U.S. would come from businesses offering enriched, distinct consumer experiences. In support, Richards (2001) stated that the fastest growing sectors of the global economy are related to consumption of experiences.

Pine and Gilmore (1999) offered four types of consumer experience: educational, esthetic, entertainment, and escapist that they termed the "4Es." The 4Es vary in terms of active-passive involvement and absorption-immersion dimensions that intersect to produce quadrants. Active-passive involvement entails the level of participation by consumers in creation of the experience-generating offering. Those who passively participate do not directly affect or influence the offering, whereas active participants directly affect the offering that yields the experience. Absorption is "occupying a person's attention by bringing the experience into the mind" and immersion is "becoming physically (or virtually) a part of the experience itself" (Pine & Gilmore 1999, p. 31).

According to Pine and Gilmore, including all four types of experiences is optimal. However, we suggest that resource-strapped small rural businesses should initially focus on one or two of the 4Es and then augment their experiential offerings over time. Table 1 provides a summary of Pine and Gilmore's description of the 4Es and an example of a small business application for each strategy.

Elements of Experiential Business Offerings: The 4Ps

The elements of business offerings used to enhance the 4Es are categorized as the 4Ps (Properties, Product Presentation, Promotional Applications, and People).

• Properties are semi-permanent elements of the physical business such as architecture, interior design, landscape design, exterior signage and name, and delivery vehicles.


• Product Presentation consists of easily changeable elements of the setting supporting tangible goods and services, such as in-store signage, packaging, display components for retail and tourism operations (e.g., display cases or tables), presentation materials for hospitality operations (e.g., menus, bedding), and ambient cues (lighting, scents).


• Promotional Applications include any form of advertising (e.g., newspaper ads), sales outlets (e.g., catalog or Website), and support materials that enhance customer awareness and recognition of the firm (e.g., logos, business cards).


• People consists of aspects of customer interaction opportunities (e.g., contests, sponsored events), staff/customer interactions (e.g., instructional ability of staff) and physical appearance of the staff (e.g., neatness).

These 4Ps are loosely based on the experience-oriented categories proposed by Schmitt and Simonson (1997) to build a consistent firm identity. Tables 2 through 5 provide examples of how the 4Ps can contribute to each of the 4Es.

Consumer Experience Assessment Tool for Small Business Operators

Pine and Gilmore (1999) emphasized that a successful (4E) consumer experience entails a well-orchestrated whole with:

• Harmonized impressions capturing a theme,


• A theme expressed in all aspects of the business' offerings (e.g., store interior, music, and staff uniforms), and


• Elimination of negative cues that detract from the experience.

To create the well-orchestrated whole, the assessment tool (Appendix A) helps small business operators:

• Understand the 4E strategies,


• Examine the current status of consistency of theme and impressions created across a comprehensive list of business offering elements,


• Identify the presence of negative cues that may detract from the consumer experience, and


• Plan 4P elements of business offerings to implement new 4E strategies appropriate for the small business.

Concluding Remarks

Enriching consumer experiences of small rural businesses may help create distinct competitive advantages for operators and enrich the overall image and vitality of the community. The authors have implemented the assessment tool with a variety of rural retail and restaurant operations, but the tool could be equally helpful with hospitality and tourism operations to further add to the image and vitality of the community. Extension professionals may wish to partner with university faculty and students in service learning activities to facilitate assessment of the business and to provide a wealth of innovative ideas to help small rural businesses design consumer experiences.

References

Connell, D., & Wall, E. (2004). Profiling economic capacity. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004august/a2.shtml

Drucker, P. F. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship: Practice and principles. New York: Harper & Row.

Eckert, E., & Bell, A. (2005). Invisible force: Farmers' mental models and how they influence learning and actions. Journal of Extension [On-line], 43(3). Article 3FEA2. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005june/a2.shtml

Henderson, J. (2002). Building the rural economy with high-growth entrepreneurs. Economic Review 87(3), 45-70.

Kraenzel, D. G. (2000). The revolving client pool: One solution to value-added programming challenges. Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000december/tt3.html

Leavengood, S., & Love, B. (1998). Trials and triumphs of expanded extension programs. . Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998december/a3.html

Marshall, M. I., Bush, D., & Hayes, K. (2005). Extension programming for food entrepreneurs: An Indiana needs assessment. Journal of Extension [On-line], 43(5). Article 5RIB8. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005october/rb9.shtml

McDaniel, K. (2001, May). Small business in rural America. The Main Street Economist. Center for the Study of Rural America, Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Kansas City, MO.

Miller, N., Besser, T., Gaskill, L. R., & Sapp, S. G. (2003). Community and managerial predictors of performance in small rural US retail and service firms. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 10, 215-230.

Miller, N., & Kean, R. (1997). Factors contributing to inshopping behavior in rural trade areas: Implications for local retailers. Journal of Small Business Management 35(2), 80-94.

Muske, G., & Stanforth, N. (2000).The educational needs of small business owners: A look into the future. Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000december/a4.html

Muske, G., Stanforth, N., & Woods, M. D. (2004). Micro business use of technology and extension's role. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004february/a4.shtml

Pine, B. J., II, & Gilmore, J. H. (1999). Experience economy: Work is theater and every business a stage. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Postrel, V. (2003). The substance of style. New York: Harper Collins.

Richards, G. (2001). The experience industry and the creation of attractions. In G. Richards (Ed.), Cultural attractions and European tourism. New York: CABI Publishing, pp. 55-69.

Scarborough, N. M., & Zimmerer, T. W. (2006). Effective small business management: An entrepreneurial approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc./Prentice Hall.

Schmitt, B. H., & Simonson, A. (1997). Marketing aesthetics. New York: Free press.

See, M. T. (2004). An educational program model for pork producers pursuing value-added marketing opportunities. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004april/iw5.shtml

U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA). (2004). Small business by the numbers. Retrieved April 15, 2005 from http://www.sba.gov/advo

Appendix A.
Assessment Tool: Assessing Contributions to the Customer Experience

Experiences offered by the business add fun, pleasure, excitement, escape, personal fulfillment, and lasting memories for the customer. Successful businesses do not only sell goods and provide services; they also create positive, memorable experiences for their customers. Pine and Gilmore define four strategies (4Es) for creating these positive customer experiences that should be carried through all components of the business' offering: Educational, Esthetic, Entertainment, and Escapist Experiences.

The 4E Strategies

Educational Experience--Identify components of the following 4Ps that contribute to customers' enhanced knowledge, skill, and/or personal development.

Esthetic Experience--Identify components of the following 4Ps that contribute to a well-designed, unique physical setting in which a customer feels immersed.

Entertainment Experience--Identify components of the following 4Ps that contribute to engaging performances for the customer.

Escapist Experience--Identify components of the following 4Ps that contribute not just to a getaway, but to active participation in creating a sense of a different place or time.

Using the Tool to Assess and Enhance 4Es through the 4Ps

This Assessment Tool provides a table (Table 6) for business operators to systematically identify features within the 4Ps (Properties, Product Presentation, Promotional Applications, and People) that contribute to the special experience for the customer. Brief descriptions of the 4Ps are provided in parentheses in Table 6.

Tables 2-6 (include from the body of the article) provide examples of how the 4Es can be expressed through the 4Ps of Accommodation/B&B, Restaurant, Retail, and Rural Tourism operations. After reviewing Tables 2-6, the operator should use Table 6 to:

• Examine if one or more of the 4E strategies is already evident in the 4Ps that contribute to the business' offerings,


• Determine if a unified theme or impression is evident (e.g., gothic-theme getaway, family fun retreat),


• Determine if some features of the 4Ps may be detracting from the customer experience, and


• Plan how to enhance one or more of the 4Es through features of the 4Ps, building a unified theme or impression

Sometimes the operator is too close to the business to accurately assess the experiential nature of these 4P elements. Therefore, operators are encouraged to gather input from staff, customers, or vendors. In the table below, briefly describe how features of the 4Ps positively or negatively contribute to the 4E customer experiences. Place the description in the column under the corresponding type of experience. Enhance the experience by staying with a theme or general impression, building on the positives, and eliminating the negatives.

Note: Starting With Goods and Services: Cues for Building a Theme or Impression

Many times, businesses start out solely selling goods or offering services and want to add value by offering distinct customer experiences. The mix of goods and services offered by small firms can range from very focused to diverse. These goods and services may offer cues for the kind of theme or impression around which to build experiences. For instance, a goat farmer who makes Neufchâtel, a cheese originally from the town of the same name in the region of Normandy, France, may find it appropriate to build a Bed & Breakfast or retail store esthetic experience around a French provincial theme.

Competitive Bidding as a Means of Extracting and Demonstrating Farmer Willingness-to-Grow an Alternative Crop

Christopher D. Clark
Assistant Professor
cdclark@utk.edu

Burton C. English
Professor
benglish@utk.edu

Clark D. Garland
Professor
cgarland@utk.edu

Department of Agricultural Economics
The University of Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee

Introduction

Value-added enterprises are increasingly seen as a way for agricultural producers to reverse shrinking net returns. While traditional research and Extension activities are able to identify and evaluate these enterprises, subsequent development is often stymied by a sequencing or "chicken-or-egg" question, where potential suppliers and purchasers are reluctant to invest resources in a commodity absent a functioning market for that commodity. The following describes a project designed to address this challenge through both research and demonstration activities.

The Project

The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, through the Tennessee Switchgrass Project, is currently evaluating the potential for large-scale production of switchgrass in Tennessee. Switchgrass is a warm season, perennial grass that can be used to produce energy in a variety of ways (Burden, 2003; McLaughlin et al., 1999; USDOE, 1998). Switchgrass has been designated a "model energy feedstock" because it is:

• Well-adapted to grow in much of the country with low fertilizer applications and high resistance to naturally occurring pests and diseases;


• Widely used in soil conservation efforts because of its extensive root system and ability to tolerate poor soils, flooding and drought; and


• An exceptional forage and habitat for native wildlife (McLaughlin et al., 1999).

Thus, growing switchgrass for energy production could increase returns to agricultural producers while providing a variety of environmental benefits (de La Torre Ugarte, Walsh, Shapouri, & Slinsky, 2003).

An important objective of the project is to both evaluate and demonstrate the ability and willingness of Tennessee producers to grow switchgrass. This objective is being pursued through two traditional activities, field tests at an experiment station and a mail survey of a random sample of Tennessee producers, and one not-so-traditional activity, competitive bids by individual growers to produce switchgrass.

Rationales

Actual switchgrass production was included in the project in order to:

• Provide a feedstock for conversion testing,


• Estimate potential yields and production costs, and


• Develop management guidelines specific to Tennessee.

While these objectives could be accomplished through field tests at an experiment station, "on-farm" production was included to:

• Incorporate a wider range of soil types and other physical conditions,


• Analyze interactions between switchgrass and other production activities,


• Compare performance under various levels of managerial ability and under experimental and realistic farm conditions (Lockeretz, 1987), and


• Demonstrate to potential market participants the willingness and ability of Tennessee producers to grow switchgrass under a four-year contract.

Along these lines, on-farm production is expected to provide more specific information on:

• Equipment modification,


• Conflicts between switchgrass harvesting and other activities,


• Temporary storage, loading and transportation of harvested switchgrass, and


• A variety of issues related to contractual relationships between switchgrass growers and energy producers.

On-farm production was also designed to provide information on the willingness of Tennessee farmers to substitute switchgrass production for traditional cropping activities by allocating participation among producers through a competitive bidding process. This process was chosen to satisfy practical concerns over the selection of producers and to provide "revealed preference" data on producer willingness-to-grow to supplement the "hypothetical" data generated by the mail survey. While certain constraints of the bidding process (such as acreage restrictions) and the relatively small number of bidders limits statistical analysis, the presence of real economic incentives infuses the bids with a degree of credibility that a survey cannot match.

The Process

Bidding was conducted under university guidelines that allow bid evaluation to include factors other than cost. These guidelines required that bids be divided into a cost and a non-cost bid, and bidders were made aware that while low-cost bids would be favored, cost alone would not be determinative. The non-cost bid was designed to gauge the bidder's suitability for the project, including among other factors the range of acreage the bidder was willing to devote to switchgrass production. A copy of the non-cost bid form is available at http://beag.ag.utk.edu/docs/RFP_switchgrass.pdf.

The cost bid had two components--a base payment stated in dollars per acre, plus an incentive payment stated in dollars per ton of switchgrass produced. Bidders were informed that cost bids would be evaluated on the basis of a single per acre bid, calculated by adding the base payment to the product of the incentive payment and an estimated average annual yield of 5.5 tons/acre. Thus, the cost bid resembled a first-price sealed bid auction.

Contracts

While the 4-year commitment needed from growers made written contracts a necessity, a conscious effort was made to avoid an overly burdensome or "legalistic" contract. Thus, all bidders executed a three-page written contract consisting of the university's standard form plus one page of additional terms. A copy of the contract, the first page of which doubled as the cost bid, is available at http://beag.ag.utk.edu/docs/switchgrass_grower_k.pdf.

Bid Solicitation

Solicitation of bids began with an informational meeting held at an experiment station. The meeting included presentations on switchgrass production, the project, and the contract and bidding process. Bidding forms were distributed at the meeting, and county Extension agents took copies for distribution in their counties. After the meeting, participants were invited to view switchgrass field tests being conducted at the experiment station. Bids were due approximately 4 weeks after the meeting.

Bids

A total of 11 bids were received, five of which were accepted (Table 1). There was little difference in responses to the non-cost questions, other than the range of acreage bid into the program. Bidders submitted a minimum and maximum acreage, with the university reserving the right to choose any acreage within that range. Bidders were informed that the ideal result was to have 10 producers growing approximately 10 acres each.

While most of the bids were for more acreage, few were for substantially more. However, one bidder (Bidder 1) was excluded on this basis, and the low acreage allotments likely dissuaded some producers from bidding. In general, the bids reflected an understanding of both the bidding process and payment structure.

Bid Selection

Contracts for a total of 92 acres were awarded to Bidders 2 through 6, as shown in Table 1. Contract awards were based both on cost and on securing as much diversity as possible among the winning bidders to maximize the research and demonstration effects of the on-farm production component of the project.

Conclusion

The project described here used on-farm production and a competitive bidding process to extract information on switchgrass production and the values needed to prompt Tennessee producers to replace traditional cropping practices with switchgrass production. These values will supplement data obtained from a mail survey of Tennessee farmers. Due to the small number of bids and the acreage constraints placed on bidders, these values are likely to add little to the statistical analysis of the survey results. However, they do possess a certain "real world" credibility that the survey results may lack.

This credibility should help to ameliorate some of the sequencing problems associated with developing a new value-added enterprise. These relationships should also serve to demonstrate potential solutions to a variety of issues associated with the contract production of switchgrass to both potential producers and purchasers of switchgrass.

References

Burden, D. (2003). Switchgrass profile. Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, Iowa State University, Ames, IA. Retrieved May 23, 2005 from http://www.agmrc.org/agmrc/commodity/biomass/switchgrass/switchgrassprofile.htm

de La Torre Ugarte, D. G., Walsh, M.E., Shapouri, H., & Slinsky, S. P. (2003). The economic impacts of bioenergy crop production on U.S. agriculture. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Chief Economist, Office of Energy Policy and New Uses. Agricultural Economic Report No. 816. Retrieved May 23 from http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/AER816Bi.pdf

Lockeretz, W. (1987). Establishing the proper role for on-farm research. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 2(3), 132-5.

McLaughlin, S., Bouton, J., Bransby, D., Conger, B., Ocumpaugh, W., Parrish, D., Taliaferro, C., Vogel, K., & Wullschleger, S. (1999). Developing switchgrass as a bioenergy crop. In J. Janick (Ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. Alexandria, VA: ASHS Press.

USDOE (1998). Biofuels from switchgrass: Greener energy pastures. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, United States Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.. Retrieved May 23, 2005 from http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/papers/misc/switgrs.html

Horticultural Therapy: Bringing New Growth to People with Disabilities

Madeline Flahive DiNardo
County Agricultural Agent
Rutgers Cooperative Research and Extension of Union County
Westfield, New Jersey
flahive@aesop.rutgers.edu

Situation

Union County, New Jersey, is home to over a half million residents, 17% of whom have disabilities or special needs. Special Education teachers and administrators of rehabilitation centers, nursing care facilities, and senior housing programs seek programs that will serve the physical and social needs of their clientele. Horticultural therapy programs meet that need.

The American Horticultural Therapy Association defines horticultural therapy as a process in which plants and gardening activities are used to improve the body, mind and spirits of people (American Horticultural Therapy Association, 2005). Horticulture-related activities build up strength, memory, balance, motion, and socialization skills. They can also provide vocational options for clients (Nursing 92, 1992). Students participating in an intergenerational horticultural therapy program in Ohio exhibited increased self-esteem, self-confidence, pride in their accomplishments, and enthusiasm (Hudkins, 1995).

In 1988, the Rutgers Cooperative Research and Extension (RCRE) of Union County, New Jersey, Master Gardeners program offered a biweekly horticultural therapy program at a health care facility that continued for 3 years. Enthusiasms for the program led to the creation of handicapped-accessible outdoor vegetable gardens and an arboretum.

Based on the success of the program, the volunteer Master Gardeners and I created an eight-session Introduction to Horticultural Therapy program to reach more agencies serving county residents with special needs. The program involves Master Gardeners visiting facilities and teaching people with disabilities horticultural skills by creating hands-on projects using plant materials. The flexible introductory program can be offered at a variety of sites and does not require a garden. Figure 1 shows a Logic Model for the Introduction to Horticultural Therapy Program.

Figure 1.
Logic Model (UWCE, 2002) for the Introduction to Horticultural Therapy Program

Program Objectives

• Introduce administrators, staff members and clients to horticultural therapy.


• Teach adults and youth basic horticultural skills.


• Provide information on resources so that horticultural therapy can become an on-going program.

Program Inputs

Personnel

My assistant or I work with our Master Gardener Horticultural Therapy committee to coordinate programming with county agencies. The committee has 55 members, with four co-chairs. A registered Horticultural Therapist provides initial volunteer training.

At sessions, depending on the abilities of participants, a ratio of one volunteer to two or three participants is recommended. Facility staff members must be present at all times to offer support, assist with logistics, and respond to medical emergencies.

Materials

The Master Gardeners use natural and non-toxic materials and non-poisonous plant species. The use of pesticides and rooting hormones is avoided. Dried and pressed flowers, leaves, pinecones, rocks, and other natural items are used. The textures, colors, and scents stimulate the senses of participants.

Budget

There is no fee for the program. Materials are purchased with proceeds from a Master Gardener plant sale. There is a $350 annual budget. Almost 50% of the materials used are donated by volunteers and businesses.

Program Outputs

Training, recruitment, orientation and horticultural therapy are offered to volunteers, agency administrators, their staff, and people with special needs.

For Master Gardeners

The Union County curriculum includes a 2-hour "Horticultural Therapy" lecture taught by an agricultural agent who is a Registered Horticultural Therapist and coordinates the undergraduate Horticultural Therapy curriculum at Rutgers University. A local American Horticultural Therapy Association Chapter may be willing to assist with training. Committee chairs recruit volunteers by encouraging students to visit sessions. Veteran Master Gardeners teach students propagation and nature crafts.

In 1999, we hosted a workshop for agencies serving people with disabilities and Master Gardeners from other counties. The workshop featured displays and speakers on how to incorporate horticultural therapy into activities.

The committee meets yearly to set priorities and assign responsibilities. Volunteer duties include meeting with facility administrators; informing committee members of program sites, directions, and times; purchasing supplies; and teaching participants horticultural skills.

For Agency Administrators

Pilot Program Recruitment

• A letter describing the "Introduction to Horticultural Therapy" program was sent to all nursing care facilities in the county.


• The first programs were offered in conjunction with the County Parks Department and a Special Education teacher.

Current Program Recruitment

• The Master Gardeners created a display and brochure describing the program. The recruitment takes place at community events and is effective.


• Conversations between nursing care facility recreation coordinators, county agencies and special education teachers quickly fill "reservations" for the program. This "word-of-mouth" communication has been the most successful way to reach new audiences.

Orientation and Support

• When the "Introduction to Horticultural Therapy" Program is requested, a Master Gardener and I meet with the agency's administrator to explain and schedule the program and make arrangements for supply storage.


• When the program is finished, Master Gardeners serve as advisors.

For Special Needs Population

Examples of projects include:

• Potting Annuals
• Houseplant Propagation
• Everlasting Flower Arrangements
• Terrariums

Outcomes

The Introduction to Horticultural Therapy Program enhances volunteers, program administrators, and people with special needs. The program has been offered at 59 sites and reached over 1,475 people with disabilities. The program has shown volunteers, agency administrators, and their clientele the benefits of horticultural therapy.

For Master Gardeners

• Four Master Gardeners have pursued studies to become Registered Horticultural Therapists.


• One Master Gardener is employed as a Horticultural Therapist.

For Agencies

• The Cerebral Palsy League of Union received a grant to include Horticulture as an integral part of the school's curriculum.


• The Center for Hope Hospice continues gardening in a greenhouse that a Master Gardener helped maintain.


• Catholic Community Services created handicapped-accessible gardens at their adult day care site.


• Union Senior Housing established a community garden.

Outcomes for People with Special Needs

• Administrators see increased attendance at horticultural therapy sessions compared to other recreational activities.


• Clientele are proud of their accomplishments. Items created during the sessions decorate rooms and are given as gifts. As one participant said, "I can't wait to show this [keepsake box] to my heart doctor. He is going to be pleased that I am doing so well."

The Introduction to Horticultural Therapy program has prompted county agencies to offer horticulture programs as a therapeutic activity, provided Master Gardeners with new career opportunities, and brought new skills to people with disabilities.

References

American Horticultural Therapy Association. (2005). Frequently asked questions. Retrieved June, 2005 from http://www.ahta.org/information/faq/html

Horticultural therapy working with plants proves fruitful (1992, October). Nursing 92, pg 58.

Hudkins, S. J. (1995) Parvis glandibus quercus "Great oaks from little acorns grow." Journal of Extension [On-line], 33(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995august/iw6.html

University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension (UWCE). (2002). Evaluation logic model Retrieved January, 2006 from http://www.uwex.edu/ces/pdande/evaluation/evallogicmodel.html

Can Extension Programs Help Communities Educate Older Adults About Age-Associated Memory Loss?

Sharon D. Johnson
Assistant Professor
Oregon State University Extension Service
Family and Community Development
Southern Oregon Research and Extension Center
Central Point, Oregon
s.johnson@oregonstate.edu

Introduction

It may happen as early as age 30, but it usually begins a decade or two later. Age-associated memory difficulties are a reality for older adults. Some amount of forgetting is present in at least 50% of people over age 50 (Harvard Health Publications, 2000).

Memory loss is demonstrated when an older adult has difficulty recalling a familiar name or remembering the location of a personal item. Problems range from short delays in retrieving information to a complete inability to recall facts. These memory difficulties are unsettling and even frightening for aging adults. They have an impact on activities of daily living and cause individual and familial distress (Rabins & Margolis, 2004).

Oregon State University Extension faculty has developed educational materials that can assist in making the distinction between simple forgetting and substantive memory difficulties. A 90-minute workshop, Memory Difficulties: Should I Be Worried?, has been offered to over 1,000 people in southern Oregon. In 2005, it was awarded the MetLife Foundation MindAlert Award, one of five such awards given in the nation.

Identifying the Problem

Acquiring information about age-associated memory loss is not always easy. Much of the existing material on memory impairment focuses on dementia, rather than age-related forgetting. Health literacy plays a role. Low health literacy, the limited ability to read and/or understand health-related materials, is present in almost half the population. Older adults are twice as likely to have these difficulties (Sanders, 2005).

Problems are further exacerbated because aging adults may be reluctant to talk about memory problems other than a quick joke about "senior moments." Aging individuals sometimes hesitate to reveal memory difficulties because it's seen as a threat to personal well-being or an admission that opens the door to discussion of a possible diagnosis of dementia (Schmall & Bowman, 2000).

Posing a Solution

In southern Oregon, community interest in understanding and managing age-associated memory loss is strong. A local hospital's community education administrators requested that Extension faculty design educational materials focused on age-related memory challenges. The result was the development of a workshop, Memory Difficulties: Should I be Worried?, a 26-slide PowerPoint presentation with easy-reference fact sheets and a memory road map. Participants in the workshops are given materials identifying the seven most common memory problems, with specific ideas about how to manage them (Schacter, 2001). A brief memory recall test, used mid-workshop, allows the participants to self-assess their own memory ability (Sizer & Whitney, 2000).

Understanding the Role of Lifestyle

Memory Difficulties: Should I Be Worried? focuses on the practical aspects of simple forgetting. It challenges participants to look closely at their activities of daily living and overall lifestyle as a possible explanation for memory loss (Rabins & Margolis, 2003). Figure 1 shows the lifestyle factors that may affect memory.

The workshop materials introduce alternatives or accommodations to assist individuals in modifying specific memory-related problems. For example, in response to stress-related memory issues, deep breathing and relaxation exercises are explained and briefly practiced. In response to nutrition-related memory problems, information is provided about the role of fruits like blueberries and vegetables like spinach and kale. (Snow, 2002)

Recognizing the Use of Social Supports and Memory Aids

Factors such as social engagement and mental aerobics also play a role in the ability to recall information (Snow, 2001; Margolis & Rabins, 2002). Individuals who participate in these workshops are introduced to memory aids that range from talking to your keys, "Car keys, I am hanging you on the hook by the back door," to the use of pneumonic devices, "I will remember the name Mary Decker by envisioning her in a wedding dress on the deck of a boat" (Harvard Health Publications, 2000).

Recognizing When Memory Loss Is a Significant Problem

The workshops draw from current research on age-associated memory loss. The educational messages encourage older adults and their family members to think about memory-related difficulties from a practical and solution-oriented perspective.

The workshops acknowledge some memory problems can be precursors to dementia. The question is posed, "When is memory loss a significant problem?" Four possible responses are put forward for discussion (Harvard Health Report, 2000; Rabins & Margolis, 2004)/ Figure 2 shows four memory problems that indicate that memory loss may be a problem.

The workshop instructor prompts the participants to think about the above-identified situations in terms of a "rule of three." If three people, from different areas of the individual's life identify a memory problem, there is a need for further intervention. For example, if concerns about your spouse's memory difficulties are expressed by your neighbor, a daughter who lives at a distance, and the pastor of your church, there are multiple indications of the need for clinical referral.

Evaluating the Impact of Memory Workshops

The Memory Difficulties: Should I Be Worried? workshops have been evaluated in terms of quality of content, relevance of content, and quality of presentation/format on a 1-5 scale, with 5 being excellent. The workshop evaluations were consistently rated in the 4.8-5.0 range in each category.

In 30% of the workshops, a retrospective self-evaluation tool was used to assess knowledge gains. Evaluation responses were sought in four areas: 1) understanding of age-related memory loss, 2) factors that affect memory, 3) how to relate to a person with memory loss, and 4) how to recognize when memory loss is significant. Completed evaluations identified statistically significant knowledge gains in all four areas.

Continued use of the same evaluation tool with a larger sample of workshop attendees is in process. It is to be coupled with postcard follow-up 2 months after the date of the workshop to determine continued application of the knowledge gained.

Conclusion

Educating older adults and their family members regarding age-associated memory difficulties will become increasingly important as the percentage of aging adults in the population continues to increase. Oregon State University's experience with Memory Difficulties: Should I Be Worried? demonstrates that clearly presented, easy-to-understand information on age-associated memory loss can be beneficial to individuals and families.

The PowerPoint version of this nationally award-winning workshop is available by contacting the author <s.johnson@oregonstate.edu>. It is designed for easy replication. The goal is to assist Extension educators in responding to older adults in their communities who want practical, research-based information about age-related memory difficulties.

References

Gordon, B. (2004). Improving memory: Remembering and forgetting in everyday life. MasterMedia Limited, New York.

Harvard Health Publications. (2000). Improving memory: Understanding and preventing age-related memory loss. Harvard University, Boston MA

Rabins, P. V., & Margolis, S. (2002, 2003, 2004). Memory. The Johns Hopkins White Papers, Baltimore, MD

Sanders, J., (2005). The effects of literacy on health care. Florida Health Care Journal Policy Brief. Available at: http://floridahealthstat.com/publications/fhcj/article5.html

Schacter, D. L. (2001). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Houghton-Mifflin, Boston, NY

Schmall, V., & Bowman, S. (2000). Helping memory impaired elders: A guide for caregivers. Pacific Northwest (PNW) Extension Publication. Oregon, Washington and Idaho

Sizer, F., & Whitney, E. (2000) Nutrition concepts & controversies. Wadsworth /Thomson Learning, Belmont, CA

Small, G., (2000) The memory bible: An innovative strategy for keeping your brain young Hyperion, New York

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