April 2006
Volume 44 Number 2

Research in Brief

Internet Standards: How One State's Small Business Web Sites Compare to Expectations

Glenn Muske
Associate Professor
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
muske@okstate.edu

Hong Yu
Assistant Professor
Ryerson University
Toronto, Ontario
Canada
hongyu@ryerson.ca

Chia-Ling Khoo
Graduate Assistant
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
kchia@okstate.edu

Introduction

Small business owners are increasingly realizing the importance of establishing an Internet presence. Although an Internet site is no longer considered a panacea or the only marketing channel need by a business owner, a Web presence is recognized by today's small business owner to be part of a complete marketing strategy in order to capture the rapidly growing online market. Even in states such as Oklahoma, where Internet usage has been found to be lower than average (Defining the digital divide, 1999), over 40% of citizens indicated that they had made an online purchase (Barta, 2003).

The Internet can create an opportunity for a small business owner to reach a national and international customer base. An Internet presence can offer enhanced customer service and interactive marketing. A Web site creates new opportunities for small rural enterprises to tap into markets for niche products and services. Yet today's Web customer is increasingly sophisticated and demands that Web sites meet certain standards, such as being appealing, easy to use, quick to download, offering no-hassle returns and exchanges, and providing sufficient product or service information.

The purpose of the study reported here was to evaluate, using content analysis and trained reviewers, a sample of small businesses Web sites from a rural Great Plains state to see how these sites compared to a set of standards developed from a literature review. Of particular interest was how rural sites and sites of food-based businesses, often found in rural areas, compared to urban and other product and service Web sites. The information found will be useful in helping business owners develop a competitive Web site.

Background

According to the Netdictionary (2003), the Internet is a worldwide network of networks that uses a common communications and addressing protocol. Designed as a medium for the exchange of information, today the Internet has taken on a variety of roles, including becoming a substantial retail market distribution channel with sales of $69.2 billion estimated for 2004 (U. S. Census, 2005). Through use of the Internet, many barriers to new markets can be reduced or eliminated and the business owner has greater opportunity to develop his or her competitive position (Vlosky, 2000).

Already, most large and medium-size retail companies have a Web presence, using their site to develop customer awareness, provide product information, offer customer service, and, quite often, serve as a distribution channel. Although somewhat slower in adopting this technology, today's small business owner typically has, or is planning to have, a Web site also (Duncan, 2003).

The reasons for having a Web site include developing product or service awareness and providing increased customer service such as a section responding to common questions and e-mail answers to one-of-a-kind questions. Customers are offered tips and techniques on how to use the product as the opportunity for online purchases. Web sites offer the potential to reach large numbers of consumers who want something special, niche marketing opportunities. Examples of such use have been Web sites that allow consumers to find farmers who raise high-quality natural meat produced on environmentally responsible family ranches or the rural craftsperson (Hassebrook, 2001).

For a rural state such as Oklahoma, with 90+% of its businesses being small, often less than 10 employees and not located near major populations centers, the Internet as a retail outlet has substantial potential (Business Census, 1997; Stanforth, Muske, & Woods, 2003). Yet while an Internet site can have great potential, today's customer is growing increasingly sophisticated, requiring that Web pages contain certain elements before they will spend any time at a site, if they visit it at all (Burke, 2002).

Research on Internet retail sites has found that the successful e-commerce sites today have: ease of use; large selection of products; reasonable prices; no sales pressure; easy payment procedures; fast service and delivery; and detailed, clear product information. These sites offer secure transactions, are easy to read, quick to download, and have tools that assist in site navigation and handle multiple versions of multiple browsers (Duncan, 2003; Mail order the modern way, 1999; Safe shopping online, 2003). Consumers also want to know that their personal and credit card information is safe and that it will not be used for purposes beyond the completion of the business transaction (Grabner-Kraeter, 2002; Humphreys, 2003; Rowley, & Okelberry, 2000).

Yet the development of a successful e-commerce Web site in rural areas can be difficult because many communities still lack high-speed Internet access (Barta, 2003). In addition, the creation of successful Web sites requires access to technical expertise and education (Duncan & Culver, 2000), and citizens must become aware of the possibilities of e-commerce as well as becoming regular users (Beauliu, 2002; Drabenstott, 1999). Also, as many rural business owners attempt to capitalize on existing resources, this translates into many new businesses attempting to enter the value-added and gourmet food products arena, an area that is highly competitive and one where consumers often prefer to sample the product prior to ordering (Value-added food products, 1999).

Even faced with such challenges, business owners in rural areas and those producing value-added food products are turning to the Web as a marketing channel. The research analyzed how their Web sites compare to a set of standards developed from the literature.

Methodology

Based on a review of the literature, 40 variables were identified as key elements in the development of a Web site that was useable by the market, that clients would return to, and that had some bearing on the success of that Web site. The variables included were those important to the consumer and something the business owner could control. Those variables were divided into four basic categories: overall site evaluation, consumer confidence keys, technical and design considerations, and accessibility. Site questions were either scored on a yes (1) or no (2) scale or on a five-point scale (1=inadequate to 5=excellent).

Next, a list of 72 Oklahoma small businesses, all selling various products through an Internet Web site, was developed. Businesses listed in various online shopping directories were included, as were individual businesses identified by business consultants working with such businesses. Businesses were categorized by location of the company, rural or non-rural, and by business type, food/candy/spice or other. Two reviewers were trained to evaluate the Web sites on all 40 variables. To ensure inter-rater reliability, each reviewer evaluated several common sites. Ratings were then compared, differences in scores were discussed, and a scoring table developed.

Results

Overall, 37 of the 72 businesses were considered rural. Thirty-four of the businesses were food based. In general, the Web sites of the small businesses surveyed rated quite high in the area of overall site evaluation. Only the quality of the content rated less than 4.0, with food sites rating the lowest at 3.47 (Table 1).

Among the items found in the area of consumer confidence, the sites evaluated scored lowest, 3.4, in their professional appearance. Sites offered quick delivery (4.88), easy returns (4.73), and a variety of payment options (4.61). While most sites offered customer assistance by telephone (52.8%), only 12.5% offered such assistance by fax. Similarly, 36.8% of the sites had an option for ordering online, but only 12.5% took orders by phone. Only 8.1% of rural sites and only 5.9% of food sites took phone orders. Nearly 50% of the sites did offer secure transactions.

Sites scored quite well in the area of technical and design issues, with the lack of good contrast (3.59) being the lowest rated element. Most of the sites supported the two major browsers, Netscape and Internet Explorer, but only 15.3% supported AOL. Only 9.7% of the sites offered a text-only option for their site.

For the elements considered to be accessibility issues, two useful elements were typically found, "skip to main content" and "return to home." Only 26.6% of the sites showed one page per screen, making it necessary to scroll to see the entire page, and only 18.1% had a site map.

Differences between Web sites, whether by location or by business type, were minimal. Food businesses, as expected, were more likely to be located in the rural areas (X² (72,1) = 16.223, p = .000). Rural businesses were less likely to allow ordering via email or telephone but more likely to allow online ordering (p = .032, .031, & .023, respectively). Food businesses similarly were more likely to use online ordering but less likely to use e-mail or regular mail (p = .003, .048 & .047). Food business Web sites were slightly less fun to use but not significant in that difference (p = .083).

Conclusions and Implications

The findings of the study can be helpful to the entrepreneur as he or she develops a Web site. They can also help the Extension educator to guide and direct such an entrepreneur as they look for advice. Overall, the Web sites of these small business owners ranked favorably on the majority of the variables. There were few differences between the Web sites of rural and nonrural businesses or between food and nonfood businesses. The greatest differences found were in the options allowing a customer to ask for assistance or to order.

Although the public is rapidly turning to the Internet as means of communication and shopping, business owners need to remember that many individuals desire to have other means to get customer assistance or to order. Online marketing and sales are just a method; they should be just part of a company's plan to form long-lasting customer relationships. Educators and consultants working with such businesses must remind these owners of such findings. With the growth of the use of the Web as a trade site, it is important that retail Web sites be prepared to handle the variety of customers who may enter the "store." It is important that Extension educators encourage business owners to offer all four methods listed and even more, such as ordering by fax.

The low response rates in other areas, such as being compatible with a wide variety of browsers, limiting the use of frames, having a site map, and having one page per screen load, provide Extension educators with additional information that they can include in existing programs or in new curriculums they are creating. Also, educators must strongly reinforce the idea that today's online consumer is being taught to only do business with secure sites. Only 50% of the sites studied in this survey indicated that their sites were secure to handle financial transactions and personal information.

The Web has always been heralded as one medium where the small business owner can compete on an even basis with big business. While this is potentially true, this can only happen if the small business owner first understands the external market. The Extension educator can help the business person with this task of helping the small business owner recognize the changes occurring or on the horizon. E-commerce is rapidly changing and many of these sites today look much different, based on a random check, than they did two or three years ago.

Several study limitations must be recognized. The first is that the electronic world allows for creation and maintenance of sites to occur far from the physical location of the business. Thus a Web site classified as "rural" may indeed be designed, developed, and maintained in a large metropolitan area. Also, business owners are quite aware of the challenges in creating and maintaining an effective Web site, and so this becomes one area where they quickly turn for help, meaning that some of the design and development tasks were done by someone else. No attempt was made in this study to determine who had developed these sites or where they were housed and maintained. A third possible limitation was the development of the list from which business Web sites were selected.

For both owners involved in e-commerce and Extension educators working with such owners, effective marketing through e-commerce has one significant caveat. Web sites are only effective if they can be found by the consumer. With the proliferation of Web sites, finding one specific site becomes harder and harder. Successful Web sites will be those that the customer can find. Increasing one's chance of finding a Web site can be enhanced through a variety of methods, including putting it in all printed materials, advertising, becoming identified as an expert in the area, providing handy tips and hints that make people want to return, and affiliate marketing. As with a physical store, there will be no sales if the customer cannot find a site.

References

Barta, S. (2003, April). Internet use in Oklahoma. Blueprints for Economic Development, 13(1).

Beaulieu, L. J. (2002). Creating vibrant communities & economies in rural America. Mississippi State, MS: Southern Rural Development Center.

Burke, R. (2002). Technology and customer interface: What consumers want in the physical and virtual store. Academy of Marketing Science Journal, 30(4), 411-432

U. S. Business Census (1997). U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

Falling through the net: Defining the digital divide. (1999). Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Commerce.

Drabenstott, M. (1999, December). Meeting a new century of challenges in rural America. The Region, 13, 17-19+.

Duncan, B. (2003). Business to consumer E-commerce: Selling on the Internet [Electronic version]. From Mississippi State University Extension Service: http://msucares.com/business_assistance/homebusiness/ecommerce.html.

Duncan, B., & Culver, V. (2000). The potential of e-commerce on the rural South: Will it equalize or deepen the digital divide. The Rural South: Preparing for the Challenges of the 21st Century, 14.

Grabner-Kraeter, S. (2002). The role of consumers' trust in online-shopping. Journal of Business Ethics, 39(1), 43-50.

Hassebrook, C. (2001, March). E-Commerce: Can it help rural America thrive? Center for Rural Affairs Newsletter.

Humphreys, K. (2003, February). Tackle e-commerce. Farm Journal, 127(3)

Mail order the modern way (1999). Small Farm Digest, 2. Washington, DC: U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Netdictionary. (2003). http://www.netdictionary.com/html/i.html.

Rowley, M., & Okelberry, A. Shopping.com: Analysis of a trend. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 92(1), 9-10.

Safe shopping on-line. (2003). Nursing Journal, 33(1), 86.

Stanforth, N., Muske, G., & Woods, M. (2003). Technology use of Oklahoma's value-added entrepreneur. Unpublished manuscript.

U. S. Census. (2005). Quarterly retail e-commerce sales: 4th quarter 2004. Retrieved 4/19/05 at: http://www.census.gov/mrts/www/data/html/04Q4.html

Value-added food products (Should you get into). (1999). Small Farm Digest, 3. Washington, DC: U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Vlosky, R. (2000). An overview of e-business. Southern Perspectives, 4(3). Mississippi State, MS: Southern Rural Development Center.

Targeted Marketing: Lessons from an Agri-Tourism Enterprise

Lisa C. Chase
Natural Resources Specialist
University of Vermont Extension
Brattleboro, VT
lisa.chase@uvm.edu

Introduction

Extension specialists throughout the country are frequently asked by farmers and other business owners about marketing issues, regardless of their area of expertise. From beef to blueberries and environmental education to tourism, specialists are challenged by marketing questions yet are rarely trained to address such questions. This is not new; the need for marketing programs and the lack of trained personnel to answer questions is a recurring topic in Extension publications past and present (e.g., Larson, 1997; Muhammadm, Tegegne, & Ekanem, 2004; Weinschrott, 1985).

In an effort to find answers, University of Vermont Extension teamed up with the University of Vermont School of Business Administration and the Vermont Tourism Data Center. Working together, we designed a research project that examines the question: "How can businesses with limited resources, such as family farms, make use of marketing research to reach new customers?"

In the first phase of the project, we worked with Amelia and Chris Darrow of Olallie Daylily Gardens in South Newfane, Vermont. The Darrows grow high-quality daylilies and other perennials on their family farm, and they use a variety of direct marketing methods. They want more people to visit their farm and purchase products while they visit, but they also want to grow their catalog and Internet mail-order business. They teamed up with the University of Vermont to see how research could help them understand and expand their customer base in a cost-effective way.

Background

The well-known four P's of marketing (product, price, place, and promotion) are still essential for success (Parmerlee, 2000); however, several more P's have been added, including partnerships, publicity, and positioning, just to name a few (Comen, 2003). The list of P's goes on and on, but even knowing all the P's doesn't guarantee success in today's competitive marketplaces, with consumers suffering from information overload (Godin, 2003). To reach customers, your product must be remarkable, and your marketing must be precisely targeted (Peppers & Rogers, 1996).

Understanding how to target customers was the subject of a research study conducted by the Vermont Department of Tourism and Marketing and the Vermont Tourism Data Center (Noordewier, 2003). The study profiled visitors to Vermont and purchasers of Vermont-made products. These studies used a national "PRIZM" classification system developed by Claritas, Inc. to better understand who comes to Vermont and who should be targeted for statewide marketing efforts. This system used zip codes to classify customers into a variety of demographic groupings (Noordewier, 2003).

While PRIZM codes technically identify neighborhood types, in practice they can be thought of as representing distinct household segments with particular consumer behavior, demographic, and lifestyle characteristics. A 2002 study of Vermont visitors formed four macro segments consisting of household types with relatively similar profiles. The groups were formed by clustering together similar PRIZM codes. Forming macro clusters is useful for marketing because it makes it easier to target largely similar household types.

The 2002 study of Vermont visitors identified four distinct types or groups of households traveling to Vermont in disproportionate numbers. To determine whether a specific PRIZM profile travels to Vermont in disproportionate numbers, the percent of Vermont visitors categorized in the profile is divided by the percent of the U.S. population categorized in that profile. For example, PRIZM code number 42, New Eco-topians, accounted for 1.00% of the U.S. population in 2002 and 1.62% of Vermont visitors. Dividing 1.62% by 1.00% gives us an index of 162 and a 62% greater likelihood of making one or more trips to Vermont than the average U.S. household.

In the 2002 Vermont visitor study, the definitions and composition of the four target groups (i.e., visitors disproportionately prone to travel to Vermont) were reported as follows (Table 1, Noordewier 2003).

1. Metro Achievers

These households are among the most educated and affluent in the country, with the heads tending to be the elite in their professions or businesses. The families in the clusters comprising this target market live overwhelmingly in the suburbs of major metropolitan cities or "second" cities. In 2002, Metro Achievers represented 20% of households making one or more trips to Vermont. With the clusters comprising the Metro Achievers target market accounting for 14% of all households nationally, such households exhibited a 47% greater likelihood of making one or more trips to Vermont than the average U.S. household. Given their affluence, the propensity of Metro Achievers households to travel to Vermont makes them a highly desirable target market.

2. Small Town Movers

These are households that live in neighborhoods well outside the metropolitan beltways, in some cases in relatively remote country towns and villages. However, while residing in less densely populated areas (in some cases perhaps a deliberate choice to exchange a high profile, high-income urban job and lifestyle for a less complex and stressful way of life), many of the individuals in the clusters comprising this target are well educated, and incomes are relatively high. These households tend to be among the most influential in their communities. In 2002, Small Town Movers represented 13% of the households making one or more trips to Vermont. Since the clusters comprising the Small Town Movers target market accounted for 7% of all households nationally, these households were 79% more likely to make one or more trips to Vermont than the average U.S. household.

3. Small Town Rustic

These households tend to be located in less populated towns and villages, and generally have lower incomes and/or educational attainment compared to Small Town Movers. In 2002, Small Town Rustic households represented 13% of the households making one or more trips to Vermont. With the clusters comprising this target market accounting for 10% of all households nationally, Small Town Rustic households exhibited a 23% greater likelihood of traveling to Vermont than the average U.S. household.

4. New Eco-topia

New Eco-topia households represent a unique target market. These households tend to live in sparsely populated areas and have moderate incomes. The educational profile of this cluster is heterogeneous, ranging from high school to college graduate. The socio-economic ranking of New Eco-topia households places them between Small Town Movers and Small Town Rustics. In 2002, these households, which represented 2% of the households making one or more trips to Vermont, exhibited a high propensity to travel to Vermont, with a 62% greater likelihood than the average U.S. household.

Based on this prior research on Vermont visitors (Noordewier, 2003) and Olallie Daylily Gardens' interest in marketing using mailings, we designed a study that examines the effectiveness of PRIZM coding as well as current marketing methods already in use by Olallie Daylily Gardens.

Research Methods

The study compared marketing methods and assessed their usefulness in bringing in new business. Olallie Daylily Gardens previously used ads (magazine, newspaper, and radio), a Web site, rack cards, and postcard and catalog mailings as their primary means of marketing. With the help of the University of Vermont, Olallie also used PRIZM coded mailings and a control mailing to a random sample.

The first step of the research was to learn more about Olallie's current customers. Olallie sent Claritas, Inc. a list of over 9,000 household addresses from their database of customers. Results revealed that New Eco-topians made up over 40% of the drive-market customer base. No one PRIZM code dominated the mail-order customer list.

The next step was to send a mailing to a sample of potential customers based on their PRIZM category and a random sample as a control. We purchased 10,000 mailing labels (names and addresses) from Claritas, with half of the mailing labels targeted to reach potential mail-order market customers. The remaining 5,000 mailing labels were selected to reach drive-market customer targets. The exact breakdown of the mailing list was as follows.

• South-Central Vermont, excluding zip 05301, (17% or 1700 addresses) of which 850 addresses are randomly selected (no PRIZM), balance of 850 addresses would be PRIZM code #42 (New Eco-topians)

• Southwestern New Hampshire (8%) 400 random, balance PRIZM code #42

• Northern Massachusetts (17%) 850 random, balance PRIZM code #42

• Southwestern Connecticut (8%) 400 random, balance PRIZM code #42

• Minnesota (13%) 650 random, balance with an even distribution of PRIZM codes #42, 41, 15, 1, 2, 14 and 37

• Wisconsin (13%) 650 random, balance with an even distribution of PRIZM codes #42, 41, 15, 1, 2, 14 and 37

• Michigan (12%) 600 random, balance with an even distribution of PRIZM codes #42, 41, 15, 1, 2, 14 and 37

• Illinois (12%) 600 random, balance with an even distribution of PRIZM codes #42, 41, 15, 1, 2, 14 and 37

The mailing labels were affixed to postcards, and the postcards were marked with codes so we could keep track of responses. Olallie's employees were trained to ask how new customers heard about the farm and check postcards for specific codes. The mailings were conducted during the summer of 2003.

Research Results

During the winter, the Darrows counted the tally of responses for the 2003 season, which runs from May to September. For bringing in new catalog requests, advertising in Fine Gardening Magazine was responsible for the greatest response, leading to 407 catalog requests (Table 2). Web searches were second, with 270 catalog requests. In third place was an advertisement in Horticulture Magazine, with 123 catalog requests. Word-of-mouth came next with 100 catalog requests. Other forms of advertising ranked lower, including the mailings.

Word of mouth was the most effective way to bring in new farm visits (Table 2). Advertising in a local magazine ranked second, and Web searches ranked third. In contrast to catalog requests, posters, signs, maps, and book listings were effective means of generating farm visits. Similar to catalog requests, mailings generated a low percentage of farm visits.

Implications

The low response to the mailings combined with high responses to other kinds of targeted marketing methods led us to develop the Niche Products hypothesis (Figure 1). At the bottom of the pyramid are products with broad appeal, such as credit cards. Mass mailings are an effective way to reach new credit card customers for generic cards. Moving up the pyramid, products become more specialized, appealing only to select customers. For example, specialized credit cards target specific markets (e.g., the L.L. Bean credit card for L.L. Bean customers). Products such as those produced by Olallie Daylily Gardens--high-quality, field-grown, hand-dug daylilies--are toward the top of the pyramid, requiring finely targeted marketing techniques such as word of mouth and advertisements in magazines geared toward a select audience. PRIZM code classifications are an improvement on mailings to random samples, but, as we learned from the research, they are not finely targeted enough for such a specialized product as high-quality daylilies.

Conclusions

The next phase of the research project is to fill in the blank spaces on the pyramid and improve Extension's understanding of the marketing methods that work best for different products. Beef, for example, can fit in many places on the pyramid depending on how it is produced, packaged, branded, and marketed. No-name hamburger is toward the bottom of the pyramid, while grass-fed, hormone-free, premium-priced tenderloin raised in Vermont is toward the top of the pyramid. Extension specialists can use this pyramid to help them and their audience make informed decisions about appropriate marketing methods, keeping in mind that the more specialized a product, the more targeted the marketing methods need to be.

Figure 1.
Specialized Products Need Specialized Marketing

Acknowledgements

The research was supported by the Vermont Tourism Data Center (a partnership between the University of Vermont Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources and the Vermont Department of Tourism and Marketing), University of Vermont Extension, and Olallie Daylily Gardens. I'm grateful to Amelia Darrow, Gary Deziel, Tom Noordewier, and Wendy Wilson for helpful comments on earlier drafts.

References

Comen, T. (2003). Effective marketing of recreational enterprises on private woodlands. Pages 19-26 in L. C. Chase and T. J. McEvoy, Managing woodlands for recreational enterprises. Workshop Proceedings, Burlington, Vermont: University of Vermont.

Godin, S. (2003). Purple cow: Transform your business by being remarkable. New York, NY: Penguin Group, Inc.

Larson, R. B. (1997). Encouraging marketing research. Journal of Extension [On-line], 35(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997december/a2.html

Muhammad, S., Tegegne, F., & Ekanem, E. (2004). Factors contributing to success of small farm operations in Tennessee. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004august/rb7.shtml

Noordewier, T. G. (2003). 2002 National survey of the Vermont visitor. Burlington, VT: Vermont Tourism Data Center, University of Vermont.

Parmerlee, D. (2000). Preparing the marketing plan. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Business Books.

Peppers D., & Rogers, M. (1996). The one to one future: Building relationships one customer at a time. New York, NY: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.

Weinschrott, S. (1985). Marketing you and your business. Journal of Extension [On-line], 23(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1985summer/iw2.html

Lessons from the Draft Horse Industry in East Texas

James W. Hynes
Lecturer, Department of Curriculum and Instruction
Sam Houston State University
Huntsville, Texas
james_w_hynes@hotmail.com

James R. Lindner
Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Education
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
j-lindner@tamu.edu

Introduction

Among its various strategic objectives, Agricultural Extension seeks to understand, enable, and help sustain rural entrepreneurship (Scorsone, 2003). Traditional paradigms in financial agricultural education need to be reviewed in order to address this strategic objective (Gustafson, 2002). Entrepreneurship should be encouraged when traditional methods are no longer successful. Part of the process in encouraging entrepreneurial thinking is to broadcast that which already exists in the rural community.

The purpose of the study reported here was to determine and describe the variables responsible for the revival of the draft horse industry in East Texas--a successful sustainable rural entrepreneurial industry. A qualitative study was conducted using 14 purposively (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) selected draft horse industry participants in East Texas. Structured and semi-structured interviews were used. This research showed that the culture of practicality, inventiveness, and risk taking has allowed individuals in the draft horse industry to achieve financial success, where others have been forced to abandon their businesses and seek other sources of livelihood.

Page (1996) suggests that a gulf separates agriculture and industry driven by capitalistic theory development favoring industry over agriculture. That is, the draft horse industry promotes enterprenuer manufacturing in rural communities. Page further postulates the importance of locality and regional development. Conroy (2000) suggests the primary goal for the education community should be supplying a well-trained work force, whether they are interested in traditional agriculture or not. The draft horse industry and its ancillary businesses can provide a foundation for this growth.

The theoretical underpinnings of the study are based on Jack and Anderson's (2002) construct of structuration. Structuration, or recurring patterns of thought, states that the future is anchored in the past. This theory applies as well to education, though in the contextual areas of Extension and organization and community the current paradigms do not take into account the change management possibilities of looking to technology of the past for solutions to current problems.

The theory of Jack and Anderson (2002) affirms Rindos' (1980) observation that a positive selection for instability has characterized agriculture from the beginning. The historical use of draft animals was on the mind of the subjects of this study when they first started to acquire and use them. Jack and Anderson (2002) suggest that embedding, or the depth of one's ties to his environment, plays a key role in his success.

Educators need to encourage entrepreneurship when traditional methods of earning a living in rural communities are no longer successful. Part of the process of encouragement of entrepreneurial thinking is to broadcast information which already exists in the rural community. There is evidence of entrepreneurial efforts in the U.S. draft horse industry (Telleen, 1979).This study delineates the contextual applications in agricultural education used for acquiring the knowledge and skills necessary for the operation of contemporary businesses supporting the use of draft animal power. The study demonstrates that selected agricultural educational contexts and their applications in economic pursuits work in nontraditional ways. These applications should be used as potential sources of solutions in the economic revival of contemporary rural societies.

Methods

The study was a qualitative study of 14 conveniently selected respondents (non-Amish) drawn from draft animal users in East Texas. In particular, the researcher used unstructured and semi-structured interviews while making the necessary adjustments to the questions as the interviews proceeded. The interviewer did not pass judgment on the answers to his questions, and the respondents were expected to answer with thought and veracity. Document analysis and long term observation were also employed.

The qualitative study followed acceptable procedures and applied trustworthiness quality criteria set forth by Lincoln and Guba (1985), Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, and Allen (1993), and Merriam (1998). The field notes were organized and transcribed using the procedures outlined by Lincoln and Guba (1985). Both formal and informal member checks were used. Trustworthiness was assured by credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). An audit trail was maintained (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Internal validity was addressed using Merriam's (1998) six strategies for enhancing validity.

In order to determine where and from whom the data would be collected, the inquiry's focus was provisionally defined (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The focus of the study required using participants who were successful in their business enterprises, which required purposive sampling. Thus the researcher would ask people who were interviewed to whom else he should be talking--snowball sampling.

In qualitative research, the researcher and the respondents contribute together to the study through their interaction with one another during the interview process. The truth and applicability of the study are dependent upon the accuracy of both the subjects and the researcher in reporting the answers and the questions.

Participation by the respondents in this study was voluntary. The answers from the interviews were coded and kept confidential. Throughout the study, the answers were written down during the interviews. There was a set of questions the interviewer had prepared, and he would refer to them throughout the interview. With the semi-structured interviews, the interviewer was prepared to delve deeply into the respondent's answers to gain further information.

On several occasions, the participants would be asked an opening question; they would start talking and would basically continue to talk without any prompting or questions for the rest of the interview. These interviews became unstructured interviews. The researcher would simply write down their thoughts. Unstructured interviews do not have a set schedule of questions. The interviewer asks questions and, as the answers flow, adjusts his questions and focuses on the responses received to tweak out the most information he can from his subject.

Findings

The Participants

Most of the men and women interviewed were middle aged. The work they were doing in the draft horse industry was a second, third, or fourth career. Almost all of the facilities visited were located on non-tillable soil. This demonstrates sustainable economic use of rural locations that otherwise would generate little traditional agricultural income. The men and women interviewed were living and working in a rural environment in an agriculturally related field in a nontraditional agricultural occupation. They were doing so in an environmentally friendly way on soil that would not support traditional agriculture.

Geographical Underpinnings

The northern or northeastern link to draft horses and draft equipment in Texas was a compelling reminder of the history of the draft horse industry in the United States. The horses and equipment bought by the draft horsemen of Texas almost uniformly came from the collar states or provinces around the Great Lakes. This region of the country is the Diaspora of the draft horse industry (United States Census Report 1900).

The Market

All of the interviewees noted Texas residents as their primary market for horse sales. Many of the subjects noted that their clients were people who had ridden quarter horses all of their lives but were now getting older, may have a touch of arthritis in their knees, and wanted a safer way to own and use horses. These people would buy one or two draft horses and pull a wagon or a cart. A couple of the interviewees noted they sold draft horses to be ridden. With that in mind, they broke their young horses to ride and drive. In a recent article in the Draft Horse Journal, there was a story about a man in Montana who specialized in half draft/half riding horses for use by overweight riders.

As Armstrong and Levesque (2002) proposed, entrepreneurs set a target quality level to maximize profitability. The subjects of the study were very clear about what segment of the draft horse market they served. The men and women interviewed clearly identified their target markets and sold horses in the continuum from the high-quality show horse customers to the lower quality pet draft horses.

The people interviewed for the study all participated in service businesses using their horses. They hired out their horses and carriages for any number and type of events. The subjects not only break and train horses for their own uses but also break and train horses for their customers. If they have someone come to them requesting lessons on care/management of draft horses or wishing to learn how to drive horses, the interviewees provide such service.

Horses and carriages are available for hire for corporate parties as well as private parties. Most of the subjects were willing to drive people in weddings and funerals. Some of the participants made the military funeral a specialty, because national cemeteries are few in number and require strict adherence to protocols. Draft horse shows were used to promote those herds that have breeding stock. Several interviewees stood stallions for public service. A farrier interviewed promoted his blacksmithing work through his work in the show ring. Several of the participants hired themselves out to show horses on behalf of those who want their animals shown but can not do the showing themselves.

Self-Directed Learning

The men and women interviewed were all self-directed learners who learnt best with andragogical methods of instruction. They had a need, and each went about filling it, usually in some fashion similar to everyone else interviewed. To stay current and to learn new markets and what was going on, all but two of the subjects subscribed to and read the Draft Horse Journal, used the Internet for learning and communication, and read the publications from the state associations and national breed associations. Everyone interviewed noted working with subject matter experts. To most of the participants, these experts are found in the Amish community. They either worked at the present time with the Amish to find horses and equipment or worked with them in the past, when they got started using draft horses.

Charity Work

There was a definite conscious effort made by many of these horsemen to engage in charity work. They were serious about it and seemed to relish their role in bringing happiness to people, often institutionalized, who need it. Several horsemen noted that they would not sell horses to people who they thought could not or would not care/handle them correctly. Some of this thinking has its roots in the care lavished on the horses and mules seen during this study.

Seeking Business

Entrepreneurs must fulfill a need in society to be successful. They accomplish this by maintaining business and personal networks, ties, and relationships across wide geographical distances. "Traveling as far as the money goes" is the motto of most of the people visited. They charged 50 cents a loaded mile, $700 per wedding/funeral, or up to $750/month to train a horse. Board was an additional fee. Stud fees for the stallions ran to $500, while jack fees were $100. Only one of the fourteen interviewed indicated a limit on how far he would travel to find horse business or work.

Conclusions and Implications

Based on the findings of the study, andragogy and self-directed learning have been shown to work as educational foundations for economic sustainability, even when utilizing relic technology, by the participants of the study. The reacquisition of knowledge and skills utilized by the participants was in part historically, culturally, or geographically driven. The methods used by the study's participants in their acquisition of the knowledge and skills necessary for success should be used as a role model for how other rural industries can start and flourish. The methods used by the participants for their successful non-traditional environmentally friendly work in rural arenas should be learned and taught by Extension and university personnel alike.

The results of the research have implications for higher education and for Extension. The subjects of the study uniformly tapped informal sources of information--family and friends, personal contacts with subject matter experts, books and magazines, interest groups and associations, the Internet--rather than formal institutions of learning. Not one of the subjects interviewed even mentioned Extension or higher education institutions as a resource. Apparently, the draft horse industry in Texas has taken root without the assistance of formal educational institutions.

The authors propose that Extension along with agricultural education departments in universities and colleges rethink their traditional role of supporting and providing resources for agricultural enterprises. Rather than expecting entrepreneurs to approach for assistance, Extension should approach new entrepreneurs such as the draft horse professionals. We have much to learn from these self-directed adult learners about developing an economically successful agriculture-based industry. Then, perhaps most important, Extension educators can analyze the model and disseminate it to others who seek a way to sustain themselves in today's agricultural environment.

A core group of motivated adult learners was investigated and found to be hungry for information about ways to make their agricultural environments economically sustainable. These learners do not turn to Extension in their search for knowledge and skill building. Understanding why they do not seek out Extension is beyond the scope of this study. Clearly there is an opportunity for Extension to carry its success story outward. If Extension reaches out to them, this group will respond. After all, they are lifelong learners, and Extension is a lifelong provider of learning.

References

Armstrong, M. J., & Levesque, M. (2002). Timing and quality decisions for entrepreneurial product development. European Journal of Operational Research, 141, 88-106.

Conroy, C. A. (2000). Reinventing career education and recruitment in agricultural education for the 21^st century. Journal of Agricultural Education, 41, 73-85.

Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E. L., Skipper, B. L., & Allen, D. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry. London: Sage Publications

Gustafson, C. (2002). Transforming extension as the agricultural sector changes. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002february/tt3.html

Jack, S. L., & Anderson, A. R. (2002). The effects of embeddedness on the entrepreneurial process. Journal of Business Venturing, 17, 467-487.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. London: Sage Publications.

Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Page, B. (1996). Across the great divide: Agricultural and industrial geography. Economic Geography, 72, 376-397.

Rindos, D. (1980). Symbiosis, instability, and the origins and spread of agriculture: a new model. Current Anthropology, 21(6), 751-772.

Scorsone, E. (2003). Encouraging entrepreneurship in rural communities: The University of Kentucky entrepreneurship initiative program. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003december/iw5.shtml

Telleen, M. (1979). The draft horse primer. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.

U.S. Census Reports. (1900a). Agriculture, (V). Washington, DC.

Survey Results from Participants of a Short Course for Dairy Herdsmen

Gerald E. Higginbotham
Dairy Farm Advisor
University of California Cooperative Extension
Fresno, California
gehigginbotham@ucdavis.edu

John H. Kirk
Extension Veterinarian
University of California School of Veterinary Medicine
Tulare, California
jkirk4826@sbcglobal.net

Introduction

In the past 20 years, average herd size on California dairy farms has grown from approximately 350 cows to nearly 800 cows per dairy (California Cost of Production, 2003). As herd size expands, employees are added, facilities are expanded, and perhaps most important, the scope and expectations for the dairy herdsman are markedly changed. At smaller herd sizes, the herdsman often spends time with individual cows, directly handling breeding, health issues, and nutrition. With larger herd sizes, the herdsman becomes more involved in delegating tasks and managing the labor force as well as performing some of the daily tasks (Hadley, Harsh, & Wolf, 2002). It is not uncommon for large dairies to have in excess of 25 employees working in the different areas of the dairy.

A large part of the dairy herdsman function is to train other dairy employees in the proper care of dairy animals. This is especially applicable for large herds where a more effective style of management (team training) is needed because more responsibility must be delegated (Reed, 1994). Along with knowledge of the basic husbandry and management skills to operate an efficient and profitable dairy, the dairy manager must also be made aware of and apply emerging dairy technologies.

Educational programs that address new technology are often conducted in English, which puts many dairy managers and herdsmen at a disadvantage if they are non-English speaking. Language barriers provide a major challenge for educating the dairy labor force due to a high percentage of workers being Hispanic, commonly employed on large dairies in the West.

California dairy owners have expressed a need for basic dairy husbandry training for their employees, namely the dairy herdsman. Responding to these needs, University of California Cooperative Extension (UCCE) dairy advisors and specialists developed a Dairy Herdsman Short course to enhance the dairy husbandry skills of employees.

Dairy Herdsman Short Course Overview

In the formulation of the short course, UCCE personnel and California State University faculty consulted with dairy producers during planning meetings to identify training needs. After these planning sessions, a short course was developed that consisted of morning classroom instruction and afternoon laboratories over 3 consecutive days. Session topics included: Raising Replacement Heifers, Reproductive Management, Milking Management, Hoof Care, Labor Management, Dairy Facilities, Herd Health, and Computer Record Systems. Laboratories consisted of students participating in an autopsy of a calf, use of stethoscope to diagnose disease problems in cows, anatomy of the mammary gland, detection of mastitis using the California Mastitis Test (CMT), appropriate use of a colostrometer, proper hoof trimming, and anatomy of the reproductive organs of the cow.

Lectures were presented in English with simultaneous Spanish translation for those who needed such service. Translators were also available during each of the laboratory sessions. Attendance was limited to 40 participants in order to provide individualized training. Each student received a notebook containing copies of each lecture and the slide presentations. Additional supplementary materials were also included in the notebook. Each student also received a CMT kit, which is used on-farm at cow-side to detect mastitis. Students also receive a stethoscope that can be used to assess the respiratory, digestive and cardiovascular health of a dairy cow. Each dairy represented was also provided a colostrometer, which measures the antibodies in colostrum that is given to newborn calves.

Comprehension by the students was assessed using a test that was given to participants at the beginning and conclusion of the short course. Test questions were multiple choice and identical for both tests. At the conclusion of each short course, participants were invited to fill out an evaluation form. Participants were asked to rate each session from excellent to poor. They were also asked what additional topics would be worthwhile.

Survey of Herdsman Short Course Attendees

Information was lacking as to the impact of the herdsman short courses once attendees returned to their dairy operation. For this purpose, a survey was developed to evaluate to what degree participants were applying new ideas or strategies presented at the short course. This information would be used to ascertain whether current course content is providing the necessary tools for participants to apply on dairy farms.

Methods

A direct mail survey in English and Spanish contained 22 questions and was mailed to 95 potential participants who attended one of the first three herdsman short courses and who were thought to be employed on a dairy farm. After approximately 2 - 3 weeks, a follow-up mailing was conducted.

The survey questions were divided into three basic groups. The first three questions asked for an overall evaluation of the course, the second group asked about individual lectures, and the third asked about individual laboratories. The impact of native language (Spanish or English) and the length of time in the herdsman profession on the overall rating of the course were studied using 2-way ANOVA models of SAS (SAS, 1996).

Examination of the data determined that if a respondent was in the herdsman profession for 12 years or more they would be considered as having a long involvement in the dairy industry. Survey responses were analyzed individually for the effects of language and/or experience using repeated measures ANOVA models, in which lecture or laboratories was a within-subject factor. Multiple comparisons among the lectures or laboratories were performed using least squares means.

Results

Of the 95 surveys mailed, 32 were returned for a response rate of 33.7%. Of those responding, English was the first language for 63%. Time since course participants attended a short course ranged from 8 – 24 months. Average years of employment of survey participants on their current dairy for non-Hispanic and Hispanic dairy herdsmen averaged 10.6 and 8.3 years, respectively. When asked if the dairy herdsman short course met their expectations for the course, all of the respondents indicated that the course met their goals of attaining more knowledge in dairy herd management (Table 1). When the response to this question was analyzed alone for Spanish speaking participants, no differences were shown based on their degree of goal expectations for the course. Length of time being a herdsman was not a significant factor with regards to the course meeting their goals.

Respondents also indicated a strong inclination to recommend the short course to other dairy herdsmen, but individuals speaking Spanish was not a factor in this recommendation. Length of time being employed as a herdsman was not a factor in recommending the course to other herdsman. As expected, respondents were favorable on having presentations translated into Spanish. This was most noted for Spanish-speaking participants, who tended to be more favorable than English speaking participants (P =0.09).

Survey participants were questioned as to application of strategies presented at the herdsman short course to their current position as a dairy herdsman (Table 2). Of the topics presented at the herdsman short course, herd health, heifer replacement raising, and milking management were already being applied for more than 70% of the respondents. Information in the area of labor management was the topic already being applied the least on the dairy.

Topics dealing with labor management, mastitis prevention and control, and nutrition received the highest percentages of respondents' replies as subjects being applied on the dairy based on attendance at the short course. Areas of food safety and dairy herd software were among the lowest responses. Conversely, food safety, dairy herd software, and dairy facilities were indicated by survey respondents as topic areas that they would soon start to apply. When evaluated separately, Spanish speaking attendees were more likely (P=0.04) to use the information presented in the lectures than English speaking attendees. Length of time employed as a herdsman did not affect results.

Use of the laboratory exercises was found to be highly helpful to a high percentage of short course attendees (Table 3). Cow health exams and foot trimming demonstrations were two of the most useful laboratories. Whether an individual spoke Spanish or was employed more than 12 years as a herdsman did not affect their perceived usefulness of the laboratories.

Conclusions and Implications

The demand for well-trained dairy herd employees is growing for dairy herd owners because herd sizes are expanding at a rapid pace. This need has necessitated dairy Extension programming in California to focus on training for dairy herdsmen who are in need of increased dairy husbandry or personnel management skills. Results from the survey reported here demonstrated the need for a dairy herdsman short course in order for dairy employees to improve their practical skills in dairy herd management. Based on attendance, dairy farmers are willing to send their employees to receive additional training in dairy husbandry practices.

Those who attended the short courses overwhelmingly felt that they received information that they could take back to their individual dairy farm. Labor management, mastitis prevention and control, and nutrition were topics that were adopted and used on the dairy by those who attended the short course. Short courses such as ours will need to provide simultaneous translation of presentations for non-English speaking attendees to ensure the understanding of materials. In addition, laboratory exercises that provide students the ability to have hands-on learning can be a valuable asset to a training program in dairy husbandry skills.

Dairy employees who wish to improve their skills in dairy husbandry practices may find it advantageous to attend training courses similar to the ones provided by University of California Cooperative Extension. Our results demonstrate what impact dairy extension programming can have in California when the needs of clientele are addressed.

References

California Cost of Production. (2003). 2003 Annual Summary. California Department of Food and Agriculture.

Hadley, G. L., Harsh, S. B., & Wolf, C. A. (2002). Managerial and financial implications of major dairy farm expansions in Michigan and Wisconsin. Journal of Dairy Sci. 85: 2053-2064.

Reed, B. (1994). For wages and benefits, bigger dairies may be better. California Agriculture 48:9-13.

SAS/STAT: User's guide. 1996. Version 6.12 Edition. SAS Inst., Inc., Cary, NC.

A Successful Collaborative Research Project: Determining the Effects of Delayed Castration on Beef Cattle Production and Carcass Traits and Consumer Acceptability

Kevin Heaton
Kane and Garfield County Extension
Panguitch, Utah
kevinh@ext.usu.edu

Dale R. Zobell
Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences
Logan, Utah
dalez@ext.usu.edu

Daren Cornforth
Nutrition and Food Sciences Department
Logan, Utah
darenc@cc.usu.edu

Utah State University

Introduction

Delayed castration as a means to improve live animal performance was of interest to ranchers and Extension agents and specialists throughout the western United States. However, there are many ranches that retain ownership of their calves through harvest and have expressed concern about the effects delayed castration may have on carcass and consumer acceptance qualities of the beef produced. A southern Utah rancher discussed these issues with the county Extension agent, and together they developed an applied research project in collaboration with the Extension beef specialist and meat scientist.

Delayed castration of beef calves has been suggested to improve live animal performance (ZoBell, Goonewardene, & Ziegler, 1993). Typically, bull calves are castrated at less than 3 months of age. Young bulls, however, have been documented to be very efficient producers of lean meat (Field, 1971; Klastrup, Cross, Schanbacher, & Mandigo, 1984; Seidman, Cross, Oltjen, & Schanbacher, 1982). Despite excellent production traits, bulls can be aggressive in confinement and may produce high-yielding, lower quality carcasses that lack acceptance in the market place. Research indicates that bull carcasses compared to steer carcasses have less marbling, lower USDA quality grades, darker lean color, and lower tenderness (Seidman, Cross, Oltjen, & Schanbacher, 1982). In addition, meat packers penalize bull carcasses with discounted prices. If castration management could produce accelerated gain without the negative bull carcass traits, delaying castration could be an alternative for livestock producers.

The objective of the collaborative research project reported here was to determine the effect of time of castration on ADG, carcass characteristics, and consumer preference.

Materials and Methods

A progressive cattle ranch within the county was selected for this study as they had the facilities, personnel, and understanding required to complete the project. The research activities also corresponded to the ranch's management activities. During the spring roundup, 65 bull calves were randomly assigned to three treatments: Early (E) - castrated prior to 90 days of age (106 kg); Weaned (W) - castrated at 225 days of age (243 kg); and Late (L) - castrated at 380 days of age (365 kg).

The trial started on June 1, 2001, when the E calves were castrated. All cow-calf pairs were then pastured as a group on mountain meadows and weaned October 15. At that time all calves were weighed and received the appropriate vaccinations recommended by the local veterinarian.

All calves that were castrated were implanted with Ralgro¬ and given an injection to prevent tetanus. Calves were castrated using a bloodless technique (Callicrate Smart Bander, No-Bull Enterprises LLC, P.O. Box 748, St. Francis, KS 67756).

The treatment groups were fed together during the entire feeding phase (Oct 15 to harvest). During the background feeding phase, the calves were fed 2.5% of their body weight (DMB) a diet consisting of 19% alfalfa hay, 27% oat/triticale hay, 36% wheat midds, and 18% rolled corn (DMB). The finishing diet consisted of 73% rolled corn, 8.2% corn silage, 9.4% alfalfa hay, 4.7% whole cottonseed, and 4.7% calf supplement with free choice trace mineralized salt (DMB).

The age of the dams ranged from 3 to 8 years of age. The calves were weighed individually at the beginning, four times throughout the 424-day period, and at the end of the trial.

The steers were harvested at a USDA inspected, commercial beef processing plant. Calves were sent to slaughter as a group based on days on feed and average group weight. Individual carcasses were measured for rib eye area (REA), marbling score (MS), yield (CY) and quality grade (QG), back fat thickness (BF), and carcass weight (CW).

Five carcasses from each treatment were randomly selected, and one ribeye from each carcass was removed for taste panels and tenderness studies (n=60). The ribeyes were aged for 10 days, which is similar to a commercial situation. Two untrained consumer taste panel evaluations were completed at the Utah State University consumer taste panel laboratory. Panel #1 was composed of working professionals, and panel #2 was college students. Steaks were cooked to an internal temperature of 74° C, which corresponds to a medium well done rating.

Treatments were given a three-digit code, and panelists rated the samples on a 1-9 scale for tenderness, juiciness, flavor, and overall quality. The rating scale was as follows: 1 = dislike extremely, 2 = dislike very much, 3 = dislike moderately, 4 = dislike slightly, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = like moderately, 8 = like very much, and 9 = like extremely. Panelists also indicated their age and how often they eat steak.

Warner-Bratzler (G. R. Electric Manufacturing Co., Manhattan, KS) shear force was measured as an indicator of tenderness of cooked steaks. Three steaks were randomly selected from each treatment (E, W, or L treatments) for shear force measurements. After cooking, steaks were cooled 30 minutes at room temperature. Then 1-cm diameter cores (five per steak) were taken parallel to the muscle fiber axis, so that shearing was perpendicular to the fiber axis.

Statistical analysis for the analysis of ADG and carcass traits were performed using the MIXED procedure of SAS (SAS Institute, Cary, NC) using a completely randomized design with a repeated measures treatment structure with animal as the experimental unit. Statistics for consumer taste panel evaluation of steaks from E, W, and L steers were performed using Statistica» (Statsoft Inc., Tulsa, OK). Treatment means were calculated by one-way ANOVA and significant differences between means determined by calculation of Fisher's LSD values, when appropriate.

Results and Discussion

There were no differences in live animal performance between treatments throughout the trial (p ≤ 0.05) (Table1).

At harvest, dressing percent and hot carcass weights were not different between treatments (Table 2). Marbling scores decreased significantly in the later castrates. Eighty-seven percent of treatment E graded choice or better and 75% and 47.6% of treatment W and L, respectively, graded choice or better. Kidney, pelvic heart fat (KPH), and back fat (BF) were similar for all treatments. Delaying castration increased ribeye area (REA) and cutability. Yield grade is determined largely by REA and BF. Delayed castrates showed significantly lower yield grades reflecting increased red meat yield.

The demographics of the consumer taste panel results were variable, which resulted in mixed results. Taste panel #1 was made of participants who were older, 30-40 years of age, and ate beef steak regularly, 1-3 times a month. Taste panel #2 panelists were younger, 20-30 years, and ate beef steak less than once a month. The 62 panelists of taste panel #1 identified the early castrates as significantly more tender, juicy, and flavorful than either of the delayed castrate treatments. Overall acceptability was rated higher for early castrates and was different from the other treatments (P<0.05) (Table 3). The 77 participants of panel #2 indicated that the early castrates were less juicy than the other treatments (P<0.05) (Table 4). No differences were detected in flavor, tenderness, or overall acceptability between panelists.