October 2005
Volume 43 Number 5

Tools of the Trade

More Tips: What If a Cooperative Extension Professional Must Work with Native American Institutional Review Boards?

Daniel A. McDonald
Research Specialist
mcdonald@ag.arizona.edu

Donna J. Peterson
Assistant Research Scientist
pdonna@ag.arizona.edu

Sherry C. Betts
Extension Specialist and Professor
sbetts@ag.arizona.edu

The University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona

Introduction

This is the second follow up to a series of four recent articles designed to help Extension Professionals navigate the university Institutional Review Board (IRB) process (Brown, Martin, & Weigel, 2004; Martin, Weigel, & Brown, 2005; Weigel, Brown, & Martin, 2004; Weigel, Martin, & Brown, 2005). The first follow up was on working with more than one IRB at a time (Betts, Peterson, & McDonald, 2005). This article focuses specifically on working with tribal IRBs, in addition to your university IRB, to conduct research or evaluations of projects on tribal lands.

Research on tribal nations is regulated by an IRB, which is responsible for reviewing and approving research involving humans in tribal areas. Some tribal nations have established their own IRBs, with regulations and procedures that may vary from one to the other. In other cases an Area Research Committee (ARC) formed through the Indian Health Services (IHS) is responsible for such reviews. This article describes some common points to consider when Extension professionals are working with tribal review boards. The authors' experiences with the Navajo Nation Human Research Review Board (NNHRRB) are used to illustrate each point.

Most of the steps in the tribal IRB approval process are similar to those encountered with any other institutional review board. However, there may be many more entities that must provide approval, more meetings to attend, and more letters of support that need to be solicited. Three primary issues in the tribal IRB process are:

• Addressing the study's relevance to the community and the tribe,
• Describing the benefits to the community and the tribe, and
• Negotiating ownership of data.

Issues and Tips

Relevance to the Community

In any evaluation of a community program it is critical to ensure authentic participation and collaboration of community members (McTaggart, 1989). A tribal IRB requires documentation that the community in which the research is being conducted understands the study fully, supports it, and gives its official approval. This may entail acquiring supporting resolutions from the local tribal governance and letters from local agencies or organizations with which you are working.

The NNHRRB, which we went through to conduct a community assessment in one small, remote community located on the large Navajo Nation, required letters from local health boards in the area as well as a letter from the CEO of the regional health board. Obtaining approval meant traveling some distance to attend multiple meetings of various tribal agencies, such as health boards, the Chapter Council, and the tribal IRB, to make formal requests. We also had to obtain approval from the Navajo Nation Historic Preservation Department.

To help garner support and assure relevance, a community assessment committee was formed that included interested community members and others who represented:

• Agencies,
• Non-profit organizations,
• A local church and school,
• Tribal government, and
• Extension.

Committee members shared in the responsibility of obtaining the required documents, often acting as liaisons to various agencies, attending agency meetings as representatives of the evaluation project, and answering questions. This level of involvement also contributed to a sense of ownership and investment in the success of the community assessment.

Benefits to the Community

Tribal IRBs are not only concerned with the risks and benefits to the individual participant, but also to the community and tribe, especially how the research will contribute to the improvement of the health status of Native people. The IHS Indian Health Manual advises that:

• The research be consistent with the goals and objectives of the Department of Health Services, the Indian Health Service, and tribal groups involved.

• The research does not significantly detract from or interfere with the provision of health services to American Indians or Native Alaskans (IHS Indian Health Manual).

The NNHRRB specifically requires an explanation of how the research will benefit the Navajo Nation. One of the initial discussions of the community assessment committee revolved around how the information from the assessment would be used. Furthermore, at the conclusion of the community assessment, when the report was written, it was important to involve committee members in the process, especially in terms of drawing conclusions, determining any implications associated with the findings, and presenting the results.

Ownership of Data

Using data for reports, articles, and conference presentations is a matter of who owns the data. What happens with the data after collection is a delicate matter that may require some negotiation and consultation with the tribal IRB and your institution's legal department.

While the IHS Indian Health Manual does not specifically address the issue of ownership of data, it does state that, "The ARC may take whatever action is necessary to assure that the research, once approved, is being conducted in accordance with the approved proposal." Furthermore, the Model Tribal Research Code (American Indian Law Center, 1999, p.17) states that, "Tribal regulations may require in some cases that researchers sign a contract agreeing to certain tribal rights and prerogatives which will protect tribal interests . . . "

We consulted with our university legal department and developed an agreement with the NNHRRB allowing the university to retain the right to use the data for non-commercial teaching and research purposes. The NNHRRB was still able to review and provide comments on any proposed dissemination. Practically speaking, it is critical for the researcher to establish at the start his or her intentions for use of the data. In the case of the community assessment, there was an informal agreement between the researchers and the community assessment committee that the report would belong to them and the decisions around dissemination were their responsibility.

Conclusion

As Extension professionals increase work with diverse audiences, we must protect human subjects within the context of their Native cultures. A key to successful navigation of a tribal IRB is to emphasize the risks and benefits to the community and the tribe, not just to the individual participant.

Here are some good resources for preparing tribal IRB protocols:

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services--Indian Health Service--The Federal health program for American Indians and Native Alaskans. This site lists the area/tribal IRB chairs.
http://www.ihs.gov/MedicalPrograms/Research/areairb.cfm

Portland area Indian Health Service IRB--has the responsibility to review, and the authority to approve or disapprove, all research activities that use IHS facilities, data, staff resources, or funding in the Portland, Oregon area.
http://www.npaihb.org/epi/irb.html

Research Ethics and Environmental Health--provides articles and case studies concerning research in diverse communities.
http://www.researchethics.org/articles.asp

References

American Indian Law Center (1999). Model tribal research code: With materials for tribal regulations for research and checklist for Indian Health Boards. Retrieved June 27, 2005, from: http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/english/pdf/mdl-code1.pdf

Betts, S. C., Peterson, D. J., & McDonald, D. A. (2005). More tips: What if a Cooperative Extension professional must work with two or more institutional review boards? Journal of Extension [On-line], 43(4) Article Number 4TOT1. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005august/tt1.shtml

Brown, R., Martin, S., & Weigel, D. (2004). What Cooperative Extension professionals need to know about institutional review boards: Recruiting participants. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004december/tt1.shtml

Martin, S., Weigel, D., & Brown, R. (2005). What Cooperative Extension professionals need to know about institutional review boards: Obtaining consent. Journal of Extension [On-line], 43(2) Article 2TOT1. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005april/tt1.shtml

McTaggert, R. (1989). 16 tenets of participatory action research. Retrieved May 10, 2005 from: http://www.caledonia.org.uk/par.htm

U. S. Department of Health and Human Service. Indian Health Service--Indian Health Manual. Retrieved June 27, 2005, from: http://www.ihs.gov/publicinfo/publications/IHSManual/index.asp

Weigel, D., Brown, R., & Martin, S. (2004). What Cooperative Extension professionals need to know about institutional review boards. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004october/tt1.shtml

Weigel, D., Martin, S., & Brown, R. (2005). What Cooperative Extension professionals need to know about institutional review boards: Risks and benefits. Journal of Extension [On-line], 43(1) Article 1TOT1. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005february/tt1.shtml

Volunteering: An Untapped Impact

L. J. Osborne
Extension Specialist/Assistant Professor
South Dakota State University, Cooperative Extension Service
Brookings, South Dakota
osborne.lj@ces.sdstate.edu

Introduction

Conventional wisdom has held that volunteering is good for the volunteer. There has been a tremendous amount of published information on the benefits of volunteering. This has ranged from the dollar value for each hour of volunteering to reducing psychological stresses to improving self-esteem to improving physical health. Most of these "published" materials have relied on opinion surveys in reporting the benefits to the volunteer. The most significant of these studies was recently published in the Journal of Urban Health. In this research study, the lead researcher, Linda Fried, utilized control groups to measure the impact of volunteering on the volunteer.

Methodology

Fried et al. (2004) used a 2-year control study of 128 participants between the ages of 60 and 86. The participants volunteered at six local public schools in Baltimore, assisting classroom teachers via direct student contact for a minimum of 15 hours per week. The researchers measured the three key risk factors of aging: physical, social, and cognitive activity. They measured these key risk factors by the number of falls, strength, balance, blood pressure, insulin resistance and changes in brain structure and function (Glass et al., 2004).

Results

The Fried study found a significant improvement in the physical activity, social interaction, and cognitive stimulation of the participants. A summary of the findings appears in Table 1.

In summary, volunteers had a larger support network, reported feeling stronger, increased physical activities, used more calories, watched less television, read more, had fewer falls, and used a cane less than the non-volunteer group. Fried et al. (2004) stated that volunteers increased their physical, social, and cognitive activity levels and "(e)ach is an independent predictor of important health outcomes in late life, including disability, dependency and dementia" (p. 73).

Application to Extension

I will be the first to admit that it is dangerous to make the leap from this excellent, researched-based but narrowly focused study to other audiences. However, there are several common threads that can be applied to the Extension program community when taken in context with other studies. In an earlier study, Luks and Payne (2001) identified some factors critical in improving the health of the volunteer.

The first critical factor is the need for the volunteer to work with strangers. Helping family members and friends had little impact on the health of the volunteer. Extension offers volunteers the chance to interact with a wide range of individuals.

The next critical factor identified was the need for personal contact. Extension will utilize volunteers in mundane office-related projects or tasks; however, most of our volunteers have direct contact with individuals, ranging from youth to seniors. The greatest benefit to the Extension volunteer is from close, personal contact with others.

Finding the right fit is the third critical factor. The volunteer position needs to match the personality and interests of the volunteer. Extension can offer the volunteer a variety of opportunities ranging from working with youth in a classroom type setting to training adults on daily living tasks.

Additional research may be needed to record the actual health benefit for the Extension volunteer. However, research suggests that increasing physical activity through lifestyle changes is an effective health promotion strategy for older adults (Anderson, Blair, Cheskin, & Bartlett, 1997; Anderson et al., 1999). Using these guidelines, Extension could easily promote a secondary impact of our educational programming: The benefit to the Extension volunteer.

Richard Suzman, National Institute for Aging, stated that these kinds of "programs can reduce disability and raise cognitive awareness" (Olson, 2004). This leads to lower healthcare costs for seniors. Given our lawmakers' current interest in the aging of America's population, this becomes another avenue of reporting our value to society.

• Are Extension volunteers getting these benefits?
• Does this also aid us in reporting this secondary impact to our funding bodies?
• Does Extension already have in place an effective healthcare program for individuals in the last third of their life so those living longer are healthier?

Extension impacts are everywhere. We need to utilize current research and creative thinking when selling the total Extension story to our funding bodies.

References

Andersen, R. E., Blair, S. N., Cheskin, L. J., & Bartlett, S. J. (1997). Encouraging patients to become more physically active: The physician's roll. Annals of Internal Medicine, 127,395-400.

Andersen, R. E., Wadden, T. A., Bartlett, S. J., Zemel, B., Verde, T. J., & Franckowiak, S. C. (1999). Effects of lifestyle activity versus structured aerobic exercise in obese women: A randomized trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 281,335-340.

Fried, L., Carlson, M., Freedman, M., Frick, K., Glass, T., Hill, J., et al. (2004). A social model for health promotion for an aging population: Initial evidence on the experience corps model. Journal of Urban Health, 81(1), 64-78.

Glass, T., Freedman, M., Carlson, M., Hill, J., Frick, K., Ialongo, N., et al. (2004). Experience corps: Design of an intergenerational program to boost social capital and promote the health of an aging society. Journal of Urban Health, 81(1), 94-105.

Luks, A. & Payne, P. (2001). The healing power of doing good: The health and spiritual benefits of helping others. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse.

Olson, E. (2004, April 13). Testing the idea that helping out is healthy. The New York Times.

ABC's of Behavioral Objectives--Putting Them to Work for Evaluation

Harry N. Boone, Jr.
Assistant Professor of Agricultural and Environmental Education
hnboone@wvu.edu

Deborah A. Boone
Assistant Professor of Agricultural and Environmental Education
Debby.Boone@mail.wvu.edu

West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia

In today's world of shrinking budgets, evaluation and accountability are necessary to justify the existence of Extension programs and faculty. The key to solving the accountability issue is to develop clear, concise behavioral objectives as a part of each educational activity. Behavioral objectives are a vital part of the planning process of all educational activities. Clearly defined objectives provide a sound basis for the selection or design of instructional materials, content, and/or teaching methods.

In addition, stating objectives sharply helps determine if the objective has, in fact, been accomplished and an impact has occurred. Having clear behavioral objectives that state specifically what you want the leaner to be able to do after attending your program is vital to the program as well as the evaluation of its impact. Extension educators struggle to develop evaluation instruments for their programs. Clearly stated objectives are vital to evaluating the outcome(s) of instruction.

Clearly stated objectives have four characteristics. First, the instructional objective must state the audience for the educational activity. Second, the observable behavior(s) expected of the audience must be identified. Third, the conditions under which the behavior is to be accomplished must be included. Finally, the degree to which the behavior is to be completed must be specified. Together these four components make up a measurable behavioral objective that will provide the cornerstone to your planning, delivery, and evaluation efforts.

A--Audience

Who is the audience for your educational activity? While it may appear the audience is obvious for most instructional activities, a common error may distort or prevent the evaluation of your program. First, one must consider the difference between the target and accessible population/audience. Your target may be all youth between 14 and 16 years of age in Typical County; however, your accessible population may be all 14-16 year old 4-H members who attended the County 4-H Camp. If you write your objective in broad terms and follow proper evaluation procedures, you will be held accountable for the behaviors of youth you never served. Your behavioral objective should identify the specific audience you plan to target.

A second mistake made by many inexperienced educators is to include teacher/trainer activities as a part of the behavioral objective. Consider the following example: "The trainer will demonstrate the proper steps of delivering a prepared speech." In this example, the activities are focused on what the trainer plans to do and not what the target audience will be able to master. Although it has the appearance of being one, the statement is not a behavioral objective because the audience and its performance are not identified. This statement could be made into a behavioral objective by rewording the statement to the following: "Upon completion of the lesson, 100% of the participants will be able to list the steps in delivering a prepared speech." The audience is the workshop participants.

B--Behavior

Each objective must identify the behavior or the performance the learner is expected to do. A behavioral objective should never include the instructional process or procedure as the behavior. It should always describe the intended results rather than the means of achieving those results.

The performance must be overt or directly observable. Performances that cannot be directly observed or performances that are mental, invisible, cognitive, or internal are considered covert and should never be used as a behavior unless they are included with another indicator (directly observable) behavior. See Figure 1 for specific examples on ways to correctly write behaviors.

Behaviors can be written for one of three "domains of learning." The cognitive domain deals with the acquisition of facts, knowledge, information, or concepts. Psychomotor behaviors use the mind in combination with motor skills (physical activities). Affective behaviors have to do with changes in attitudes, values, aesthetics, and appreciation.

Behavioral objectives written in the "cognitive" domain can be further divided into six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956) includes:

• Knowledge: remembering of previously learned material; recall (facts or whole theories); bringing to mind.

• Comprehension: grasping the meaning of material; interpreting (explaining or summarizing); predicting outcome and effects (estimating future trends).

• Application: ability to use learned material in a new situation; apply rules, laws, methods, theories

• Analysis: breaking down into parts; understanding organization, clarifying, concluding

• Synthesis: ability to put parts together to form a new whole; unique communication; set of abstract relations

• Evaluation: ability to judge value for purpose; base on criteria; support judgment with reason. (No guessing).

C--Condition

Each behavioral objective must describe the conditions (if any) under which the performance is to occur. Conditions may include what the learner will be allowed to use, what the learner will be denied, under what conditions the learner is expected to perform the behavior, or specific skills that should be excluded (Figure 2).

D--Degree

Finally, each objective must describe the degree to which the behavior must be performed to constitute an acceptable performance. It is not always necessary or practical to include the degree in an objective; however, the more information included in an objective the better it will communicate the desired outcome. The degree can include criterion such as speed, accuracy, and quality.

References

Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives book 1: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company, Inc.

Mager, R. F. (1984). Preparing instructional objectives. Belmont, California: David S. Lake Publishers.

Program Assessment and Improvement Through Youth-Adult Partnership: The YALPE Resource Kit

Cailin O'Connor
Outreach Specialist
University of Wisconsin–Madison, School of Human Ecology
cailin.oconnor@gmail.com

Shepherd Zeldin
Associate Professor/Youth and Community Development Specialist
University of Wisconsin–Extension
rszeldin@wisc.edu

Madison, Wisconsin

Youth development scholarship and outreach highlight the importance of youth engagement in experiential and service learning (Hairston, 2004) and in contributing to program improvement (Mincemoyer & Perkins, 2001). When youth and adults work together, as partners, to engage in evaluation and action planning, both youth and the program show positive outcomes (Kirshner, O'Donoghue, & McLaughlin, 2005; Sabo, 2003; Zeldin, O'Connor, & Camino, 2005).

There are design and implementation challenges, however, to having youth, staff, and adult volunteers work collaboratively to strengthen their programs. The Youth and Adult Leaders for Program Excellence: A Practical Guide to Program Assessment and Action Planning (YALPE) resource kit (Camino, Zeldin, Mook, & O'Connor, 2004) was designed to help 4-H professionals meet these challenges. Most concisely, YALPE is a set of assessment instruments and processes that can be used to:

• Support action planning and program improvement through the analysis of, reflection on, and discussion of objective program assessment data,

• Communicate our unique niche and positive outcomes to county boards and other community stakeholders, and/or

• Orient new adult leaders to promising practices of youth development, youth-adult partnership, and youth engagement.

The YALPE resource kit was developed over 4 years of pilot tests with Extension professionals and their community partners. For example, the resource kit has been used to strengthen the governance and programming of community clubs. It has been used to help community coalitions develop a common language and training approach.

The YALPE Resource Kit

The YALPE resource kit is designed to be user friendly for both youth and adults working in partnership. To facilitate use, the resource kit includes:

• A detailed guide to the process;
• Four assessment tools to choose from;
• Excel-based data entry templates;
• A Word-based template for reporting on results;
• A User's Guide to allow professionals to adapt the process to their specific needs; and
• Four research briefs that detail the empirical basis for the YALPE tools and the processes.

Guide to the Program Assessment and Action-Planning Process

The YALPE resource kit provides an easy-to-use structure for organizations to conduct a rigorous assessment of their youth programs and use the results for program planning and improvement. An Assessment Leadership Team of youth and adults engages in five phases of a continuous inquiry and learning process, illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1.
Phases of the YALPE Process

Each phase comprises two or three concrete steps--some to be carried out in assessment team meetings and some in meetings with all program participants. The entire process is estimated to take about 24 hours to complete over the course of 1 to 4 months, depending on the needs and structure of the program. However, the process is flexible, allowing for programs and organizations to implement what they need.

The guides for action planning based on assessment results, included in Phase 5 of the process, make the link between the assessment process and program improvement, and feed into a continuous inquiry cycle.

Assessment Tools

There are four assessment tools in the YALPE resource kit. The tools are designed to be completed by youth (ages 12 to 18) and by adults. Programs can choose to use one or more of these tools depending on their specific assessment needs. Also, programs can add questions to the assessment instruments if they wish. The YALPE tools are grounded in the research on youth development and organizational change, as identified in the research briefs.

YET, the "Youth Engagement Tool," assesses the degree to which youth have legitimate chances to be heard, respected, and taken seriously. It also examines the outcomes that youth derive from their participation.

ORG-YET, the "Organizational Support for Youth Engagement Tool," assesses the extent to which youth are involved in decision-making forums and the degree to which the organization creates structures to support youth engagement over the long term. It also examines the outcomes that the program derives from youth engagement.

PAAT, the "Program and Activity Assessment Tool," assesses the developmental experiences--opportunities and supports--that are provided to youth in the program.

kidPAAT, the "Program and Activity Assessment Tool for Younger Participants," assesses similar opportunities and supports as PAAT, but in a more simplified format for younger children (ages 8 to 12).

Data Entry, Analysis, and Interpretation

A distinctive feature of YALPE is that it provides templates for data entry and analysis. Using the templates ensures professional-quality analysis and also helps assessment team members to develop computer skills by using common applications in a real-world setting. These templates are included on a CD in the resource kit.

For each of the four assessment tools, a spreadsheet template is provided for data entry. Excel automatically calculates averages and graphs the results. Instructions are also included for how to use the templates without a computer.

Report Writing, Group Facilitation, and Action Planning

A word processing report template is also included on the CD in the YALPE resource kit. This template guides the assessment team through the process of writing a final report on their assessment. The template is designed to produce reports that are data based, yet user friendly.

Once the report is completed, additional guidance is provided to help the assessment team communicate findings to their stakeholders, be it other youth and volunteers in their program or other county and community stakeholders. Special attention is given to supporting the assessment team to facilitate action planning meetings and reach consensus on priority recommendations.

Closing

Extension professionals work in an environment where assessment data are necessary for action planning, communicating to external stakeholders, and training volunteers and community partners. Our hope is that professionals will find YALPE valuable in addressing these needs. More information on the YALPE resource kit, including the User's Guide and four research briefs, is available on-line at <http://www.actforyouth.net/>.

References

Camino, L., Zeldin, S., Mook, C., & O'Connor, C. (2004). Youth and adult leaders for program excellence: A practical guide for program assessment and action planning. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin–Extension.

Hairston, J. E. (2004). Identifying what 4-H'ers learn from community service learning projects. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(1), Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004february/rb2004.shtm

Kirshner, B., O'Donoghue, J., & McLaughlin, M. (2005). Youth-adult research collaborations: Bringing youth voice to the research process. In J. L. Mahoney & R. W. Larson (Eds.), Organized activities as contexts of development: Extracurricular activities, after-school and community programs. (pp. 131-156): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Mincemoyer, C., & Perkins, D. (2001). Building your youth development toolkit: A community youth development orientation for Pennsylvania 4-H/Youth Programs. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(4), Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001august/a2007.html

Sabo, K. (Ed.). (2003). Youth participatory evaluation: A field in the making. New Directions for Evaluation (Vol. 98). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Zeldin, S., O'Connor, C., & Camino, L. (2005). Youth participation in research and evaluation. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Exotic Pest Invasion--Plan of Action for Extension Educators

Alan Sundermeier
Wood County ANR Educator
Ohio State University Extension
Bowling Green, Ohio
sundermeier.5@osu.edu

Background

Exotic pest invasion has increased due to worldwide trade and travel, climate change, and degradation of habitat. The threat of economic loss by an exotic pest can occur anywhere. These foreign bodies can take form as a disease, insect, plant, or microscopic organism. Pests can hitch a ride on shipping materials, be carried on wind currents, or transmitted from animal to animal. While these organisms may not be considered pests in their native environments, they often become pests when relocated to a part of the world with no natural controls.

What role does a county Extension educator have when his or her community is invaded by an exotic pest? The following plan of action will serve as a guide for other Extension educators, no matter what pest invasion they may be battling.

Plan of Action

Define the Threat

Determine what the threat is. What impact will this pest have on the community, and who will be affected? How would you rate the potential severity of damage that may be inflicted? Is there a possibility of economic loss? What change will this pest cause? Are there any benefits?

Identify the Pest

Do not cause a false alarm. Misdiagnosis may result in incorrect control measures, unnecessary quarantines, and consumer rejection of products. Does your state have Extension specialists qualified to identify the pest? Develop a protocol to insure proper identification. Establish prescreening procedures so that regulatory officials can handle legitimate infestations. Seek professionals to assist in possible sightings. Report possible sightings to the media only after a positive identification by proper authorities has been made.

Enact Emergency Extension Programming

Reprioritize Extension programming. Because of the rapid speed at which preventative action may be needed, the county educator may need to devote a large amount of unplanned time. Seek assistance from surrounding counties, region, or state Extension personnel. Be able to quickly react to local needs. Hire temporary help if needed. Communicate with county commissioners and seek emergency funds. Inform supervisors and Extension advisory committees, and explain why other programs may be cancelled.

Gather Data

Gather an inventory of available educational resources. Fact sheets, Web sites, scientific guidelines, and peer-reviewed journal articles may be needed to develop a response plan. It is important to access the most current and accurate information from highly credible sources.

Disseminate Information

Become a local expert. Be considered the person to turn to when the public needs to know. Give accurate information, and make sure you are reporting information that is consistent among all agencies involved. Use Extension newsletters, local newspaper articles, local TV, radio, posters, and exhibits to inform the public.

Facilitate Community Meetings

Be a visible resource for the community. A local Extension educator may be the only recognizable face in a community meeting with government regulators or experts. An Extension facilitator may help calm the public knowing a local person is involved.

Communicate with Officials

Keep authorities informed. Set up an email list for, or mail information to township trustees, county commissioners, state and federal legislative representatives, law enforcement, municipal governments, and/or emergency management agencies. Help them understand their role and authority. Collaborate with regulatory authorities to implement control measures.

Understand the Law

Secure a copy of local, state, or federal legal codes that authorize pest control action. Who has authority to control the pest? What is the lead agency? What are the rights of the consumer concerning monetary compensation or trespass authority?

Initiate Local Research

Conduct local research. Is there a lack of information on this invasive pest concerning your local conditions? Can you gather data or conduct scouting to assist in pest control decision making? In the aftermath of pest invasion, a plan of recovery may include the use of new crops, animals, or alternative pesticides.

Plan of Action in Progress in Northwest Ohio

The Emerald Ash Borer, Agrilus planipennis, is an exotic pest that likely traveled on ship cargo and arrived in Detroit, Michigan from China. The Emerald Ash Borer was not identified as an invasive pest until 2002. Communication with other Extension educators and federal agencies alerted Wood County Extension staff of the potential threat. It has already killed about 16 million ash trees in southeast Michigan and continues to spread south to Ohio.

Wood County, Ohio (county seat, Bowling Green) is located about 50 miles southeast of the infestation center. The first positive identification of emerald ash borer in Wood County occurred in 2003. Wood County Extension staff quickly changed its programming priority. Specific emerald ash borer Extension activities included: survey of trap trees to locate infestation, consumer call site visits, local fact sheet, local Web site, participation in community information meetings, woodlot management workshops, assistance to newly located federal and state agency personnel, county fair exhibit, and press releases. Future programming will also include quarantine regulation education, timber utilization, and replacement tree recommendations and care. Emerald Ash Borer education will be a significant program need in Wood County for many years to come.

Future Threat of Invasive Pests

No county in America is immune to invasion by destructive non-native pests or species. Communities are threatened by loss of habitat, native species destruction, or ecological changes brought on by invasive pests. Long-term strategies for effective prevention or containment of destructive exotic species are needed. Become aware of potential threats to your community. By following this plan of action, Extension educators can be an important part of the battle against invasive pests.

Meeting the Educational Needs of Professional Crop Advisers Using Extended Workshops

J. Larry Oldham
Extension Professor - Soils
Mississippi State University Extension Service
Mississippi State, Mississippi
loldham@pss.msstate.edu

Introduction

The Certified Crop Adviser (CCA) program is a voluntary program initiated in the early 1990's by and developed for agronomic practitioners to recognize professional training, experience, and knowledge through certification. It is administered through the American Society of Agronomy and 37 local state/regional/provincial boards throughout the United States and Canada. In early 2005, there were 14,356 registrants in the program.

The certification process has four components:

1. Applicant Demonstrates professional proficiency through subject matter testing at the international and regional/local levels. All applicants sit for an "International Examination" and for a local, regional, or provincial prepared board examination. The examinations cover four subject areas: Pest Management, Crop Management, Soil and Water Management, and Nutrient Management.

2. After notice of successful completion of the examinations, applicant submits academic credentials, work experience, and references for review by state/regional/provincial board Standards and Ethics subcommittees.

3. With a favorable review, the registrant signs and thereafter adheres to a Code of Ethics regarding professional judgment and conduct.

4. Registrant improves knowledge, skills, and abilities above standard through completion of 20 hours minimum continuing education per year, or 40 hours in 2-year program cycles. Five hours minimum are required in each of the four subject areas involved in the examinations.

The 40-hour minimum entails one "work week" over 2 years to improving professional capabilities. Professional improvement can include training in non-agronomic subjects beneficial to professionalism, such as time management, errors and omissions insurance, and budget management (American Society of Agronomy, 2005).

Role of Extension in CCA Program

The CCA program suggests that state and regional boards include state university Extension representatives. University Extension programs have developed different interaction strategies with the localized CCA programs beyond service on regional or state boards. Some university Extension programs have provided support above board service, including allowing personnel to serve as local agents. Other states have more distant relationships with the program; however, university Extension programs are recognized as an important provider of research-based instruction by agronomy professionals (Schmitt, Durgan, & Iverson, 2000).

Continuing Education Statistics

For the minimal 20 credit units per calendar year, the current 14,356 registrants would require 287,120 Continuing Education Units in 2004. According to International Certified Crop Adviser records, 8,285 courses offered almost 24,000 units in 2004. This was comprised of 3,869 units in Nutrient Management, 3,460 units in Soil and Water Management, 8,682 units in Pest Management, and 5,477 units in Crop Management. Additionally, 2,305 units were offered in the non-required Professional Improvement category (M. Lovejoy, personal communication). The actual number of CEU's earned by CCA's is not available. The minimum credit per course is 0.5 units; maximum credit offered depends on the parameters of the individual courses. Total CEU's earned depends on number of registrants enrolled and successfully completing the course.

Meeting the Continuing Education Demand

The Continuing Education requirement has engendered numerous strategies for serving the education demand. Mechanisms include commercial workshops (training for fee); in-house sessions for employees of a single company; Extension programs such as state-wide workshops, field days, area, and local meetings; and delivery mechanisms such as specialized CD-ROM's and on-line and distance courses.

Mississippi State University has presented an educational workshop designed to provide the annual entire requirement of Continuing Education in the four subject matter areas. These workshops, using faculty from several disciplines and organizations as instructors, have been held on the campus of Mississippi State University since 1998.

The Mississippi State University Extension Service coordinates this workshop and garners sponsorship and support from the Mississippi Agricultural Industry Council (the crop production and protection trade association), the state Department of Agriculture and Commerce, and the local Certified Crop Adviser Board. However, attendees are not required to be Certified Crop Advisers. Other agronomy-related organizations also meet in conjunction with the workshop, pesticide applicator certification credits are provided, and in-service training credit is provided for Extension personnel.

This program attracts a multi-faceted, diverse audience for which planners have utilized speakers and topics beyond traditional agronomic instruction. Speakers have included the state commissioner of agriculture, as well as representatives of state and federal technical and regulatory agencies, non-governmental environmental groups, and agricultural stakeholder organizations.

The Mississippi Crop College (February, 2005 workshop) utilized 31 speakers from four different state Extension Services, industry organizations, and the USDA Agriculture Research Service. There were 176 individuals attending all or part of the 3-day event, with a daily average of 134. Most instructors were Mississippi State University Extension Service and Experiment Station personnel.

Evaluations, reviews, and anecdotal feedback from the 6-year experience of the Mississippi workshops show that clients appreciate:

1. Obtaining the required training in one cost-effective setting.
2. Coordination among the different sponsoring groups.
3. Providing up-to-the-minute information from on-going research.
4. Effort by the planners to provide the best faculty for 'hot' topics.
5. Diversity of viewpoints offered through the special speakers.
6. Dependability of a regularly scheduled workshop at a stable location.

These workshops are not unique to Mississippi; at least eighteen local/regional/provincial CCA boards are involved in similar events. Extension Service involvement in these efforts varies just as it does with the local management of the CCA program. In Mississippi, these workshops will continue as a component of the Agronomic Crops programming area.

Conclusions

The Certified Crop Adviser professional certification program has over 14,000 registrants in the United States and Canada that require continuing education to maintain and expand core competency levels. In Mississippi, an annual workshop coordinated by Extension, with several core partners, has been successful in providing cost-effective, up-to-the-minute agronomic instruction. This model can be utilized to better serve other stakeholder groups.

References

American Society of Agronomy. (2005). Certified Crop Adviser Program Web site. http://www.agronomy.org/cca/index.html.

Schmitt, M. A., Durgan, B. R., & Iverson, S. M. (2000). Impact assessment and participant profiles of Extension's educational programs for agricultural chemical/seed retailers and crop advisers. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 38(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000december/a2.html

Presenting to Win--A Book Review

Ben C. West
Assistant Extension Professor
The Berryman Institute
Mississippi State, Mississippi
benw@cfr.msstate.edu

After reading Jerry Weissman's Presenting to Win: The Art of Telling Your Story, I faced the stark reality that most of my prior presentations probably left the audience feeling lost, confused, insulted, bored, or disinterested. Weissman's background is impressive: graduate of the Speech and Drama Department at Stanford University, long-time public affairs producer for CBS Television, and, now, corporate presentations coach for executives at companies like Yahoo!, Compaq, Intel, Cisco Systems, and Microsoft. Weissman used that diverse background and experience to write Presenting to Win, a book that provides unique and invaluable advice on the creation and delivery of effective presentations.

The Problem

Weissman begins his discussion of how to do things right by pointing out how most presenters do things wrong. The vast majority of presentations, he claims, fall prey to the five cardinal sins of presentations:

1. No clear point
2. No clear flow
3. No audience benefit
4. Too detailed
5. Too long

One danger of reading this book becomes apparent at professional meetings and conferences. I now find myself mentally checking off Weissman's list of cardinal sins as I sit and listed to presentation after presentation. Unfortunately, I must confirm the book's opening thesis: most presentations are done poorly.

The Solution

Presenting to Win contains 12 chapters that systematically introduce Weissman's philosophy about presentations and offer solutions to the 5 cardinal sins. The chapters cover all the important topics relating to presentation development, such as understanding and connecting with your audience, brainstorming ideas, organizing material, using visual aids, developing charts and figures, and customization. Weissman gives readers tools in each of these categories that they can immediately use to improve their presentations. Some interesting examples include:

1. Mind mapping: explains an effective approach to create and discover material for new presentations

2. Flow structures to organize your presentation: provides a number of ways that speakers can organize material within a presentation so that the audience can easily and quickly follow, understand, and assimilate the material

3. Internal linkages: discusses techniques to tie together sections within presentations

4. Opening gambits: illustrates ways to immediately grab the attention of any audience

5. Bringing your story to life: describes the importance of verbalization and phraseology in developing and practicing presentations

A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words

Although the information presented in the initial chapters and described above is useful and necessary, it is not dissimilar from that found in a variety of other books on presenting and public speaking. What makes Weissman's book unique and particularly valuable, though, is his inclusion of advice on the use of Microsoft PowerPoint as a visual aid to presentations. Weissman estimates that 30 million presentations using PowerPoint are made every day, but further claims that few are truly effective.

Why are most PowerPoint presentations ineffective? Weissman cites the "Presentation-as-Document Syndrome" as the most common underlying problem that plagues presentations. In short, people are taught and spend countless hours learning how to produce documents: reports, papers, manuscripts, briefings, proposals, dissertations, and the like. In contrast, people seldom are taught or learn the skills necessary to produce truly effective visual aids, which are vastly different than those necessary for creation of an effective document. Thus, speakers often create PowerPoint presentations using the same skills and with the same approach as for documents. As a result, many slides are ineffective and detract from, rather than enhance, the overall presentation.

To help speakers combat the Presentation-as-Document Syndrome, Weissman discusses several aspects of perception psychology and illustrates ways to use that knowledge in the creation of effective PowerPoint slides. In the process, Weissman discusses the form and function of bullet statements, the use of visual style and consistency, creation of charts and figures, and the use of animations within PowerPoint. This is not a treatise on how to use PowerPoint from a technical perspective, but rather on how to effectively design and incorporate PowerPoint slides as a visual aid to presentations.

The Payoff

I discovered Presenting to Win while conducting a review of potential texts for an undergraduate seminar class and found no other book that offered similar information. Although other books discussed the importance of good PowerPoint presentations, none illustrated exactly how to do it and explained why. In this regard, Weissman's book should be required reading for anyone who routinely delivers presentations.

The most apparent shortcoming of Presenting to Win is that it is written exclusively from a business perspective, with all the stories, anecdotes, and illustrations coming from Weissman's background as a corporate presentations coach. As a result, my impression is that the book is relatively unknown outside of the business world. A revised version of the book, in which examples are provided from a number of fields, would likely stimulate the interest of a much broader readership. Regardless, perceptive readers will find an abundance of concepts and tools they can immediately use to improve their presentations. In particular, Presenting to Win offers much to Extension educators interested in enhancing the value and impact of their educational programs.

References

Weissman, J. (2003). Presenting to win: The art of telling your story. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times Prentice Hall.

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