August 2005
Volume 43 Number 4

Contents

Editor's Page

Editor's Page

"Some JOE Style Points" talks about how to use "et al." and capitalization in JOE articles. "August JOE" highlights the two Commentaries in the August issue, a Tools of the Trade article, and the range of other topics covered.

Commentary

Extension's Response to an Un-Natural Disaster: Enlisting Your Support for Military Youth and Families [Article No. 4COM1]

Ferrari, Theresa M.

The situation created in families and communities by deployment of active duty, National Guard, and Reserve military service members demands immediate attention. The author shares her experiences as a 4-H Military Liaison and encourages readers to become involved with Operation: Military Kids efforts in their states.
View reader comments for this Commentary in the JOE Discussion Forum. (This forum is no longer accepting new entries.)

A Diversified Portfolio of Scholarship: The Making of a Successful Extension Educator [Article No. 4COM2]

Adams, Roger G., Jr.; Harrell Reginal M.; Maddy, Deborah J.; Weigel, Dan

In today's academic environment, universities expect that Extension educators will engage in scholarship. Academic leaders have attempted to define the scholarship of Extension for two decades, but confusion prevails about the specific accomplishments required to meet the expectations. The time has arrived for the Extension system to set the standard of excellence in scholarship as well as performance. This commentary proposes that a diversified portfolio of scholarship can assist in establishing and sustaining the standard for scholarship and advocates creating a culture for scholarship continuity and consistency across the system.
View reader comments for this Commentary in the JOE Discussion Forum. (This forum is no longer accepting new entries.)

Feature Articles

Organizational Evolution: Applying Genetic Principles to the Management of Extension Systems [Article No. 4FEA1]

Winder, John A.

Insight into organizational management can be gained by looking at natural systems. Ideas in Extension organizations are analogous to the genetic makeup of populations of organisms. Genetic makeup determines the chemistry, size and behavior of these populations. Similarly, ideas in organizations determine the future size, activities and effectiveness. This article first examines the principles of population genetics and how these principles drive genetic change. This concept is then extended to Extension to demonstrate how ideas appear to follow similar laws. Finally, this concept is used to derive suggestions for improving effectiveness of organizations.

Demographic Differences of 4-H Volunteers, Agents, and State Volunteerism Specialists: Implications for Volunteer Administration [Article No. 4FEA2]

Culp, Ken, III; McKee, Renee K.; Nestor, Patrick

A national study explored the demographic similarities and differences among volunteers, agents, and state specialists in the 4-H Youth Development program. All three groups are primarily married females, in their 40's, who work full-time. Agents were both significantly younger and had volunteered fewer years than either volunteers or state specialists. Volunteers worked with fewer adult and teen volunteers than did agents or specialists. Both 4-H participation and level of education were linear, with state specialists having the highest 4-H membership rate and educational level. Volunteers were more actively involved in volunteering for other organizations besides 4-H than either agents or specialists.

Wonderwise 4-H: Following in the Footsteps of Women Scientists [Article No. 4FEA3]

Spiegel, Amy N.; Rockwell, S. Kay; Acklie, Deanna; Frerichs, Saundra Wever; French, Kathleen; Diamond, Judy

Wonderwise 4-H: Women in Science Learning Kits, recently included in the National 4-H Curriculum Collection and widely tested by 4-H leaders, have positively affected youths' perspectives on science, scientists, and scientific work. Adult leaders who used the multi-media, inquiry-based Wonderwise 4-H kits completed a Web survey describing the impact of the kits on youth. It indicated that the kits increased youth's interest and understanding of science, broadened their view of scientists, and opened their eyes to the possibility of science in their own futures. More information about Wonderwise 4-H and downloadable activities are available at <wonderwise.unl.edu>.

Idaho 4-H Impact Study [Article No. 4FEA4]

Goodwin Jeff; Barnett, Cyndi; Pike, Michele; Peutz, Joey; Lanting, Rhea; Ward, April

A study measured the impact that the 4-H experience has on the quality of life of young people. Data were collected from 5th, 7th, and 9th grade students in Idaho. Students were selected from four randomly selected schools in each of the 16 randomly selected counties across the state. There were 3,601 surveys returned from 53 schools. Youngsters who have participated in 4-H for 2 years or more are less likely to engage in "at-risk" behaviors such as drinking alcohol, shoplifting, drug use, damaging property, or smoking cigarettes than their non- 4‑H classmates.

Underserved Forest Landowner Workshops: Opportunities for Landowners and Extension [Article No. 4FEA5]

Hughes, Glenn; Measells, Marcus K.; Grado, Stephen C.; Dunn, Michael A.; Idassi, Joshua O.; Zielinske, Robert J.

Sixteen workshops were conducted in 2003 for underserved forest landowners in the south-central U.S. An underserved landowner was defined as one who has not recently utilized various federal, state, or local resources. Workshop topics included: 1) Landowners Perspective, 2) Ownership Issues, 3) Marketing and Environmental Issues, and 4) Economics of Forestry. Workshop attendance averaged 81 participants and was directly related to the number of letters mailed to landowners. Participants owned 107,153 acres of forestland and estimated the value of information received at $6.8 million. This workshop format can serve as a regional and national model for reaching underserved forest landowners.

Public Law 106-393 (Title III) Forestry Extension Programming in Mississippi [Article No. 4FEA6]

Londo, Andrew J.; Bales, Don; Grace, Laura; Traugott, Timothy; Dicke, Stephen; Hughes, Glenn; Kushla, John; Carter, Robert C.

The passage of Public Law 106-393 (PL 106-393), the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self Determination Act in 2000 provided the Forestry Extension program at MSU with an unprecedented opportunity to secure long term funding for programs in select counties across the state. During fiscal years 2002 and 2003, over 1.1 million dollars have been received. This paper will discuss PL 106-393 and its' impact on the Forestry Extension program at MSU. The applicability of the MSU approach to obtaining to other states around the country will also be discussed.

Barriers to Change: Farmers' Willingness to Adopt Sustainable Manure Management Practices [Article No. 4FEA7]

Battel, Robert D.; Krueger, David E.

Manure management is important in Michigan. There is need for better understanding of why farmers do not sustainably utilize manure nutrients. Some livestock farms could benefit if neighboring farmers used their manure. A study explored the potential for manure transfer from livestock farms to fields of neighboring farms. A mailed survey was used to collect data. Surveys were analyzed to determine frequencies of responses among respondents. Comparisons were also made between livestock and nonlivestock farmers. Results suggest neighbor complaints and odor represent significant barriers to manure exchange. Concerns about spreading weed seeds and economic issues are also significant barriers.

Research in Brief

Preparing Extension Educators for a Global Community [Article No. 4RIB1]

Selby, Kelli A.; Peters, Jerry L.; Sammons, David J.; Branson, Floyd F.; Balschweid, Mark A.

What amounts of international involvement, including travel, language, and programming experience do Purdue Extension educators in Indiana possess? What types of training do Extension educators feel they need in order to develop international related programming and to work effectively with diverse clientele? How do Extension educators want to learn about international aspects of Extension? What will Extension educators identify as the most significant barrier for integrating an international perspective into future Extension efforts? The study described here reports the findings from 171 Purdue Extension educators in Indiana regarding their staff development needs and international Extension.

Assessing the Educational Needs and Interests of the Hispanic Population: The Role of Extension [Article No. 4RIB2]

Farner, Susan; Rhoads, M. Elena; Cutz, German; Farner, Barbara

Hispanics are the fastest growing minority group in the United States and face unique problems concerning language and citizenship. However, institutions do not yet know how best to deliver services to this group or understand what services are needed. Although many programs designed for Hispanics exist, especially in urban areas, there is little documentation that they have been evaluated and are successful in serving the population they target. The focus group study described here was conducted to better understand what kind of information Hispanics in an urban setting are seeking and how best to disseminate information to them.

Consumer Knowledge and Perceptions About Organic Food [Article No. 4RIB3]

Raab, Carolyn; Grobe, Deana

Oregon food shoppers' knowledge and perceptions about organic food were assessed in a statewide phone survey conducted 3 months after adoption of USDA's National Organic Program standards. Of the 637 interviewees, 77% reported household purchase of organic food in the past 6 months. Those with household members in environmental organizations were significantly more likely to purchase organic food frequently. About two-thirds gave positive word associations with "organic." Forty percent were aware that the USDA standards had gone into effect. Trust in the accuracy of the USDA organic label varied. Environmentally minded consumers are a potential organic market if trust is maintained.

Using a Nutrition Web Site as a Resource for County Educators: Evaluating Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service's Experience [Article No. 4RIB4]

Hermann, Janice; Carson, Amber; Muske, Glenn; Keim, Kathryn

The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Nutrition Web Site was evaluated by Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service County Extension Educators in terms of Web site characteristics, information sections, information formats, and uses of the information immediately after and 6 months after an in-service training on the Web site. Immediately after training, educators appeared to be most interested in quickly using Web site information in educational programs. Six months after training, educators appeared to begin to use the Web site as a source of current information that could be used to address immediate consumer questions and be used for news releases.

Manure Use Planning: An Evaluation of a Producer Training Program [Article No. 4RIB5]

Wortmann, Charles S.; Koelsch, Richard K.; Shapiro, Charles A.; Deloughery, Richard L.; Tarkalson, David

A training program for producers in manure use planning was evaluated. The potential for runoff nutrient loss to surface water can reduced and the value of manure increased through better planning of manure use. Training was conducted throughout Nebraska in 2002 and 2003. Livestock producers who attended evaluated the event at the end of the last class. The need for and impact of the training was greater for continuing operational and maintenance skills of manure utilization that are regularly needed for strategic planning skills. We recommend that training focus primarily on operational and maintenance skills.

Risk Factors Affecting High School Drop Out Rates and 4-H Teen Program Planning [Article No. 4RIB6]

Lamm, Alexa; Harder, Amy; Lamm, Dennis; Rose, Herb, III; Rask, Glen

The drop out rates of teens in high school is of great interest to educators across the country. An analysis has been done to identify the risk factors related to high school drop out rates. Those risk factors are then related to what educators can do to improve teen programming efforts as well as decrease high school drop out rates. Analysis of several databases was performed to compare drop out information. By determining high school drop out risk factors and relating these data to 4-H programming, we can begin to draw conclusions and plan strategies.

Implementing a Needs Assessment for Long-Term Strategic Planning in 4-H Horticulture Programming [Article No. 4RIB7]

Phibbs. Elizabeth; Relf, Diane; Hunnings, Joseph

A needs assessment was implemented for long-term strategic planning in 4-H horticulture programming. 4-H agents, Agriculture and Natural Resource agents, and Master Gardener Coordinators were surveyed regarding horticulture programs, areas for new programming, and available resources and resource needs. Interviews were conducted with staff of public gardens in Virginia indicating potential for programming partnerships. Directors of 4-H camps expressed interest in curriculum modified to their time constraints. Results identified areas for growth and needs for improved communication and resource sharing. A Web site was developed and new position recommended.

Ideas at Work

Autobiography Workshop: Personal Narrative as a Wellness Tool for the Elderly [Article No. 4IAW1]

Collins, Claudia

With the growth of the aging population, Extension is trying to provide meaningful educational programming for seniors. The University of Nevada, Cooperative Extension created the Senior Autobiography Workshop to help older adults write about their lives in a way that can enhance social and family networks and improve seniors' self-esteem, important factors in maintaining physical and mental well-being. Both the process of life review and the autobiographical final product can produce great mental and emotional benefits. Workshop attendees report having gained insight on the value of their life within the context of their family structure.

Effectiveness of a Program to Increase Fruit and Vegetable Consumption [Article No. 4IAW2]

Cason, Katherine L.

Americans do not ordinarily consume the recommended servings of fruits and vegetables, thereby placing them at risk for the development of chronic diseases. EFNEP and the South East Produce Council implemented a program designed to increase consumption of fruits and vegetables by low-income audiences reached through EFNEP. Pre-program surveys provided a profile of the families' fresh produce purchases and consumption level. Post-program data indicates that the program participants made a significant increase in their consumption of fruits and vegetables.

What Is Forestry: A Multi-State, Web-Based Forestry Education Program [Article No. 4IAW3]

Wheeler, Robert; Szymanski, Marcella

The What Is Forestry: Connecting Communities project promotes forestry education and connects students to a greater appreciation of local and national forests and their cultural connections with communities. Through integrating activities including science, photography, arts, music, math, and Internet computer technology, students were challenged to observe and explain the forests in which they live and communicate this understanding to students in a sister school in another state. The analysis of the pre- and post-evaluations indicated that there were significant changes in student opinions about forestry.

Use of a Cattle Feeding Profitability Prediction Contest in Beef Extension Programming [Article No. 4IAW4]

Parish, Jane A.; McKinley, W. Blair

A beef cattle feeding profitability predication contest was established in conjunction with the Mississippi Farm to Feedlot Project, an 11-year-old program similar to many cattle feeding Extension programs offered across the nation. This contest was initiated to demonstrate the value of knowing the genetic and profit potential of calves prior to deciding to feed these animals or market them at weaning or after stocker grazing. It also stimulated renewed interest in the Mississippi Farm to Feedlot Project and expanded the audience reached by this educational effort. Results of this contest indicate that it was successful in achieving its objectives.

Demonstrating Manure Spreader Calibration at Field Days [Article No. 4IAW5]

Mancl, Karen M.; Slates, J. Dean

Calibration of a manure spreader was demonstrated at field days. Data collected showed limited capability of farmers to estimate manure application rates just based on their experience and the importance of calibration. Only 13% estimated at or near the actual application rate (^± 1 ton). Some (22%) estimated high rates, with two estimating four times the actual application rate. Most (65%) underestimated the rate, with 50% estimating less than one-half the actual application rate. The tendency to underestimate manure application and therefore over-apply manure reinforces the need to calibrate spreading equipment as a part of a manure management plan.

Tools of the Trade

More Tips: What If a Cooperative Extension Professional Must Work With Two or More Institutional Review Boards? [Article No. 4TOT1]

Betts, Sherry C.; Peterson, Donna J.; McDonald, Daniel A.

This article focuses on working with more than one IRB at a time regarding one project. It is a follow-up to a series of four recent articles designed to help Extension professionals navigate the university IRB process. The authors use their experience with a project funded by a federal government agency to illustrate some of the issues and tips for success.

Voices from the Past, Wisdom for the Present and Future: Capturing and Learning from Oral History [Article No. 4TOT2]

Phelps, Lisa

"What is oral history?" and "How can capturing oral history enhance Extension program development and impact reporting?" are two of the questions explored in this article. In addition, the process and steps for completing an oral history project are outlined.

Selecting Recipes to Enhance Educational Programming--Application of Formative Research Methods [Article No. 4TOT3]

Robinson, Sharon Francey; Wong, William; Rodgers, A. Shanna Wright; Bielamowicz, Mary Kinney; Konzlemann, Karen

Recipe demonstration often accompanies educational programming. Formative research methods can be used when selecting recipes to enhance an educational experience. The use of recipes and food demonstrations should be consistent with identified educational goals. Our process resulted in a stepwise culling of recipes and the identification of recipe categories that supported our learning goal. We enabled input from peer educators, agents, and clients by soliciting informal and formal feedback through methods such as survey instruments, informal discussions, and structured interviews. This and similar approaches to recipe selection may engage educators in the judicious use of recipes to augment educational programming.

An Affirmative Approach to Parental Involvement in Youth Programs [Article No. 4TOT4]

Torretta, Alayne; Bovitz, Laura

In youth development programs, it is preferred that any involvement of parents be child oriented. Adults stuck in parent-oriented behavior inhibit their child from having a positive experience in the program. This article demonstrates how adults showing parent-oriented behavior can be motivated to shift to child-oriented behavior within the boundaries of the program. New Jersey 4-H Leader Training Series provides tools needed for professionals that result in positive relationships among volunteers and parents. This holistic approach views all the attributes of parents, whereby professionals can spin negative behaviors positively to support the program.

Agriculture Environmental Management System Baseline Protocols [Article No. 4TOT5]

Harrison, John D.; Toney, Aditya H.

The evaluation of agriculture environmental programs and the subsequent acceptance by the agriculture industry will only have credibility if they are based on the collection of comparable information of known quality backed up by vigorous analysis and research. To this end, Utah State University Extension Agriculture Environmental Management Systems (AEMS) has adapted a common framework for collecting AEMS design and performance information. The article is to describes this framework.

An Extension Perspective on Monitoring Pesticide Resistance [Article No. 4TOT6]

Petersen, John L.

Appropriate application of pesticides should include regular measurement of target insect susceptibility. This article reports outreach activities, emphasizing Web-based communications, with Florida mosquito control programs focusing on measuring the response of mosquitoes to pesticides. The benefits of this approach are reduced reliance on chemical control by considering alternatives such as larviciding and source reduction, as well as economic savings, when mosquito control programs use pesticides at minimum rates that give maximum control.

Using a Poster Contest to Educate Children About Radon [Article No. 4TOT7]

Tremblay, Kenneth R., Jr.; Vogel, Michael P.; Drennen, Nancy H.

This article presents a strategy to involve children in radon education through a poster contest. This educational effort completed its third year, sponsored by the Healthy Indoor Air for America's Homes program in collaboration with government partners. The contest is directed at middle school children with goals that include fostering coalitions between local radon partners and state radon programs, creating local publicity and awareness about radon, increasing radon testing, and publicizing Radon Action Month. Student posters are judged on accuracy, visual communication of topic, and reproducibility. The two national winners are recognized in Washington, DC.

Questions & Answers for Authors

Q&A for Authors

Submission Instructions

Instructions for Submitting Articles

Review and Evaluation Process

Review and Evaluation Process

Peer Reviewers and Board

Board

Peer Reviewers

Editor's Page

Some JOE Style Points: et al. & Capitalization

I have been meaning to write a JOE Style Guide for years now. But I never seem to find the time. So I'm taking a new tack. Instead of taking on the task of preparing an entire style guide, I'll do it in bits and pieces. When I have a critical mass of information, I'll turn it all into a style guide, proper. Until then, I'll ask our new Web Developer, Anne Groves, to post the Editor's Pages in which I discuss JOE style on the Help for JOE Authors page.

The term "et al." is the Latin abbreviation for "and others." Note that it is not italicized and that there is no period after the "et" (Latin for "and" and thus not an abbreviation, itself). According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, the manual you should use when you submit articles to JOE, you use "et al." on first reference only when a work you are citing has six or more authors. After the first reference, you can use "et al." when a work has three or more authors.

Another time-consuming problem to correct has to do with capitalization. JOE does not use all capital letters for titles or headings or table and figure captions or anything. Nor, for titles or headings or table and figure captions, do we only cap the first letter of the first word and present the rest lower case unless the word is a proper noun. The only place that style is used is in Reference sections. For all titles, headings (and subheadings), and captions, JOE uses the cap and lower case style. That is, all words are capitalized except for conjunctions, articles, and prepositions of four letters or fewer.

A surprisingly common error I see is that authors make "is" lower case because they have gotten the idea that you capitalize based on the size of a word. But it's the part of speech that determines capitalization in the cap and lower case style. "Is" is a verb and gets capped.

What I talk about here may seem trivial, but correcting these errors--and they occur often--takes a lot of time and is one of the reasons I have to virtually shut down shop for a week or more when it's time to prepare a new issue.

August JOE

JOE has two very good Commentaries this month. The first, "Extension's Response to an Un-Natural Disaster: Enlisting Your Support for Military Youth and Families," is extraordinarily timely. The second is in a way timeless. " A Diversified Portfolio of Scholarship: The Making of a Successful Extension Educator" discusses the forms scholarship should take for Extension professionals.

Also in the issue is "More Tips: What If a Cooperative Extension Professional Must Work With Two or More Institutional Review Boards?" This is the first of two follow-up articles to a four-part series on IRB's, a subject that is increasingly important in terms of sound scholarship.

There are several articles dealing with manure handling, many fine articles discussing various aspects 4-H, and an article on what kinds of staff development Extension professionals need for international work. And those are just a few topics among a host of others.

Laura Hoelscher, Editor

joe-ed@joe.org

Extension's Response to an Un-Natural Disaster: Enlisting Your Support for Military Youth and Families

Theresa M. Ferrari
Extension Specialist, 4-H Youth Development
Ohio State University Extension
Columbus, Ohio
ferrari.8@osu.edu

Life as a 4-H Military Liaison: A New Audience, a New Role, and a New Language

The idea for this article began to take shape on an evening walk, a time when I usually try to clear my head after work. But I couldn't stop thinking about the conversation I had just had with a volunteer who was working on plans for the upcoming MOB Brief (mobilization briefing) for the 558th Squadron of the Army Reserves. There were many details that needed to come together in a relatively short period of time. The FRG (Family Readiness Group) was planning activities for the kids and expected a large number to attend. How could 4-H help?

I didn't need one more thing to do on top of an already-full plate. And I know it is camp and fair season for 4-H'ers. But 205 Army Reserve soldiers would be deploying soon, and that would mean lots of families would become "suddenly military." As the 4-H Military Liaison for Ohio and the Project Director for Operation: Military Kids, these terms have become part of my everyday vocabulary, and participating in these pre-deployment briefings has evolved to become one of my roles. It includes outreach to those youth with a parent in the National Guard and Reserves living throughout the state, those who don't consider themselves to be military families when the service member is mobilized and their lives change in an instant.

Being involved in Operation: Military Kids is one of the most challenging and also most rewarding experiences I've had in my 25-year career in Extension. I also think it's the right thing to do. It has nothing to do with one's political views and everything to do with caring about kids. I know that many of my counterparts in other states feel similarly. But when asked about their challenges, they mention that they would like more time, more staff, and more resources to do the job (Ferrari & Lauxman, 2005). Thus, I feel compelled to write this Commentary to share my experiences so that I might raise awareness about the need and enlist more support for this effort.

Natural and Un-Natural Disasters: Extension Responds

Being involved with the military is not new for 4-H. At the national level, a formal relationship with the Army has existed for 10 years through the USDA/Army Youth Development Project. Since 2002, there are now 4-H military liaisons in each state, and 4-H has a presence on Army and Air Force installations worldwide. This represents a significant level of new resources, as well as redirection of existing ones.

Being involved in a war effort is not new to 4-H'ers, either. In World War II, they grew victory gardens, collected scrap metal, and took on responsibilities of agricultural production (Wessel & Wessel, 1982). This time around, 4-H, along with the U.S. Army Child and Youth Services, has responded by creating Operation: Military Kids (OMK). There are currently 20 states with OMK grants; 15 more are in the process of completing applications. Now through OMK 4-H'ers are making Hero Packs, backpacks filled with items that recognize the sacrifices of children of military service members when their parents are deployed. Through Speak Out for Military Kids, they are raising awareness of the issues faced by "suddenly military" youth and motivating others to action.

Extension has always responded to community needs in times of disaster. A colleague recently likened the response that is necessary in this situation to Extension's response to the Mississippi River floods in the early '90s. Floods are natural disasters. The Global War on Terrorism has created what I would call an "un-natural disaster." It is a human creation, not one of nature. But our response must be similar--swift, comprehensive, and targeted. While floods and other natural disasters are generally more local in their effects, the Global War on Terrorism is much more pervasive. I know that in my own state there is not a county that is unaffected by military deployments. And in just the past 5 weeks, we've had five opportunities to distribute Hero Packs. Ironically, it's the National Guard that assists when natural disasters strike. Now they need us to assist their children and families while they are deployed beyond their states' borders.

Learning About Military Kids from First-Hand Experience

I also felt compelled to write after spending a week attending Operation Purple Camp Wright-Patt with 140 youth, all of whom have a parent in some phase of the deployment cycle. Knowing how busy I usually am, colleagues asked if I needed to be there the entire week. My response was "yes". I knew I needed to be there because I needed to experience first hand the issues and concerns of these military youth. While a long, hot bath and a good night's sleep could erase the memory of sweating in the 90-plus heat and sleeping on a narrow folding cot in a crowded cabin, nothing can erase what I gained by attending this camp. It's one thing to read about the issues and concerns of military kids, but it's another thing to be able to picture names and faces and to hear their own words about what a parent's deployment means. I needed to be there so that now when I talk about military kids, I can speak from the heart and not just my head.

On the one hand, the kids attending camp were just like any other kids. They ate camp food, they stayed up late in the cabins, and they made new friends. For many, it was their first time at camp, and there was the expected homesickness that follows. But another thing that they all had in common made them not like other kids. And that's also why I needed to be there.

I needed to meet Mitchell, whose insightful answers to the question of how to turn negative experiences into positive ones seemed very mature for someone so young. The coping strategy that he suggested was to "realize that time flies."

I needed to share a cabin with Christine, a volunteer with two children attending camp, whose husband is serving with the Army in Iraq. I had to hear her cell phone ring after midnight one night, and hear the sound of her voice as she realized the call was from her husband.

I needed to meet Lauren, a thoughtful teen who gave me a hug at the end of camp and told me that she liked the stress management sessions that were a part of the evening camp activities.

I needed to meet Michael, who on the third day of camp started crying all of a sudden and said he wanted to go home. He missed his little brother whose birthday was in 2 days, and he missed his dad who is in Iraq. After we could name some things that he was having fun doing at camp (such as archery, canoeing, and swimming), we convinced him to change into his swimsuit and join his group in the pool. Michael stayed through camp. As he completed the camp evaluation, he asked me how to spell "archery," and it didn't surprise me to see that he was answering the question about the best part of camp. Not only that, but at the closing ceremony his counselors awarded him the archery ribbon for his group. I smiled when he told me that he was going to give the Hero Pack that he made to his little brother as a late birthday present. Michael made it through camp, so he was a hero too.

After camp, I received an e-mail from Joshua's stepfather, who has been deployed four months and is stationed at Abu Ghraib prison. He e-mailed to tell me that Joshua really loved the camp and "couldn't tell me enough about it" when he called. But he was also concerned that Joshua had been getting slightly short tempered with his mother lately. Was there a correlation to the amount of time he had been deployed? I answered his e-mail, and that's another reason I needed to go.

Why Action Is Needed

I am not working alone. I have support from a team of caring and committed people--my Operation Military Kids statewide team. News stories have helped to spread the word about what we're doing. More volunteers have come forward. But it's not enough. I end each day with unfinished tasks. It's like I am filling sandbags to stop the flood waters, but I can't fill them fast enough. I know I'm not alone, but some days it feels like an "Army of One."

I've managed to get creative so I can extend what I am able to do. Some weeks I find myself spending all of my time working on this effort, even though I have other things to do. Because it can't wait. The work often comes when it's not convenient for me, when I have other things that I should be doing. But I don't get to pick when and where a unit is deployed. I just try to remember that it's not convenient for children to have their mom or dad go away for a year or more to fight in a war, kids who don't get to choose what happens to them.

Every month, more military service members are being deployed. The reorganization of the military means that deployment will be the norm, not the exception. Some have deployed a second, even a third, time. This is a time for Extension to deploy its resources with full force to assist military youth and families. Time to examine policies that inadvertently may exclude those who are not already members of 4-H from participating in certain activities. Time to put aside county and state boundaries. Time to put aside turf issues of program areas. Time to make a difference. Because there's plenty of work to be done. It needs to be done now. So don't wait until you are asked to do something--contact your state's 4-H military liaison to see how you can contribute. There are Mitchells, Michaels, Laurens, Christines, and Joshuas in your state, and they are waiting for you.

Note: Contact information for 4-H Military Liaisons may be found at the Operation: Military Kids Web site <www.operationmilitarykids.org>. The Ohio 4-H Military Web site is <www.ohio4h.org/military>.

Operation Purple is the name of camps receiving grants from the National Military Family Association, funded by Sears. (See <www.nmfa.org> for more information). There were 23 such camps funded in 2005.

References

Ferrari, T. M., & Lauxman, L. (2005, May). What have we learned from joining forces with the military: Challenges, lessons learned, and creative solutions. Seminar presented at the Extension Children, Youth, and Families at Risk (CYFAR) Conference, Boston, MA.

Wessel, T., & Wessel, M. (1982). 4-H: An American idea 1900-1980: A history of 4-H. Chevy Chase, MD: National 4-H Council.

View reader comments for this Commentary in the JOE Discussion Forum. (This forum is no longer accepting new entries.)

A Diversified Portfolio of Scholarship: The Making of a Successful Extension Educator

Roger G. Adams, Jr.
Professor and Assistant Director
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System
Storrs, Connecticut
Roger.Adams@UConn.edu

Reginal M. Harrell
Regional Director
Maryland Cooperative Extension
Queenstown, Maryland
rharrell@umd.edu

Deborah J. Maddy
Assistant Director
Oregon State University Extension Service
Corvallis, Oregon
deborah.maddy@oregonstate.edu

Dan Weigel
Area Extension Specialist
University of Nevada Cooperative Extension
Reno, Nevada
weigeld@unce.unr.edu

Many universities, including those of the authors, now have the expectation that Extension educators will engage in scholarship and translate the results, outcomes, and impacts of their work into scholarly products. This expectation is consistent with being considered a bona fide academic peer within the university setting.

Defining the role of an Extension professional in university settings, where the concepts of teaching, research, service, outreach, and scholarship are often misunderstood and confused by faculty and administrators alike, has posed considerable challenges in the evolution of the Extension educator.

Many academic leaders over the past two decades have contributed to defining the scholarship of Extension, engagement, outreach, the integration and application of knowledge, and other academic functions (Alter, 2003; Bushaw, 1996; Campbell, 1991; Norman, 2001; Smith, 2004; Schauber, Aldrich-Markham, Olsen, Gredler, Olsen, & Reichenbach, 1998; Weiser, & Houglum, 1998). Despite the discussions, many Extension professionals still remain uncertain about the specific accomplishments that are needed to meet the expectations of peers, administrators, boards of trustees, and others to be successful in promotion and tenure decisions.

It is time for the quandary to end. Now is the time for the Extension system to control its destiny, not allowing important decisions about its future to be defined by academicians who equate Extension with service. If Extension educators are to be taken seriously within the academy while maintaining relevance for their clientele, the Extension system should set the standard for excellence in scholarship as well as performance.

Deans and directors who are responsible for Extension nationwide must adopt a common understanding of scholarship, with rigor and metrics applied, and hold the system accountable for achieving the standard. We propose that a diversified portfolio of scholarship be considered as a key element of establishing and sustaining the standard for scholarship and create a culture for its continuity and consistency across the system.

Internal and External Clientele

Expectations for scholarly production, grantsmanship, program development, and evaluation are increasing exponentially. How can the Extension educator be successful within universities through the promotion and tenure processes? What will be required?

As a national system encompassing land-grant universities, we can agree that all Extension professionals have internal and external clientele and peers. External clientele are those individuals, groups, organizations, communities, businesses, and other stakeholders outside the university setting with whom educational programming, co-learning, and learner services are provided. Extension professionals generally consider these to be their clientele base and primary stakeholders.

Internal clientele include other Extension professionals, faculty with research and teaching assignments, administrators, and members of boards of trustees within the university setting who may review one's work through various internal processes, such as promotion, tenure, reappointment, post-tenure reviews, and merit awards and decisions.

The types and examples of scholarship and scholarly products best needed by the various clientele and peer audiences will vary based on their perspective and relationship to the Extension professional. Therefore, it is essential that the Extension educator understand the perspectives, criteria, and needs of various clientele groups, both internal and external to the university, and to address them accordingly. Thus, one type of scholarship or scholarly product will not fit all cases--a "diversified portfolio of scholarship" is needed for success.

Education and the Extension Educator

In universities where Extension educators progress through the promotion and tenure processes, an "academic model," often vaguely defining expectations of teaching, research, and service, is followed. In most cases, service is synonymous with Extension, and the third mission of the land-grant university is relegated to second-class status.

In contrast, we believe education is the core function of Extension systems and is represented through the scholarship of integration and application. Application focuses on education and service (Bull, 1998). For Extension professionals, teaching is usually non-formal or not-for-credit, unless offered as continuing education units. Such teaching differs from outreach in that the latter is primarily information or technology transfer with little actual teaching involved. Extension teaching focuses on outcomes, impacts, results, and changes in knowledge and behavior, all of which are quantifiable and, perhaps, require a higher level of rigor than research and teaching peers must achieve. For Extension professionals, teaching is also the primary basis for scholarly productivity.

Extension professionals utilize the literature in their disciplines, other sources of scholarly information, experiential learning, and formative and summative inquiry, and, in some cases, they conduct applied research to discover new knowledge needed to develop new Extension education programs or to further enhance existing programs. In turn, Extension professionals have a responsibility to share their results and findings with colleagues and clientele through various forms of peer-reviewed scholarship (Adams, 1999). Those who do so are more readily accepted as education professionals within academic communities, and their likelihood for success is enhanced. Packaging becomes extremely important for communicating academic rigor and validity.

The Diversified Portfolio of Scholarship

Whether peer-reviewed or popular literature, a crucial component of the scholarship of Extension is the effectiveness of communication that is needed (Olsen et al., 2001). Whether oral or written, clarity of communication of research or community-based knowledge into a format or language easily understandable by a target audience is as much an art as a science and requires the individual to have the "mastery of knowledge" aforementioned. Boyer (1990) stated, "To make complex ideas understandable to a large audience can be a difficult, demanding task, one that requires not only a deep and thorough knowledge of one's field, but keen literary skills, as well." He believed that just as much as providing to the wealth of peer-review literature was important in defining scholarship, communicating to the non-specialist was a legitimate scholarly endeavor.

Boyer further elaborated that while establishing the right standards and identifying proper peers for validation of such work may be difficult, it is nonetheless important. It is vital for Extension, as a culture, to develop its own national standards that define quality and utility. Extension professionals must subject their ideas and findings to critical inquiry and independent review among professional peers. The use of effective communication, regardless of the audience, facilitates the learning of new knowledge and establishes a baseline for evaluating professional competence (Adams, Harrell, Maddy, & Weigel, 2002; Norman, C. L., 2001; Olsen et. al., 2001; Weiser & Houglum, 1998).

To be considered as professionals both in academic and stakeholder communities, all Extension professionals must meet the expectation of the scholarship of application, as defined by Bull (1998. To meet the needs of a diverse array of clientele, the Extension educator needs to develop a "diversified portfolio of scholarship" representing the creativity, products, outcomes, and impacts achieved over the course of his or her career.

The "diversified portfolio of scholarship" may include:

• Books and book chapters;
• Peer-reviewed journal articles;
• Published abstracts and proceedings;
• Submitted and funded grant proposals;
• New curricula and courses;
• Educational manuals/teaching guides;
• Poster sessions;
• Fact sheets;
• Extension bulletins;
• Magazine articles;
• Newsletter/newspaper articles;
• Educational games;
• Interactive Web sites;
• New distance education non-credit courses;
• New computer programs, simulations, and data bases;
• New videotapes, audiocassettes, and CD-ROMs; and
• Other creative outputs (Adams, 1999; Adams et al., 2002; Olsen et al., 2001).

A diversified portfolio of scholarship will include many of the examples presented above and must include peer-reviewed journal articles as well as other products. Such a portfolio will likely meet the needs of both clientele and peers, both internally and externally to the university. Without such a diversified portfolio of scholarship, the Extension educator is at risk.

By widely disseminating, through scholarship, the knowledge and experience gained through projects and programs, Extension educators share its significance and findings with those who did not benefit directly from the experience. Extension professionals can make substantial scholarly contributions and gain critical acclaim by communicating methodological innovations, processes, curricular developments, results, impacts, and outcomes to peers who may apply the approaches and findings to wider audiences (Olsen et al., 2001; Schauber et al., 1998; Smith, 2004).

Establishing a "diversified portfolio of scholarship" reflects a level of individual professionalism that is also likely to show through success in grantsmanship and in overall Extension program excellence.

While outreach education is not the same as formal classroom contact teaching performed on campuses of the nation's colleges and universities, it is education in its finest sense, with a distinct pedagogy and unique program design and delivery. It is crucial for Extension educators to be recognized as peers among academic communities and, to do so, requires a paradigm shift in academic and Extension communities, alike.

This translates into the need for Extension employees to understand, develop, and provide appropriate scholarly materials in a format appropriate to learning styles about a wider variety of information than most ever dreamed possible.

Can the Extension educator be successful within universities through the promotion and tenure processes? The answer is--most certainly--yes. As an Extension educator, packaging one's work into an ever-expanding "diversified portfolio of scholarship" will help ensure that the Extension professional will be successful with clientele and peers, both internally and externally to the university. With such success, the Extension educator will receive the appropriate recognition and acceptance of the research and academic teaching communities as a peer in every sense of the word.

References

Adams, R. G., Harrell, R. M., Maddy, D. J., & Weigel, D. J. (2002). The Scholarship of Extension: Implementing Extension's Vision for the 21st Century. A White Paper by the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy Personnel and Organizational Development Committee. Lincoln, NE. Available: http://podc.unl.edu/scholarship.pdf

Adams, R. G. (1999). Cooperative Extension Unit (CEU) criteria for promotion, tenure and reappointment. University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System. Storrs, CT. 9 pp.

Alter, T. (2003). Where is Extension scholarship falling short, and what can we do about it? Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003december/comm2.shtml

Boyer, E. L. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.

Bull, N. H. (1998). Defining Scholarship for the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System. University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System. Storrs, CT. 3 pp.

Bushaw, D. W., (1996). The scholarship of Extension. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1996august/comm1.html.

Campbell, G. R. (1991). Scholarship reconsidered. Journal of Extension [On-line], 29(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1991winter/tt1.html

Harrell, R.M., Adams, R. G., Maddy, D. J., & Weigel, D. J. (2003). Packaging yourself as an Extension professional. National Aquaculture Extension Conference Tucson, AZ. Extended Abstracts, 2003: 69-73.

Norman, C. L. (2001). The challenge of Extension scholarship. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001february/comm1.html

Olsen, C. S., Bowden, R., Langemeier, M., Marr, C., Paisley, S., Stokka, D., & Mengel, D. (2001). Scholarship of Extension. Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service. Manhattan, KS.

Schauber, A., Aldrich-Markham, S., Olsen, J., Gredler, G., Olsen, P., & Reichenbach, M. (1998). Defining scholarship for county Extension agents. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 36(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998august/iw1.html

Smith, K. L. (2004). Scholarship: Shout about it. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 42(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004october/comm1.shtml

Weiser, C. J. & Houglum, L. (1998). Scholarship unbound for the 21st century. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 36(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998august/a1.html

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Organizational Evolution: Applying Genetic Principles to the Management of Extension Systems

John A. Winder
Assistant Director
Oregon State University Extension Service
Corvallis, Oregon
john.winder@oregonstate.edu

Introduction

Authors and researchers have begun to recognize that analogs to biological "laws" can be applied to improve effectiveness of organizations and industrial processes. Burns and Stalker (1961) may have been the first to characterize business models as organic or mechanistic. They hypothesized that hierarchical mechanistic systems are preferred when the business environment is very stable, while more fluid designs resembling natural systems (organic) were more effective during times of rapid change. Baskin (1998) described how businesses exist in "ecosystems" similar to biological organisms and how businesses evolve in response to changes in the "environment." Wheatley (1999) used models derived from observation of natural "systems" to describe organizational processes and expected outcomes. Ray (1991) demonstrated another novel application of biological principles to inorganic problems when he created a system that allowed machine code to evolve based on Darwinian and Mendelian principles. His evolved code was smaller and faster than original code, indicating that evolutionary processes may be applied to software development.

Genetics is at the core of most biological processes. Understanding of genetic systems was greatly enhanced in by Mendel in 1865 (Mendel et al., 1950) and Darwin (1859) whose principles lead to creation of a host of evolutionary sciences. Among these is a mathematical approach called "population genetics" that described creation, movement, and expression of genes in groups of inter-mating organisms (populations).

Hardy and Weinberg developed the main tenet of population genetics in 1908 when they demonstrated that only four processes caused change (evolution) in genetic composition of populations (Falconer & Mackay, 1996). These processes are:

1. Mutation: spontaneous creation of new genes,
2. Migration: movement of genes into or out of a population,
3. Selection: differential reproductive rates among organisms of differing genetic makeup, and
4. The effect of inbreeding in small subpopulations.

Extension organizations behave very much like interbreeding populations. While genes create the blueprint determining potential for size, shape, behavior, and chemistry of organisms, ideas are the blueprint for Extension and determine its future size, activities, and effectiveness. There is also an analogy for each genetic principle in Extension.

1. Ideas are similar to genes in that they can be spontaneously generated (mutated).
2. Ideas migrate into or out of an organization or move within the organization.
3. Application of ideas is analogous to the expression of genes. Decision-makers select ideas for application much as nature and man allow organisms to reproduce based on their genetic composition.
4. Inbreeding occurs in Extension when interaction with the outside world is limited.

The following examines these four factors in detail and describes how Extension decision-makers can utilize these concepts to improve the generation, importation, and application of quality ideas to improve the effectiveness of the Extension organization.

The Significance of Diversity

Before examining the four mechanisms that result in change in natural populations and Extension systems, it is important to describe one additional component that determines "resiliency" of both biological populations and organizations.

In living organisms, maintenance of genetic diversity is often key to survival.

• If populations lack diversity, they are unable to respond to changes in the environment. This leads to decline in populations and, in extreme cases, extinction of sub-species and/or species.

• Conversely, populations that maintain some degree of genetic variation possess potential to change in response to new environmental challenges. The ability of Extension to respond to external challenges is critical to both function and long-term survival.

In Extension, diversity of ideas (and ideals) is also crucial for survival and success.

• If an Extension organization is based on a narrow set of ideas (or ideals), it will be unable to change in response to shifts in clientele needs or to emerging opportunities. Extension systems based on uniform thought are often intolerant of viewpoints that do not fit preset norms. If change is necessary, these systems are too static and lack the ideas needed to respond to the challenge.

• Extension organizations that have diversity of ideas possess the potential to change, survive and thrive, and healthy Extension systems encourage diversity of thought. This can be fostered by hiring individuals with diverse backgrounds and by creating an environment that is conducive to creation, importation, and application of new concepts.

Just as in nature, Extension must evolve or die, and lack of diversity may well result in functional extinction.

Mutation: Spontaneous Creation of Genes and Ideas

In biological systems, new genetic material arises spontaneously by change in the molecular structure of DNA. This process is called "mutation." Mutation occurs at very low rates, and most new mutations when expressed are harmful to the organism. This is because over evolutionary time most desirable genes were incorporated into the genome of organisms. Therefore, changes in the structure of these genes (mutations) are much more likely to be harmful than favorable. Only on rare occasions does a mutation result in a positive outcome.

• Over evolutionary time, mutation is very important because it is the only means by which new genetic material can be created. But in finite timeframes, the net affect of mutation is miniscule because rates are low, and deleterious mutations are quickly discarded through the process of natural selection.

• Geneticists can increase mutation rates by applying "mutagenic" agents, but this strategy has little practical application because it creates far more genetic "trash" than valuable new genes.

As with evolving organisms, Extension's "genome" is composed of many good ideas that have been accumulating over time. Therefore, when ideas are spontaneously created in a vacuum, they are much like mutated genes.

• Ideas that are created without outside input are usually flawed. Only rarely will this result in functional novel concepts. Defective ideas will not function and will eventually be discarded from the organizations.

• When Extension managers demand creativity but do not provide resources for travel or research, they will no doubt stimulate ideas, but these ideas will almost always be flawed and eventually fail just as increasing mutation rates results in more genetic trash.

Migration: Movement of Genes and Ideas

There is only one mechanism besides mutation by which new genetic material can be introduced into a population. This process is called "migration." This occurs when an organism with genetic composition different from the average of the population enters or leaves the population. This is the most powerful (and useful) mechanism affecting positive genetic change, and it is the dominant mechanism used by geneticists and farmers to enhance the genetic merit of plants and animals.

• Migration is much more efficient than mutation in creating positive genetic change because there is a much higher probability of finding valuable genes in another population than through a mutational event. Farmers buy seed, breeding stock, semen, and embryos from outside sources because they recognize they are much more likely to find the best genetics if they expand their search beyond their own fields and herds.

• In order to create positive change within biological systems, organisms with desirable genes must enter the population or individuals with inferior genes must leave. If migrants are similar to the average genetic makeup of the population, no change will occur.

As mentioned previously, ideas can be move into or out of the organization, and there are actions and activities that can be undertaken to enhance movement of ideas and to improve the creativity of the Extension organization.

• It is much more efficient to seek new and important ideas outside of a county, region, or state than by waiting for a useful idea to arise spontaneously within. Managers should encourage employees to pursue professional development activities that truly expand their thought processes. They should also seek to hire persons who bring new ideas to the organization. Sabbatical leaves should be approved on the basis of their potential to bring new ideas to the organization. Processes should also be in place to bring innovators into the organization from the outside for "reverse sabbaticals." This exposes the entire staff to new concepts.

• Ideas flowing from the outside of the organization inward must be different and more effective than those commonly held by the organization or there will be no net positive effect. It is common for employees to attend meetings with others possessing similar ideas. This only codifies existing thinking and does not provide any new ideas to the organization. Employees should attend meetings and training sessions that push them out of their comfort zones and expose them to new ideas.

Selection: Allowing "Fit" Organisms to Reproduce and Best Ideas to Be Applied

The selection process allows organisms with desirable genes to reproduce at greater rates than those lacking desirable genes. This can either be applied as environmental pressure (natural selection) or by the hand of man (artificial selection).

• Over time, those with the highest reproductive rates leave more progeny and alter the future genetic makeup of the population. Man has used selection as a means of changing plants and animals for millennia. Those with the most desired characteristics were cultivated and encouraged to reproduce. Those without the desired characteristics were restricted from entering the breeding population.

• In natural systems, selection also tends to be cyclical. When resources (food and habitat) are abundant, little selection pressure is exerted, and organisms in a population reproduce at relatively comparable rates. When resources dry up, only the most "fit" compete and reproduce. It is during these times that selection drives substantial change in the genetic makeup of the population.

In Extension, selection is applied by administration or by policy. When ideas are applied (and supported), it is much like an organism reproducing. Care should be taken to "select" the right ideas for implementation.

• Extension can benefit by creating structures that encourage nonproductive persons to leave the organization. If used properly, tenure and evaluative processes provide an incentive for uncreative persons to exit the organization. It is extremely important that these processes function properly. Sometimes evaluation and tenure are inadvertently used to encourage conformity to a standard manner of thinking. This results in loss of diversity as the best thinkers become frustrated and leave. Loss of good ideas will change the "composition" of the organization, but this will occur in the wrong direction.

• As in natural systems, an idea is much more likely to be applied during times of plenty (robust budgets, high profits, etc.). Conversely, when funding is tight, decision-makers are forced to be more selective as to which ideas are supported and implemented. Often, when funding is limited, managers make the mistake of reducing budgets across the board instead of selectively limiting resources. Across-the-board reductions diminish application of good and bad ideas, alike. Conversely, selective reductions or program eliminations allow good ideas to continue to flourish while eliminating ideas that are less useful to the organization.

Inbreeding: Isolation of Small Subpopulations

In nature, large populations are often segregated into smaller breeding groups by geography or by catastrophic events that isolate small subpopulations from the main population. Perhaps an island is formed by a flood or earthquake, isolating animals and plants that cannot swim or fly to the mainland. If the isolated group is very small, relatives begin to mate at increased frequency causing increased inbreeding. As a result, small subpopulations become little more than an extended family.

• When inbreeding occurs, diversity is lost within subpopulations over time as individuals within an interbreeding subpopulation become increasingly more related and consequently more similar in appearance and function.

• Although within the subpopulation there is more genetic uniformity, each subpopulation tends to drift apart, resulting in uniform subpopulations that differ from one another. Though this creates diversity within the larger population, the diversity among subpopulations is of little value to the population as a whole because there is no exchange of genetic material between subpopulations. (Subpopulations are still isolated from one another.)

• As organisms become more uniform within each subpopulation, they become much less resilient and lose the ability to respond to environmental changes. They lack the diversity necessary to deal with these changes. Thus, small isolated subpopulations are much more likely to fail.

• Another result of inbreeding is the increased expression of deleterious genes. In non-inbred populations, bad genes are often masked by other genes and not expressed. This is possible because they tend to pair with genes that are functional and dominant. With inbreeding, there is an increased probability that two deleterious genes will pair up and thus be expressed fully.

• When barriers are removed and previously isolated groups are allowed to interbreed, the negative effects of inbreeding are reversed. Actually very little "migration" of new genes into a subpopulation can completely arrest the inbreeding process. When two individuals from different inbred subpopulations mate, the resulting offspring is a hybrid that is almost always more genetically "fit" than its inbred parents. Therefore, the overall fitness of the population increases when subdivisions are removed and subpopulations mix.

In Extension, isolation of individuals in small cells causes "idea inbreeding." This may occur in an isolated county office with only a few persons interacting on a regular basis or any time that individuals fail to openly exchange ideas. Over time, these isolated pools become increasingly uniform.

• Persons in these small groups are often driven by a single dominant personality. It is not uncommon for individuals in isolated groups to use common speech and exhibit similar behavior patterns. As in natural systems, this "inbreeding" process results in increased uniformity.

• Ideas within any one group also tend to "drift" away from those in other groups, creating pools of diverse but often flawed ideas. Even when a good idea occurs, there is little opportunity for it to spread beyond the cell in which the idea was created.

• Ideas that occur in isolated environments are often not scrutinized or evaluated. Therefore, it is much more likely that "deleterious" ideas will be expressed within these small cells.

• Fortunately, idea inbreeding can be overcome relatively easily by removing barriers between groups. This can be done by encouraging travel to "idea rich" settings, transferring personnel more frequently, or creating venues for exchange of ideas among individuals within the greater organization, such as periodic seminars, conferences, and internal newsletters. As in nature, mixing of ideas from previously isolated cells creates hybrid ideas that are almost always more effective when applied.

Summary and Conclusions

Ideas in organizations such as Extension function much like genes in interbreeding populations of organisms. Genes are the blueprint for living things, whereas ideas determine the functionality of organizations. If Extension managers apply processes learned from the study of genetics to their organizations, generation, movement, and application of ideas will be enhanced. There are five aspects of "idea management" that are direct adaptations of genetic principles. These are outlined below.

1. Maintain a diversity of ideas within your organization. This will help you respond to change and allow you to avoid functional extinction.

2. Do not expect important ideas to be created in a vacuum. Demanding creativity without supporting external interaction will result in creation of flawed ideas that have not been exposed to adequate scrutiny. These ideas will have little positive effect on the organization.

3. Aggressively support external interaction. Encourage personnel to attend meetings that "stretch" their thinking, and discourage attendance at meetings that simply reinforce existing thought processes. Use sabbatical leaves to bring new ideas into organizations, and utilize external review to enhance quality of ideas generated internally.

4. Carefully consider which ideas are selected for application. Once again, there is a tendency to move toward conformity. This can result in loss of diversity and loss of ability to respond to future challenges. Make certain that evaluative processes like performance appraisal and application for tenure reward creativity and diversity of thought. These processes must not become mechanisms that drive persons toward a common manner of thinking, resulting in a highly uniform organization. Base dismissals upon lack of creativity or productivity and not failure to conform to institutional thought processes. Because idea "selection" is greatest during times of budgetary constriction, take care to eliminate ideas with the least chance of success and the lowest value to the organization. Avoid across-the-board reductions. These tend to eliminate the worst ideas in each sector, but not the worst ideas in the organization as a whole.

5. Take care to eliminate barriers that isolate individuals. Isolated pools of individuals become more uniform and are much more likely to apply flawed ideas. Isolated cells also tend to drift apart. Though this creates diversity, there is no mixing of ideas therefore no one benefits. Expect everyone in the organization to participate in professional development and active exchange of ideas outside of their work environment. Often the most creative persons receive the greatest attention. However, managers should never forget the importance of "stretching" every individual in the organization and the importance of removing barriers affecting all employees. Organizations such as Extension with geographically dispersed employees are most vulnerable to idea inbreeding. These organizations must develop a culture that stimulates exchange of ideas and external pursuit of knowledge.

References

Baskin, K. (1998). Corporate DNA. Boston, MA: Butterworth ® Heinemann.

Burns, T. & Stalker, G. M. (1961). The management of innovation. London: Tavistock Publications.

Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species. London: John Murray. Facsimile of 1st Ed. 1964. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Falconer, D.S. & Mackay, T. F. C. (1996). Introduction to quantitative genetics. 4th Ed. Edinburgh: Longmon Publishing.

Mendel, G., Correns, C., Tschermak, A. & von, DeVries, H. (1950). The birth of genetics. Genetics 35:5 (part 2).

Ray, T. S. (1991). Evolution and optimization of digital organisms. In Billingsley K.R., E. Derohanes, H Brown, III (Eds.), Scientific excellence in supercomputing: The IBM 1990 contest prize papers, Athens, GA, 30602: The Baldwin Press, The University of Georgia. December 1991, Pp. 489-531.

Wheatley, M.J. (1999). Leadership and the new science: discovering order in a chaotic world. 2nd Edition. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Demographic Differences of 4-H Volunteers, Agents, and State Volunteerism Specialists: Implications for Volunteer Administration

Ken Culp, III
Extension Specialist for 4-H Youth Development, Volunteerism
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
kculp@uky.edu

Renee K. McKee
State 4-H Youth Development Program Leader,
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
rmckee@purdue.edu

Patrick Nestor
Extension Specialist, Volunteer Leadership,
West Virginia University
Weston, West Virginia
pinestor@mail.wvu.edu

Introduction & Review of Literature

Little research has been conducted that focuses on the demographics of 4-H volunteers. Volunteers, however, have been central to the success of the 4-H program since its beginning (Wessel & Wessel, 1982). Volunteers are an essential part of Extension and extend 4-H programs to vital areas of counties that might not otherwise be served (Steele, 1994). They continue to be vital in an age of issues programming and National Initiatives for the Cooperative Extension Service (Patton, 1990). Extension professionals make extensive use of volunteers by asking them to serve in a variety of roles and delegating to them responsibility for projects, programs, and activities. Volunteers provide direct service by performing both clerical and administrative tasks and contributing their public relations skills, fund-raising, and grant writing talents and often serving as policy makers, board members, and advisors (Murk & Stephan, 1990).

Volunteer administration is a rapidly growing field.

Volunteer administrators will need to strategically position themselves for dynamic audiences and clientele, as well as a changing volunteer base, in order to serve the needs of society in the next century. Innovative programs should be implemented which will anticipate and meet these evolving needs. Therefore, the tools and technologies which volunteer administrators use to manage and develop programs for these changing audiences will need to evolve for the Third Millennium (Culp, Deppe, Castillo, & Wells, 1998).

4-H Youth Development professionals should consider the most opportune ways to direct volunteer programs in order to maximize volunteer contributions to the organization. Agents work effectively with volunteers to fulfill the goals of the 4- Youth Development program. Nearly 625,000 volunteers deliver 4-H Youth Development programs to American youth annually (National 4-H Headquarters, 2002.) In order to effectively engage volunteers, agents must first understand the characteristics that define and identify who they are.

Becoming familiar with social background characteristics and their relationship to volunteer participation provides information on who is most likely to volunteer (Rohs, 1986). Those most ready to volunteer typically have a history of volunteering or serving in some unpaid position during their youth. Youth who engage in volunteer service continue to help their communities as they age and are more likely to see service as an obligation of all people (Wade, 1997). For them, volunteering has become a way of life. Others learn to volunteer through early experiences in school, sports clubs, church groups, 4-H, and Scouts (Zeutschel & Hansel, 1989).

A study by Culp (1996) corroborated earlier studies by Banning (1970), Clark and Skelton (1950), Denmark (1971), Enders and Fanslow (1981), Parrott (1977), and Zeutschel and Hansel (1989). These studies indicated that 4-H volunteers were primarily married women with children and homemakers with children in school. The profile of the "typical" 4-H volunteer was a 40-to-43-year-old married female with two to three children, nearly all of whom were 4-H participants.

Objectives of the Study

The purpose of the study reported here was to:

• Demographically describe 4-H Youth Development volunteers, agents, and state volunteerism specialists;
• Determine what discrepancies exist between them;
• Determine if volunteers are demographically similar over time; and
• Identify implications for volunteer administration.

Procedures

Research Design & Subject Selection

The exploratory survey research is descriptive and correlational in nature and was conducted utilizing mail questionnaires as outlined by Dillman (1978). The target populations for the census were identified as adult volunteers who interact directly with youth in the 4-H Youth Development (YD) program, 4-H YD agents, and state 4-H YD volunteerism specialists in the United States. A random sample of 100 adult volunteers who served in direct-contact roles with youth was identified in each state. Field staff members who had been employed 6 months or more were identified to participate in each of the target states. A census survey was employed for the state volunteerism specialists.

Three states were purposefully selected from each of the four Extension Regions (North East, South, North Central, and West), with an additional state selected from the South and North Central, to more accurately represent the 4-H member and adult volunteer population distribution in the United States. Twelve of the 14 states originally selected completed the study.

Instrumentation, Data Collection and Analysis

The instrument utilized in the study was developed to identify the demographic characteristics of volunteers, agents, and state volunteerism specialists. Face validity was established by a panel of experts drawn from 4-H volunteers, agents, specialists, and experts in the field of volunteerism and research methodology who were not involved in the study.

The participants were sent a mailed questionnaire as outlined by Dillman (1978). The questionnaire contained one qualitative and two quantitative components. The quantitative components focused on the characteristics of the respondent's volunteer program, including number of 4-H members, number of youth and adult volunteers, middle managers, and the number of agents working with 4-H, as well as the respondent's demographic characteristics.

Questionnaires and a cover letter inviting participation in the study were distributed electronically to the specialists and agents. Both groups were directed to access the appropriate version of the questionnaire via the University of Kentucky 4-H Youth Development Web site. Responses were transferred into a data set located at Purdue University. A reminder message was electronically mailed to the participants 3 weeks after the initial mailing. Because the data that were submitted to the Purdue database were anonymous, no attempt at non-respondent follow-up was made.

Questionnaires were disseminated to the volunteer samples in each state via US Mail, along with a cover letter and a self-addressed, stamped return envelope. Reminder postcards were mailed to non-respondents 3 weeks after the initial mailing, asking for a response within 2 weeks. As noted in Table 1, the following response rates were achieved: 38.38% for volunteers, 41.12% for agents, and 84% for specialists, for a combined rate of 40.54%. Data from the quantitative questions were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square and analysis of variance utilizing SAS (SAS, 2002) to determine differences between the three populations. An alpha level of .05 was set a priori.

Results and Discussion

The figures in Table 2 illustrate that agents are significantly younger than both volunteers and specialists. In many cultures, youth are taught to show respect and to defer to their elders. Younger agents may be uncomfortable instructing, supervising, challenging, or disagreeing with volunteers who are more experienced and mature.

Agents also reported serving significantly fewer years in a volunteer role as compared to both volunteers and specialists. Agents therefore may be less comfortable in supervising volunteers and may learn about volunteer administration through "on-the-job" training. Specialists indicated having served a similar number of years in county-based Extension agent/educator roles, as have agents.

The number of adult volunteers with whom volunteers, agents, and specialists work as well as the number of youth volunteers were found to be significantly different. Because volunteers reported working with an average of 10 other volunteers, agents and specialists should focus on providing educational support to volunteers in recruitment, interpersonal skills, delegation, etc. Volunteers reported serving more volunteer organizations than either agents or specialists (Table 2).

Table 3 illustrates that the highest educational level achieved was significantly different (p = .0001) for the three groups. Additionally, a linear relationship between education and occupation was found. The highest educational level reported by most volunteers was either a high school diploma or a Bachelor's degree (30% for each). However, three-quarters of agents reported holding a Master's degree, with the majority of specialists also holding a Master's degree, and over one-third also holding a doctorate.

Similar to volunteers, education was most frequently identified by agents and specialists as their most frequently earned college major. Two important differences, however, should be noted. Ninety-five percent of specialists and 75.63% of agents have earned a master's degree, whereas only 13.76% of volunteers have a master's. Additionally, 19.62% of volunteers reported an education major, compared with 29.78% for agents and 51.22% for specialists. Volunteers, therefore, have greater diversity in their educational degrees than do either agents or specialists. This wider variety of educational background should be used to advantage by agents when recruiting individuals to share learning experiences with young people in our programs. Because today's 4-H volunteers are more highly educated than those from earlier studies, agents should begin to rethink, identify, and develop new level volunteer roles that utilize the expertise, talents, and skills of a more highly educated cadre of volunteers.

Historically, more women than men have served in volunteer roles. Women have tended to be more comfortable serving in nurturing roles, and men have traditionally been viewed as breadwinners who are too busy to serve as volunteers (Blackman, 1999). However, more men are needed to serve as role models in youth development. A comparison of gender differences among volunteers, agents, and specialists (Table 4) indicates that the total percentage of females serving the 4-H program outnumbers the percentage of males. Extension staff should carefully assess gender balance of their volunteers.

4-H volunteers contribute their time and energy to other organizations in addition to 4-H. Table 5 shows that over 85% of 4-H volunteers are also actively serving other organizations. The majority of volunteers serve one or two other organizations. Thus, agents should not be reluctant to identify and recruit potential volunteers from those who are already involved in service to other organizations.

Highly significant differences (p < .0001) were found among volunteers, agents, and specialists on the number of organizations for which they volunteered (Table 6). Less than half as many agents and specialists served other organizations, as compared to volunteers. Moreover, half of agents and specialists reported no outside volunteer activity. Neither agents nor specialists engage in the amount of volunteer service reported by the volunteers.

To probe the issue of why agents and specialists are less likely to engage in volunteer service, three questions should be raised.

1. Can agents and specialists who have little or no first-hand volunteer experience effectively develop volunteers or coordinate volunteer programs?

2. Could agents and specialists benefit by serving in volunteer roles outside of 4-H in order to more effectively understand volunteer service and the role of volunteers?

3. Are agents and specialists so devoted to or consumed by their jobs that they have no leisure time to devote to volunteer service?

As indicated in Table 6, the three groups differed significantly on the percent that volunteered for different organizations. Volunteers, agents, and specialists generally volunteered for the same kinds and a variety of organizations. Churches and religious groups were most frequently listed by all three groups as the organization (besides 4-H) for which the respondent served as a volunteer. Volunteering for school, PTO, band boosters, and school-related activities were second, and community and civic organizations were the third most frequently identified organizations for which respondents volunteered. Sporting events and health-related activities completed the top five organizations reported. All three populations indicated a strong likelihood to volunteer for organizations in the community. These findings would suggest faith communities and congregations could be targeted when recruiting 4‑H volunteers, as could other community-based organizations.

Significant differences were found when comparing 4-H participation among volunteers, agents, and specialists (Table 7). While all three groups were likely to have participated in 4-H as youths, a linear relationship was identified between occupation and former 4-H involvement. While knowledge of the 4-H program is an obvious advantage for volunteers and employees alike, that same knowledge and experience may also be a disadvantage or an obstacle to change.