August 2005
Volume 43 Number 4

Features

Organizational Evolution: Applying Genetic Principles to the Management of Extension Systems

John A. Winder
Assistant Director
Oregon State University Extension Service
Corvallis, Oregon
john.winder@oregonstate.edu

Introduction

Authors and researchers have begun to recognize that analogs to biological "laws" can be applied to improve effectiveness of organizations and industrial processes. Burns and Stalker (1961) may have been the first to characterize business models as organic or mechanistic. They hypothesized that hierarchical mechanistic systems are preferred when the business environment is very stable, while more fluid designs resembling natural systems (organic) were more effective during times of rapid change. Baskin (1998) described how businesses exist in "ecosystems" similar to biological organisms and how businesses evolve in response to changes in the "environment." Wheatley (1999) used models derived from observation of natural "systems" to describe organizational processes and expected outcomes. Ray (1991) demonstrated another novel application of biological principles to inorganic problems when he created a system that allowed machine code to evolve based on Darwinian and Mendelian principles. His evolved code was smaller and faster than original code, indicating that evolutionary processes may be applied to software development.

Genetics is at the core of most biological processes. Understanding of genetic systems was greatly enhanced in by Mendel in 1865 (Mendel et al., 1950) and Darwin (1859) whose principles lead to creation of a host of evolutionary sciences. Among these is a mathematical approach called "population genetics" that described creation, movement, and expression of genes in groups of inter-mating organisms (populations).

Hardy and Weinberg developed the main tenet of population genetics in 1908 when they demonstrated that only four processes caused change (evolution) in genetic composition of populations (Falconer & Mackay, 1996). These processes are:

1. Mutation: spontaneous creation of new genes,
2. Migration: movement of genes into or out of a population,
3. Selection: differential reproductive rates among organisms of differing genetic makeup, and
4. The effect of inbreeding in small subpopulations.

Extension organizations behave very much like interbreeding populations. While genes create the blueprint determining potential for size, shape, behavior, and chemistry of organisms, ideas are the blueprint for Extension and determine its future size, activities, and effectiveness. There is also an analogy for each genetic principle in Extension.

1. Ideas are similar to genes in that they can be spontaneously generated (mutated).
2. Ideas migrate into or out of an organization or move within the organization.
3. Application of ideas is analogous to the expression of genes. Decision-makers select ideas for application much as nature and man allow organisms to reproduce based on their genetic composition.
4. Inbreeding occurs in Extension when interaction with the outside world is limited.

The following examines these four factors in detail and describes how Extension decision-makers can utilize these concepts to improve the generation, importation, and application of quality ideas to improve the effectiveness of the Extension organization.

The Significance of Diversity

Before examining the four mechanisms that result in change in natural populations and Extension systems, it is important to describe one additional component that determines "resiliency" of both biological populations and organizations.

In living organisms, maintenance of genetic diversity is often key to survival.

• If populations lack diversity, they are unable to respond to changes in the environment. This leads to decline in populations and, in extreme cases, extinction of sub-species and/or species.

• Conversely, populations that maintain some degree of genetic variation possess potential to change in response to new environmental challenges. The ability of Extension to respond to external challenges is critical to both function and long-term survival.

In Extension, diversity of ideas (and ideals) is also crucial for survival and success.

• If an Extension organization is based on a narrow set of ideas (or ideals), it will be unable to change in response to shifts in clientele needs or to emerging opportunities. Extension systems based on uniform thought are often intolerant of viewpoints that do not fit preset norms. If change is necessary, these systems are too static and lack the ideas needed to respond to the challenge.

• Extension organizations that have diversity of ideas possess the potential to change, survive and thrive, and healthy Extension systems encourage diversity of thought. This can be fostered by hiring individuals with diverse backgrounds and by creating an environment that is conducive to creation, importation, and application of new concepts.

Just as in nature, Extension must evolve or die, and lack of diversity may well result in functional extinction.

Mutation: Spontaneous Creation of Genes and Ideas

In biological systems, new genetic material arises spontaneously by change in the molecular structure of DNA. This process is called "mutation." Mutation occurs at very low rates, and most new mutations when expressed are harmful to the organism. This is because over evolutionary time most desirable genes were incorporated into the genome of organisms. Therefore, changes in the structure of these genes (mutations) are much more likely to be harmful than favorable. Only on rare occasions does a mutation result in a positive outcome.

• Over evolutionary time, mutation is very important because it is the only means by which new genetic material can be created. But in finite timeframes, the net affect of mutation is miniscule because rates are low, and deleterious mutations are quickly discarded through the process of natural selection.

• Geneticists can increase mutation rates by applying "mutagenic" agents, but this strategy has little practical application because it creates far more genetic "trash" than valuable new genes.

As with evolving organisms, Extension's "genome" is composed of many good ideas that have been accumulating over time. Therefore, when ideas are spontaneously created in a vacuum, they are much like mutated genes.

• Ideas that are created without outside input are usually flawed. Only rarely will this result in functional novel concepts. Defective ideas will not function and will eventually be discarded from the organizations.

• When Extension managers demand creativity but do not provide resources for travel or research, they will no doubt stimulate ideas, but these ideas will almost always be flawed and eventually fail just as increasing mutation rates results in more genetic trash.

Migration: Movement of Genes and Ideas

There is only one mechanism besides mutation by which new genetic material can be introduced into a population. This process is called "migration." This occurs when an organism with genetic composition different from the average of the population enters or leaves the population. This is the most powerful (and useful) mechanism affecting positive genetic change, and it is the dominant mechanism used by geneticists and farmers to enhance the genetic merit of plants and animals.

• Migration is much more efficient than mutation in creating positive genetic change because there is a much higher probability of finding valuable genes in another population than through a mutational event. Farmers buy seed, breeding stock, semen, and embryos from outside sources because they recognize they are much more likely to find the best genetics if they expand their search beyond their own fields and herds.

• In order to create positive change within biological systems, organisms with desirable genes must enter the population or individuals with inferior genes must leave. If migrants are similar to the average genetic makeup of the population, no change will occur.

As mentioned previously, ideas can be move into or out of the organization, and there are actions and activities that can be undertaken to enhance movement of ideas and to improve the creativity of the Extension organization.

• It is much more efficient to seek new and important ideas outside of a county, region, or state than by waiting for a useful idea to arise spontaneously within. Managers should encourage employees to pursue professional development activities that truly expand their thought processes. They should also seek to hire persons who bring new ideas to the organization. Sabbatical leaves should be approved on the basis of their potential to bring new ideas to the organization. Processes should also be in place to bring innovators into the organization from the outside for "reverse sabbaticals." This exposes the entire staff to new concepts.

• Ideas flowing from the outside of the organization inward must be different and more effective than those commonly held by the organization or there will be no net positive effect. It is common for employees to attend meetings with others possessing similar ideas. This only codifies existing thinking and does not provide any new ideas to the organization. Employees should attend meetings and training sessions that push them out of their comfort zones and expose them to new ideas.

Selection: Allowing "Fit" Organisms to Reproduce and Best Ideas to Be Applied

The selection process allows organisms with desirable genes to reproduce at greater rates than those lacking desirable genes. This can either be applied as environmental pressure (natural selection) or by the hand of man (artificial selection).

• Over time, those with the highest reproductive rates leave more progeny and alter the future genetic makeup of the population. Man has used selection as a means of changing plants and animals for millennia. Those with the most desired characteristics were cultivated and encouraged to reproduce. Those without the desired characteristics were restricted from entering the breeding population.

• In natural systems, selection also tends to be cyclical. When resources (food and habitat) are abundant, little selection pressure is exerted, and organisms in a population reproduce at relatively comparable rates. When resources dry up, only the most "fit" compete and reproduce. It is during these times that selection drives substantial change in the genetic makeup of the population.

In Extension, selection is applied by administration or by policy. When ideas are applied (and supported), it is much like an organism reproducing. Care should be taken to "select" the right ideas for implementation.

• Extension can benefit by creating structures that encourage nonproductive persons to leave the organization. If used properly, tenure and evaluative processes provide an incentive for uncreative persons to exit the organization. It is extremely important that these processes function properly. Sometimes evaluation and tenure are inadvertently used to encourage conformity to a standard manner of thinking. This results in loss of diversity as the best thinkers become frustrated and leave. Loss of good ideas will change the "composition" of the organization, but this will occur in the wrong direction.

• As in natural systems, an idea is much more likely to be applied during times of plenty (robust budgets, high profits, etc.). Conversely, when funding is tight, decision-makers are forced to be more selective as to which ideas are supported and implemented. Often, when funding is limited, managers make the mistake of reducing budgets across the board instead of selectively limiting resources. Across-the-board reductions diminish application of good and bad ideas, alike. Conversely, selective reductions or program eliminations allow good ideas to continue to flourish while eliminating ideas that are less useful to the organization.

Inbreeding: Isolation of Small Subpopulations

In nature, large populations are often segregated into smaller breeding groups by geography or by catastrophic events that isolate small subpopulations from the main population. Perhaps an island is formed by a flood or earthquake, isolating animals and plants that cannot swim or fly to the mainland. If the isolated group is very small, relatives begin to mate at increased frequency causing increased inbreeding. As a result, small subpopulations become little more than an extended family.

• When inbreeding occurs, diversity is lost within subpopulations over time as individuals within an interbreeding subpopulation become increasingly more related and consequently more similar in appearance and function.

• Although within the subpopulation there is more genetic uniformity, each subpopulation tends to drift apart, resulting in uniform subpopulations that differ from one another. Though this creates diversity within the larger population, the diversity among subpopulations is of little value to the population as a whole because there is no exchange of genetic material between subpopulations. (Subpopulations are still isolated from one another.)

• As organisms become more uniform within each subpopulation, they become much less resilient and lose the ability to respond to environmental changes. They lack the diversity necessary to deal with these changes. Thus, small isolated subpopulations are much more likely to fail.

• Another result of inbreeding is the increased expression of deleterious genes. In non-inbred populations, bad genes are often masked by other genes and not expressed. This is possible because they tend to pair with genes that are functional and dominant. With inbreeding, there is an increased probability that two deleterious genes will pair up and thus be expressed fully.

• When barriers are removed and previously isolated groups are allowed to interbreed, the negative effects of inbreeding are reversed. Actually very little "migration" of new genes into a subpopulation can completely arrest the inbreeding process. When two individuals from different inbred subpopulations mate, the resulting offspring is a hybrid that is almost always more genetically "fit" than its inbred parents. Therefore, the overall fitness of the population increases when subdivisions are removed and subpopulations mix.

In Extension, isolation of individuals in small cells causes "idea inbreeding." This may occur in an isolated county office with only a few persons interacting on a regular basis or any time that individuals fail to openly exchange ideas. Over time, these isolated pools become increasingly uniform.

• Persons in these small groups are often driven by a single dominant personality. It is not uncommon for individuals in isolated groups to use common speech and exhibit similar behavior patterns. As in natural systems, this "inbreeding" process results in increased uniformity.

• Ideas within any one group also tend to "drift" away from those in other groups, creating pools of diverse but often flawed ideas. Even when a good idea occurs, there is little opportunity for it to spread beyond the cell in which the idea was created.

• Ideas that occur in isolated environments are often not scrutinized or evaluated. Therefore, it is much more likely that "deleterious" ideas will be expressed within these small cells.

• Fortunately, idea inbreeding can be overcome relatively easily by removing barriers between groups. This can be done by encouraging travel to "idea rich" settings, transferring personnel more frequently, or creating venues for exchange of ideas among individuals within the greater organization, such as periodic seminars, conferences, and internal newsletters. As in nature, mixing of ideas from previously isolated cells creates hybrid ideas that are almost always more effective when applied.

Summary and Conclusions

Ideas in organizations such as Extension function much like genes in interbreeding populations of organisms. Genes are the blueprint for living things, whereas ideas determine the functionality of organizations. If Extension managers apply processes learned from the study of genetics to their organizations, generation, movement, and application of ideas will be enhanced. There are five aspects of "idea management" that are direct adaptations of genetic principles. These are outlined below.

1. Maintain a diversity of ideas within your organization. This will help you respond to change and allow you to avoid functional extinction.

2. Do not expect important ideas to be created in a vacuum. Demanding creativity without supporting external interaction will result in creation of flawed ideas that have not been exposed to adequate scrutiny. These ideas will have little positive effect on the organization.

3. Aggressively support external interaction. Encourage personnel to attend meetings that "stretch" their thinking, and discourage attendance at meetings that simply reinforce existing thought processes. Use sabbatical leaves to bring new ideas into organizations, and utilize external review to enhance quality of ideas generated internally.

4. Carefully consider which ideas are selected for application. Once again, there is a tendency to move toward conformity. This can result in loss of diversity and loss of ability to respond to future challenges. Make certain that evaluative processes like performance appraisal and application for tenure reward creativity and diversity of thought. These processes must not become mechanisms that drive persons toward a common manner of thinking, resulting in a highly uniform organization. Base dismissals upon lack of creativity or productivity and not failure to conform to institutional thought processes. Because idea "selection" is greatest during times of budgetary constriction, take care to eliminate ideas with the least chance of success and the lowest value to the organization. Avoid across-the-board reductions. These tend to eliminate the worst ideas in each sector, but not the worst ideas in the organization as a whole.

5. Take care to eliminate barriers that isolate individuals. Isolated pools of individuals become more uniform and are much more likely to apply flawed ideas. Isolated cells also tend to drift apart. Though this creates diversity, there is no mixing of ideas therefore no one benefits. Expect everyone in the organization to participate in professional development and active exchange of ideas outside of their work environment. Often the most creative persons receive the greatest attention. However, managers should never forget the importance of "stretching" every individual in the organization and the importance of removing barriers affecting all employees. Organizations such as Extension with geographically dispersed employees are most vulnerable to idea inbreeding. These organizations must develop a culture that stimulates exchange of ideas and external pursuit of knowledge.

References

Baskin, K. (1998). Corporate DNA. Boston, MA: Butterworth ® Heinemann.

Burns, T. & Stalker, G. M. (1961). The management of innovation. London: Tavistock Publications.

Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species. London: John Murray. Facsimile of 1st Ed. 1964. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Falconer, D.S. & Mackay, T. F. C. (1996). Introduction to quantitative genetics. 4th Ed. Edinburgh: Longmon Publishing.

Mendel, G., Correns, C., Tschermak, A. & von, DeVries, H. (1950). The birth of genetics. Genetics 35:5 (part 2).

Ray, T. S. (1991). Evolution and optimization of digital organisms. In Billingsley K.R., E. Derohanes, H Brown, III (Eds.), Scientific excellence in supercomputing: The IBM 1990 contest prize papers, Athens, GA, 30602: The Baldwin Press, The University of Georgia. December 1991, Pp. 489-531.

Wheatley, M.J. (1999). Leadership and the new science: discovering order in a chaotic world. 2nd Edition. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Demographic Differences of 4-H Volunteers, Agents, and State Volunteerism Specialists: Implications for Volunteer Administration

Ken Culp, III
Extension Specialist for 4-H Youth Development, Volunteerism
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
kculp@uky.edu

Renee K. McKee
State 4-H Youth Development Program Leader,
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
rmckee@purdue.edu

Patrick Nestor
Extension Specialist, Volunteer Leadership,
West Virginia University
Weston, West Virginia
pinestor@mail.wvu.edu

Introduction & Review of Literature

Little research has been conducted that focuses on the demographics of 4-H volunteers. Volunteers, however, have been central to the success of the 4-H program since its beginning (Wessel & Wessel, 1982). Volunteers are an essential part of Extension and extend 4-H programs to vital areas of counties that might not otherwise be served (Steele, 1994). They continue to be vital in an age of issues programming and National Initiatives for the Cooperative Extension Service (Patton, 1990). Extension professionals make extensive use of volunteers by asking them to serve in a variety of roles and delegating to them responsibility for projects, programs, and activities. Volunteers provide direct service by performing both clerical and administrative tasks and contributing their public relations skills, fund-raising, and grant writing talents and often serving as policy makers, board members, and advisors (Murk & Stephan, 1990).

Volunteer administration is a rapidly growing field.

Volunteer administrators will need to strategically position themselves for dynamic audiences and clientele, as well as a changing volunteer base, in order to serve the needs of society in the next century. Innovative programs should be implemented which will anticipate and meet these evolving needs. Therefore, the tools and technologies which volunteer administrators use to manage and develop programs for these changing audiences will need to evolve for the Third Millennium (Culp, Deppe, Castillo, & Wells, 1998).

4-H Youth Development professionals should consider the most opportune ways to direct volunteer programs in order to maximize volunteer contributions to the organization. Agents work effectively with volunteers to fulfill the goals of the 4- Youth Development program. Nearly 625,000 volunteers deliver 4-H Youth Development programs to American youth annually (National 4-H Headquarters, 2002.) In order to effectively engage volunteers, agents must first understand the characteristics that define and identify who they are.

Becoming familiar with social background characteristics and their relationship to volunteer participation provides information on who is most likely to volunteer (Rohs, 1986). Those most ready to volunteer typically have a history of volunteering or serving in some unpaid position during their youth. Youth who engage in volunteer service continue to help their communities as they age and are more likely to see service as an obligation of all people (Wade, 1997). For them, volunteering has become a way of life. Others learn to volunteer through early experiences in school, sports clubs, church groups, 4-H, and Scouts (Zeutschel & Hansel, 1989).

A study by Culp (1996) corroborated earlier studies by Banning (1970), Clark and Skelton (1950), Denmark (1971), Enders and Fanslow (1981), Parrott (1977), and Zeutschel and Hansel (1989). These studies indicated that 4-H volunteers were primarily married women with children and homemakers with children in school. The profile of the "typical" 4-H volunteer was a 40-to-43-year-old married female with two to three children, nearly all of whom were 4-H participants.

Objectives of the Study

The purpose of the study reported here was to:

• Demographically describe 4-H Youth Development volunteers, agents, and state volunteerism specialists;
• Determine what discrepancies exist between them;
• Determine if volunteers are demographically similar over time; and
• Identify implications for volunteer administration.

Procedures

Research Design & Subject Selection

The exploratory survey research is descriptive and correlational in nature and was conducted utilizing mail questionnaires as outlined by Dillman (1978). The target populations for the census were identified as adult volunteers who interact directly with youth in the 4-H Youth Development (YD) program, 4-H YD agents, and state 4-H YD volunteerism specialists in the United States. A random sample of 100 adult volunteers who served in direct-contact roles with youth was identified in each state. Field staff members who had been employed 6 months or more were identified to participate in each of the target states. A census survey was employed for the state volunteerism specialists.

Three states were purposefully selected from each of the four Extension Regions (North East, South, North Central, and West), with an additional state selected from the South and North Central, to more accurately represent the 4-H member and adult volunteer population distribution in the United States. Twelve of the 14 states originally selected completed the study.

Instrumentation, Data Collection and Analysis

The instrument utilized in the study was developed to identify the demographic characteristics of volunteers, agents, and state volunteerism specialists. Face validity was established by a panel of experts drawn from 4-H volunteers, agents, specialists, and experts in the field of volunteerism and research methodology who were not involved in the study.

The participants were sent a mailed questionnaire as outlined by Dillman (1978). The questionnaire contained one qualitative and two quantitative components. The quantitative components focused on the characteristics of the respondent's volunteer program, including number of 4-H members, number of youth and adult volunteers, middle managers, and the number of agents working with 4-H, as well as the respondent's demographic characteristics.

Questionnaires and a cover letter inviting participation in the study were distributed electronically to the specialists and agents. Both groups were directed to access the appropriate version of the questionnaire via the University of Kentucky 4-H Youth Development Web site. Responses were transferred into a data set located at Purdue University. A reminder message was electronically mailed to the participants 3 weeks after the initial mailing. Because the data that were submitted to the Purdue database were anonymous, no attempt at non-respondent follow-up was made.

Questionnaires were disseminated to the volunteer samples in each state via US Mail, along with a cover letter and a self-addressed, stamped return envelope. Reminder postcards were mailed to non-respondents 3 weeks after the initial mailing, asking for a response within 2 weeks. As noted in Table 1, the following response rates were achieved: 38.38% for volunteers, 41.12% for agents, and 84% for specialists, for a combined rate of 40.54%. Data from the quantitative questions were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square and analysis of variance utilizing SAS (SAS, 2002) to determine differences between the three populations. An alpha level of .05 was set a priori.

Results and Discussion

The figures in Table 2 illustrate that agents are significantly younger than both volunteers and specialists. In many cultures, youth are taught to show respect and to defer to their elders. Younger agents may be uncomfortable instructing, supervising, challenging, or disagreeing with volunteers who are more experienced and mature.

Agents also reported serving significantly fewer years in a volunteer role as compared to both volunteers and specialists. Agents therefore may be less comfortable in supervising volunteers and may learn about volunteer administration through "on-the-job" training. Specialists indicated having served a similar number of years in county-based Extension agent/educator roles, as have agents.

The number of adult volunteers with whom volunteers, agents, and specialists work as well as the number of youth volunteers were found to be significantly different. Because volunteers reported working with an average of 10 other volunteers, agents and specialists should focus on providing educational support to volunteers in recruitment, interpersonal skills, delegation, etc. Volunteers reported serving more volunteer organizations than either agents or specialists (Table 2).

Table 3 illustrates that the highest educational level achieved was significantly different (p = .0001) for the three groups. Additionally, a linear relationship between education and occupation was found. The highest educational level reported by most volunteers was either a high school diploma or a Bachelor's degree (30% for each). However, three-quarters of agents reported holding a Master's degree, with the majority of specialists also holding a Master's degree, and over one-third also holding a doctorate.

Similar to volunteers, education was most frequently identified by agents and specialists as their most frequently earned college major. Two important differences, however, should be noted. Ninety-five percent of specialists and 75.63% of agents have earned a master's degree, whereas only 13.76% of volunteers have a master's. Additionally, 19.62% of volunteers reported an education major, compared with 29.78% for agents and 51.22% for specialists. Volunteers, therefore, have greater diversity in their educational degrees than do either agents or specialists. This wider variety of educational background should be used to advantage by agents when recruiting individuals to share learning experiences with young people in our programs. Because today's 4-H volunteers are more highly educated than those from earlier studies, agents should begin to rethink, identify, and develop new level volunteer roles that utilize the expertise, talents, and skills of a more highly educated cadre of volunteers.

Historically, more women than men have served in volunteer roles. Women have tended to be more comfortable serving in nurturing roles, and men have traditionally been viewed as breadwinners who are too busy to serve as volunteers (Blackman, 1999). However, more men are needed to serve as role models in youth development. A comparison of gender differences among volunteers, agents, and specialists (Table 4) indicates that the total percentage of females serving the 4-H program outnumbers the percentage of males. Extension staff should carefully assess gender balance of their volunteers.

4-H volunteers contribute their time and energy to other organizations in addition to 4-H. Table 5 shows that over 85% of 4-H volunteers are also actively serving other organizations. The majority of volunteers serve one or two other organizations. Thus, agents should not be reluctant to identify and recruit potential volunteers from those who are already involved in service to other organizations.

Highly significant differences (p < .0001) were found among volunteers, agents, and specialists on the number of organizations for which they volunteered (Table 6). Less than half as many agents and specialists served other organizations, as compared to volunteers. Moreover, half of agents and specialists reported no outside volunteer activity. Neither agents nor specialists engage in the amount of volunteer service reported by the volunteers.

To probe the issue of why agents and specialists are less likely to engage in volunteer service, three questions should be raised.

1. Can agents and specialists who have little or no first-hand volunteer experience effectively develop volunteers or coordinate volunteer programs?

2. Could agents and specialists benefit by serving in volunteer roles outside of 4-H in order to more effectively understand volunteer service and the role of volunteers?

3. Are agents and specialists so devoted to or consumed by their jobs that they have no leisure time to devote to volunteer service?

As indicated in Table 6, the three groups differed significantly on the percent that volunteered for different organizations. Volunteers, agents, and specialists generally volunteered for the same kinds and a variety of organizations. Churches and religious groups were most frequently listed by all three groups as the organization (besides 4-H) for which the respondent served as a volunteer. Volunteering for school, PTO, band boosters, and school-related activities were second, and community and civic organizations were the third most frequently identified organizations for which respondents volunteered. Sporting events and health-related activities completed the top five organizations reported. All three populations indicated a strong likelihood to volunteer for organizations in the community. These findings would suggest faith communities and congregations could be targeted when recruiting 4‑H volunteers, as could other community-based organizations.

Significant differences were found when comparing 4-H participation among volunteers, agents, and specialists (Table 7). While all three groups were likely to have participated in 4-H as youths, a linear relationship was identified between occupation and former 4-H involvement. While knowledge of the 4-H program is an obvious advantage for volunteers and employees alike, that same knowledge and experience may also be a disadvantage or an obstacle to change.

4-H professionals should not hesitate to recruit prospective volunteers who are employed outside of the home. Findings from the study support the concept that volunteers are busy people. Almost two-thirds of all 4-H volunteers were employed full-time, with just over one-fifth being employed part-time. One-sixth of 4-H volunteers reported being unemployed. However, it is important to note that many respondents indicated on their questionnaire that they were unemployed due to retirement (Table 8).

4-H volunteers were employed in a variety of occupations (Table 9). Nearly 30% of employed volunteers worked in a professional specialty field. An additional 14.02% worked in administrative support, and 13.81% were employed as an executive, administrator, or manager. This supports the concept that volunteers bring tremendous skills and expertise to their volunteer role. Many of those employed in a professional specialty field can utilize these skills in their volunteer role. Agents should not hesitate to recruit volunteers outside of the traditional club-oriented, direct-contact roles. Given the current research base on episodic volunteer roles, agents should design short-term volunteer roles and recruit episodic volunteers to serve those positions.

Implications

1. Because agents are significantly younger and have less volunteer experience than the volunteers whom they supervise, specialists should provide in-service education to new agents in working with, supervising, and understanding the role of 4-H volunteers.

2. There is a graying of the volunteer pool in this nation. 4-H agents should work to recruit beyond the typical pool of parents or "moms." Retirees are likely an under-represented group of volunteers in the 4-H Program.

3. Agents should provide volunteer development activities in recruiting, delegating, working with co-leaders, 4-H volunteers, and involving parents.

4. Because of the great diversity reported by volunteers on their college major, agents should capitalize on this broad range of experience when expanding the 4-H program, redefining volunteer roles, or identifying local resources.

5. When recruiting new volunteers, agents should target individuals who are already actively involved in community service roles. Volunteering for churches, schools, and community and civic organizations are the most popular activities in which 4-H volunteers are also involved.

6. Volunteers were the least likely to have been enrolled as 4-H members in their youth. Staff cannot assume volunteers can begin working with the 4-H program without providing orientation on the history, vision, mission, and structure of the 4-H organization.

7. Because nearly all volunteers were employed, agents should not hesitate to identify and recruit volunteers from the workforce. Professionals, administrative support, and executive/administrative/management were the most popular occupations for 4-H volunteers.

References

Banning, J. W. (1970). Recruiting and training 4-H leaders--What studies show. Washington DC: Cooperative Extension Service, USDA and State Land Grant Universities Cooperating, 1970.

Blackman, S. T. (1999). Recruiting male volunteers: A guide based on exploratory research. Corporation for national service. Washington, DC

Clark, R. C. Jr., & Skelton, W. (1950). The 4-H club leader. New York State College of Agriculture, Bulletin 94. Ithaca: Cornell University.

Culp, III, K. (1996). Identifying continuing adult 4-H volunteers: How do they differ from non-continuers? How have they evolved over time? Journal of Agricultural Education. 37 (4) 44-51.

Culp, III, K., Deppe, C. A., Castillo, J. X., & Wells, B. J. (1998). The GEMS model of volunteer leadership administration. Journal of Volunteer Administration 16(4), 36-41.

Denmark, K. L. (1971). Factors affecting the identification, recruiting and training of volunteer 4-H adult leaders in Texas. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Texas A & M University, College Station.

Deppe, C. A. (1998). Ohio 4-H agents' perceptions of the level of importance and frequency of use of the eighteen components of the GEMS model of volunteer administration. Unpublished master's thesis. The Ohio State University.

Dillman, D. A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Murk, P. J., & Stephan, J. F. (1990). Volunteers enhance the quality of life in a community...or (How to get them, train them and keep them). Salt Lake City, Utah: (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 326 639).

National 4-H Headquarters (2002). National 4-H youth enrollment report, fiscal year 2001.

Parrott, M. A. (1977). Motivation, personal and social characteristics of 4-H leaders. Unpublished M.S. thesis. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Editor's page. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 28(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990fall/ed1.html

Rohs, F. R., & Lee, G. B. (1989). Personal factors associated with volunteering in 4-H among middle school teachers. Paper presented at the Association of Voluntary Action Scholarship Conference, Washington, DC: National 4-H Center. Oct, 1989.

SAS 8.01 (2002). SAS Institute, Cary, NC.

Steele, D. L. (1994). Volunteer leader inventory. Rotary training guide. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN

Wade, R. (1997). Community service learning: A guide to including service in the public school curriculum. New York: State University of New York Press.

Wessel, T., & Wessel, M. (1982). 4‑H: An American idea 1900-1980. Washington, D.C.: National 4-H Council.

Zeutschel, U., & Hansel, B. (1989). The AFS volunteer resources study: Summary of findings from Germany study. New York: AFS International/Intercultural Programs, Inc. Center for the Study of Intercultural Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 322 053).

Wonderwise 4-H: Following in the Footsteps of Women Scientists

Amy N. Spiegel
Research Assistant Professor
Center for Instructional Innovation
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Lincoln, Nebraska
aspiegel1@unl.edu

S. Kay Rockwell
Professor and Extension Specialist
Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communication
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Lincoln, Nebraska
Email address: krockwell1@unl.edu

Deanna Acklie
Assistant Professor
College of Saint Mary
Omaha, Nebraska
dacklie@csm.edu

Saundra Wever Frerichs
Graduate Student
Department of Education and Professional Studies
King's College London
London, United Kingdom
saundra.wever_frerichs@kcl.ac.uk

Kathleen French
Education Coordinator
University of Nebraska State Museum
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Lincoln, Nebraska
kfrench2@unl.edu

Judy Diamond
Professor and Curator
University of Nebraska State Museum
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Lincoln, Nebraska
jdiamond1@unl.edu

Introduction

Wonderwise 4-H introduces youth to contemporary female scientists in the real world. Women biologists, geologists, veterinarians, and others are featured in their labs, out in the field, and with their families in a series of nine interactive multimedia kits. Working with these kits, youth learn about nine different scientists' occupations and participate in hands-on science activities similar to the actual work of each female scientist role model. Wonderwise 4-H, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and selected for the Nationally Juried 4-H Experiential Learning Youth Development Curriculum Collection of 2003, was designed to encourage youth, particularly girls, to pursue scientific careers.

Girls lag behind boys in science achievement as they progress from elementary grades into high school (O'Sullivan, Reese, & Mazzeo, 1997); even those who are academically inclined and talented are less likely than boys to pursue scientific careers (Matyas & Dix, 1992; National Science Board, 1993, 1998). Youth from rural areas, especially those with few role models for scientific careers, have little knowledge about career opportunities and limited aspirations for scientific vocations (Crockett, Shanahan, & Jackson-Newsome, 1996; Haller & Vickler, 1993; Sarigiani, Wilson, Petersen, & Vicary, 1990). The lack of accurate information about science careers, along with gender role stereotyping, limit girls' career choices and expectations for success (Baker & Leary, 1995; Eccles, 1986). Scientists are usually portrayed, whether in textbooks or on television, as male (Steinke & Long, 1996), and most girls lack personal acquaintance with scientists, particularly those who are women (Hill, Pettus, & Hedin, 1990). Baker (1987) suggests that exposing girls to outstanding female role models may encourage them to pursue science as a career.

To address the issues of rural isolation and lack of role models for young girls, NSF funded Wonderwise 4-H, a major collaborative project between the University of Nebraska State Museum and the 4-H Youth Development program, to enhance nonformal youth education. Museums and 4-H have common educational goals, with long histories of using experiential methods for teaching science. Museums reach out to youth, using hands-on experiences for educational activities, and museum kits have long been a resource for teachers and other educators. 4-H curricula apply scientific principles in youth programs that build life skills as youth prepare for future vocations. The experiential learning model and the inquiry-based science approach link directly to two national guidelines that ensure quality youth programs: the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996) and Cooperative Extension's Science Guidelines for Nonformal Education (Carlson & Maxa, 1997).

The NSF grant in 2000 was the catalyst for the museum and 4-H to form a consortium, with the museum leading the development of the Wonderwise 4-H kits. The 4-H state leaders from 10 states (Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Wyoming) agreed to participate in the project by engaging staff and volunteer leaders to (a) field test six classroom-based Wonderwise kits developed in the early 1990s in a nonformal educational setting and provide suggestions for altering the kits, (b) participate in workshops to learn how to use the Wonderwise 4-H kits, (c) disseminate kits in their states, and (d) participate in evaluating Wonderwise 4-H. In return, each state received grant dollars to purchase kits and kit supplies, as well as museum resources to learn more about the kits.

Wonderwise 4-H: Its Design, Development, and Dissemination

Six Wonderwise kits were developed for classroom use in the mid-1990's through funding from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Thorough field-testing and extensive evaluation during development documented their utility before kits were widely disseminated to elementary school teachers in Nebraska (Spiegel, Dethlefs, & Pytlik Zillig, 1997). In 2000, the University of Nebraska State Museum collaborated with 4-H Youth Development to redesign Wonderwise into Wonderwise 4-H for use in nonformal educational settings. Wonderwise 4-H was designed as an interdisciplinary, experiential learning activity to:

1. Motivate 8- to 12-year-old youth, particularly girls, to pursue an interest in science and an awareness of scientific activities and careers,

2. Create a positive image of women and minority scientists for 4-H youth,

3. Improve diversity and quality of 4-H's out-of-school science materials by offering materials that are inquiry-based and multicultural and tie science activities to the work of real scientists,

4. Help youth connect agricultural topics and their underlying scientific principles, and

5. Instill in youth a better appreciation of empirically based knowledge and enhance children's ability to use scientific reasoning.

Pedagogical Approach and Curriculum Design

There are many reasons for using hands-on activities in nonformal youth education programs (Carlson & Maxa, 1998). The National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996), reports from Project 2061 (a biological and health science project) funded by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (Clark, 1989), and lessons learned from a 1993 W. K. Kellogg Foundation project on How to Unravel Science Mysteries for Young Minds all emphasize that curricula for science education should use participatory, inquiry-based activities. Such activities enable students to explore and then work independently or collaboratively to construct their own meaning and knowledge about scientific career opportunities. Consequently, the experiential learning model was selected as the pedagogical approach for Wonderwise 4-H.

The packaging of the six original Wonderwise kits was redesigned after 4-H youth and 4-H leaders suggested ways to make the kit contents more appropriate for their use. Their suggestions on format, topics, materials, and kit structure called for keeping content much the same but integrating more user-friendly technology into one slipcover that would fit on any bookshelf. In addition, the "Think it over" assessment tool was added, in part because of the 4-H emphasis on the experiential learning elements of processing (analyzing and reflecting), generalizing (linking to a real world example), and applying (using in a new situation) new learning (Carlson and Maxa, 1998). Three integrated components comprise each Wonderwise 4-H kit (Table 1): (a) a videotape, (b) five hands-on, inquiry-based scientific activities, and (c) a CD-ROM.

Nine Multimedia Wonderwise 4-H Kits

The six original Wonderwise kits were redesigned, and three new kits were developed for Wonderwise 4-H. As with the original kits, Nebraska Educational Television (NET) was instrumental in the production and development of the revised and new kits. The three new topics were Space Geologist, Vet Detective, and Genetic Counselor.

Each kit focuses on a different woman scientist's research. The women's scientific specializations range from wildlife biology to genetic researcher to planetary geologist; the wide-ranging topics are explored through diverse activities (Table 2). A Wonderwise 4-H Web site (wonderwise.unl.edu) includes a complete set of free, downloadable activities for every kit in both English and Spanish, brief previews of the videos, and additional resource information. Links of the activities to the particular National Science Education Standards to which they pertain are also available at the Web site.

Dissemination

The field testing of the classroom-based Wonderwise kits for nonformal educational purposes in the 10 consortium states initiated the dissemination by introducing the kits, albeit in unrevised form, directly to adult leaders. As the revised kits and newly developed kits became available, the formal dissemination plan was implemented. This consisted of a series of workshops for 4-H leaders and took advantage of existing 4-H networks to encourage participation. Kits were usually distributed directly to adult leaders in these workshops, which ranged from 1 hour to several days. Wonderwise was also disseminated through the Web site (wonderwise.unl.edu), where individual activities could be downloaded at no cost. In addition, the publisher, Great Plains National (GPN), was involved from the beginning to ensure that the kits would be widely available. Finally, Wonderwise 4-H underwent the rigorous National 4-H Experiential Learning Youth Development Curriculum Review to place it within the 4-H official curriculum.

During the dissemination phase, 499 adult leaders participated in Wonderwise 4-H workshops led by the Museum's Educator; another 582 participated in Wonderwise 4-H workshops led by 4-H staff in their state (Frerichs & Spiegel, 2003). Voluntary reports from adult leaders, workshop and conference enrollments, Web site visitors and downloads, and records on Wonderwise 4-H kit sales and broadcast rights sold indicated that over 2.5 million youth and 43,000 adults were potentially reached by Wonderwise 4-H in the 2002-2003 fiscal year (Spiegel, 2004). Kits are available from GPN through the Wonderwise 4-H Web site <wonderwise.unl.edu>.

Evaluation Plan

The evaluation plan for Wonderwise 4-H included multiple studies to examine project outcomes. It included (a) documenting the dissemination processes (Frerichs & Spiegel, 2003), (b) a case-study about the impact on youths' understanding of science and their identification with the scientist role model (Acklie, 2003), and (c) an adult leaders' Web survey to identify kit uses and perceptions of how Wonderwise 4-H affected youths' view of science, scientists, and scientific work. As an extension of the classroom based Wonderwise (Diamond, Hochman, Gardner, Schenker, & Langan, 1996), the Wonderwise 4-H evaluation focused specifically on nonformal learning experiences and how youth incorporated the information and ideas into their thinking. This article reports on the adult leader Web survey, which explores the implementation processes and how adult leaders felt the subject matter influenced youths' views of science, scientists, and scientific work.

Instrument

State 4-H representatives in the 10-state consortium and museum staff critiqued initial questions to clarify and help focus items to gather the most relevant data. The first draft included items used to evaluate the classroom-based Wonderwise kits. All items initially selected for the survey were pre-tested in a Web-based format. The final survey consisted of eight open-ended items on specific uses of the Wonderwise 4-H kits; perceptions of impacts on youth, including detailed examples of youth comments and behaviors; and opinions about the kits' usability. Adult leader demographics included occupational position and gender.

Purposeful Sample

The Web survey gathered data from Wonderwise 4-H kit users, defined as individuals who used at least one activity from one kit with youth in an appropriate educational setting. In Spring 2003, adult leaders and others who had requested a kit or had participated in a workshop or conference on Wonderwise 4-H were contacted via email or U.S. mail or both. The total number of these individuals for whom we had contact information was 671. However, not all of these individuals had actually used a Wonderwise 4-H kit with youth.

Users of the Wonderwise 4-H kits were instructed to access the survey electronically from the Wonderwise 4-H Web site, where a request to give feedback was displayed on the homepage. Follow-up e-mails and post card reminders were sent 2 weeks after the initial contact. Altogether, 217 adults, including a small number of individuals who had not been contacted directly by us, responded to the request in some way. However, only 150 adults fitting the criteria for the purposeful sample completed the survey.

Because not all 671 people contacted for the survey fit the sample criteria (used a kit with youth), an estimated response rate was calculated. Of those who replied to our request, 31% (67 of 217) had not used a kit. Because the request specifically asked for responses only from those who had used the kits, 31% may be a conservative estimate of those contacted who had not yet used the kits. Using 463 (69% of 671) as the estimate of those who fit the target response group, the estimated response rate was 32% (150 of 463).

Data Analysis

The Web-based survey was designed to drop data directly into an Access database as it was submitted. Responses were reviewed and emergent themes identified. Responses were then categorized by the emerging themes and coded accordingly. Codes and tallies were recorded on a spreadsheet. Because questions asked adult leaders to describe how Wonderwise 4-H affected "youths' thoughts and feelings about science," the results describe adult leader perceptions, not responses of the actual end user.

Findings Related to Wonderwise 4-H's Effectiveness

Adult Leaders and Ways They Used Wonderwise 4-H

Adult Leaders

Of the 150 adult leaders, 89% were female, and 92% were from the 10 consortium states. Their diverse occupational roles leaned more toward 4-H related responsibilities, with some having dual roles between 4-H and the elementary school system (Table 3).

Educational Settings

Wonderwise 4-H kits were used in formal classrooms and a variety of nonformal educational settings (Table 4).

Wonderwise 4-H Kits Used

Respondents used all nine Wonderwise 4-H kits. Genetic Counselor was only available a few months prior to the survey, but it was still used by 12%; each of the other eight kits was used by 20 to 40% of the adult leaders. Many used some of the individual kits multiple times; 27% used only one kit, while the rest used two or more kits in their youth programming.

End Users

Wonderwise 4-H kits were designed for 9- to 11-year-old youth. While 57% of the end users were estimated to be in the 9- to 11-year old category, adult leaders also used the kits for youth a couple of years younger or older (Table 5). Adult leaders reported using the kits with up to 740 youth; the average number of end users per adult leader was 100.

Perceptions of Wonderwise 4-H's Impact on Youth

Respondents were asked to describe the impact of each different kit component (activity, video, CD-ROM). However, because the components were frequently used together, there was often overlap across responses. With respect to the specific questions, 136 respondents wrote comments on the activities question, 118 wrote responses on the video question, and 79 wrote comments on the CD-ROM question. Generally, the themes that evolved were reflected in one-quarter to one-third of the respondents who had comments. Adult leader comments on how they felt Wonderwise 4-H affected youth with whom they worked clustered into two strong theme areas:

• It brought "real science" into the youths' lives by:
  • engaging them in actual scientific activities
  • increasing their understanding of what science is
  • broadening their view of who scientists are, what they do, and where they work.
• It introduced and encouraged youth to pursue science in their future by:
  • helping them become more confident and capable at scientific endeavors
  • increasing their understanding of the possibilities of a science career
  • connecting them in a personal way with scientist role models.

Bringing Real Science into Youths' Lives by Engaging Them in Actual Scientific Activities

Overall, the activities and videos were described as being effective in engaging youth's interest in real science through the scientific content. Adult leaders observed youth having fun with the activities, being interested in them, and getting engaged in the scientific topic (Table 6).

Bringing Real Science into Youths' Lives by Increasing Their Understanding of What Science Is

Many leaders noted how the videos showed real scientists in a variety of settings and that many of the youth had not had this opportunity to see a scientist at work before. With the activities, the leaders frequently described the realistic, relevant nature of the hands-on experiences (Table 7).

Bringing Real Science into Youths' Lives by Broadening Their View of Who Scientists Are, What They Do, and Where They Work

Wonderwise 4-H dispelled myths and created appropriate and accurate pictures about science for kids. The activities provided an opportunity to experience a different kind of scientific work, one that was more real and more meaningful than what they typically might do in science class. It opened up youths' eyes to a wide variety of science fields and to what scientists really do. The videos were an important component in expanding youth's view of science, scientists, and, even more broadly, their world (Table 8).