April 2005
Volume 43 Number 2

Tools of the Trade

What Cooperative Extension Professionals Need to Know About Institutional Review Boards: Obtaining Consent

Sally Martin
State Specialist/Professor
Human Development and Family Studies
University of Nevada, Reno
Reno, Nevada
smartin@unr.nevada.edu

Dan Weigel
Area Extension Specialist/Professor
University of Nevada Cooperative Extension
Reno, Nevada
weigeld@unce.unr.edu

Randy Brown
Consultant
Brown and Associates Research
Hollister, California
brownr@unce.unr.edu

This is the fourth in a series of articles designed to help Extension professionals who need to go through their university's Institutional Review Board (IRB). (See "What Cooperative Extension Professionals Need to Know About Institutional Review Boards," "What Cooperative Extension Professionals Need to Know About Institutional Review Boards: Recruiting Participants," and "What Cooperative Extension Professionals Need to Know About Institutional Review Boards: Risks and Benefits.")

In this article we focus on obtaining consent to participate in a study, including the process, the consent forms, active and passive consent, special populations, and a waiver of consent.

The main purpose of consent is to explain the study to potential participants so that they can make a fully informed and voluntary choice to participate. The process for obtaining consent must be described in the IRB protocol, including how, when, and where consent will be obtained.

What IRB's Look For

• Are any verbal or written explanations at an appropriate educational level and in the primary language of the potential participant? Will someone from the research team be available to explain the project and answer questions in the language of the participants? Is lay language used in both verbal and written explanations? For example, consider the statement "We are studying the efficacy of two program modalities on child outcomes." Although perfectly accurate, the average person may have no idea what this study is about. A clearer explanation might be, "We are studying whether children learn more when they participate in regular 4-H clubs or when they belong to special 4-H programs that only meet over the Internet."

• Will potential participants know that they do not have to volunteer for the study and can withdraw at any time? Will they understand that they can skip questions in an interview or on a survey? Extension professionals working with young children may need to describe how they will determine when the child wishes to withdraw. For example, suppose a preschooler clings to the caregiver or cries when the data collector asks questions? Is this a signal that data collection should be postponed or stopped?

• Will consent be sought in a group setting where potential participants may feel pressure to volunteer? Maintaining confidentiality about who provides consent is important to avoid such influences. One way to do this is to provide two consent forms in a large envelope (one to keep and the other to turn in) and ask everyone in the group to return one consent form in the envelope (signed or not, or marked "yes" or "no").

• If studies have several parts or involve videotaping, can people consent to participate in one but not the other? IRB's often require two documents if the study involves both an assessment exercise and videotaping of participants. That way, participants can agree to be in the study but not to be videotaped.

Informed Consent Document

In most cases, each potential participant is given a written consent form explaining the project. The IRB will look for the following elements:

• Statement of purpose that explains that the project involves research;

• How long the study will last and how much time it will take;

• Procedures that will be followed;

• Foreseeable risks or discomforts as well as potential benefits to the participant or others (There may be no direct benefit to participants.);

• How confidentiality will be maintained, including the identity of participants and the information they provide;

• If and how compensation will be provided as well as any costs to the participant;

• A statement that participation is voluntary, that there are no penalties for deciding not to participate, and that individuals may stop participating at any time or choose to skip questions (IRB's may ask if Web-based surveys are designed so that participants can skip a question and still be able to move on to the next one.);

• A statement that any new findings that might relate to a participant's willingness to participate would be provided and a new consent would be obtained;

• Information about the specific office, names and contact information for members of the research team and, usually, how to contact the institution's IRB office, anonymously if desired; and

• Resources for subjects who become distressed by the project, for example, a list of mental health professionals for farmers answering questions about the impact of losing their farms would be appropriate.

For Extension professionals evaluating programs, it is important to focus on the purpose, procedures, and costs/benefits of the evaluation rather than the program. Many IRB members are not familiar with community education and can confuse the program that you would be conducting anyway with the evaluation, for which you need IRB approval.

Active and Passive Consent

Many Extension professionals conduct studies with children that require consent from parents or legal guardians. Passive consent procedures inform parents about and describe the research. Parents sign and return the form or contact an investigator if they do not want their child to participate. Passive consent may be allowed if there is no risk to participants, the questions being asked are not sensitive, and the children are adolescents capable of making decisions about participation. Typically, the response rate is better and results are more generalizable when passive consent is acceptable.

More commonly, active consent is required. That is, parents or legal guardians must sign and return a consent form granting permission for their child to participate. For helpful articles on increasing the response rate when active consent must be obtained, see Fletcher and Hunter (2003), Iverson and Cook (1994), and MacGregor and McNamara (1995).

Assent

Although children cannot legally give consent, Extension professionals studying children usually need to gain assent from them. In the protocol, investigators should describe the assent process. The IRB will assess: 1) how the study will be explained to children, 2) if children will feel they can say no, and 3) if children can change their minds during the study and withdraw.

Each IRB sets policies regarding the age at which children are to be given Assent Forms; at our institution, children ages eight and older receive such documents. These are parallel to Consent Forms for adults and include a place for the child to sign, but they are written in simple language easily understood by children. For example, an Assent Form could say, "You don't have to be in this study. Even if you agree to be in the study now, you can change your mind later. Your leader will not be mad at you if you do not want to be in the study."

Other Vulnerable Populations

When potential participants have cognitive or communicative limitations, consent from a legal guardian is typically required. Special care must be taken to avoid coercion in obtaining consent from other vulnerable populations, such as prisoners, youth whose leaders are collecting data, or individuals with serious health concerns who are highly motivated to get Extension services.

Waiving Consent

A signed consent document is not always needed. Extension professionals may apply for a waiver of consent if:

• The research involves no more risk than participants would typically encounter in daily life;

• The waiver would not negatively affect the welfare of participants.;

• The research could not be carried out without the waiver; and

• Participants will be provided with information after participation if deception is involved.

Although preparing an IRB protocol can be challenging, Extension professionals often have exceptional skills in presenting complex information in simple, straightforward language. Such skills are helpful in explaining the process and preparing consent and assent documents. We hope that this article and the others in the series will help you through the IRB process.

References

Fletcher, A. C., & Hunger, A. G. (2003). Strategies for obtaining parental consent   to participate in research. Family Relations, 52, 216-221.

Iverson, A.M., & Cook, L. (1994). Guardian consent for children's participation in  sociometric research. Psychology in the Public Schools, 31, 108-112.

MacGregor, E., & McNamara, J. R. (1995). Comparison of return procedures involving mailed versus student-delivered parental consent forms.  Psychological Reports, 77, 1113-1114.

Spicing up 4-H Teen Public Speaking with Multiple Intelligence Approaches

Kevin Laughlin
Extension Educator
Boise, Idaho
laughlin@uidaho.edu

Joey Peutz
Extension Educator
Caldwell, Idaho
joeyp@uidaho.edu

Kati Cheldelin
Extension Educator, Emeritus
Caldwell, Idaho
kcheldelin@aol.com

University of Idaho

4-H Ambassadors and Teen Leaders Speak-Up

Chili peppers, their aroma, and the culture surrounding their use, formed a template for spicing up, "SPEAK-UP," public speeches and presentations by teens who attended an Idaho 4-H Ambassadors Training. This youth development opportunity was distinctive in its incorporation of Howard Gardner's (1999, 1993) multiple intelligence (MI) theory with a fun chili pepper, hot spice theme. One of the most remarkable features of MI theory is how it provides eight different pathways to learning. Latin music, dance, and song were features of this program. Multiple intelligence teaching approaches strengthened this "SPEAK-UP" program in Idaho.

Sparking interest in and strengthening public speaking skills is a goal of the Idaho 4-H Ambassador program. SPEAK-UP programs motivate teens to express themselves in dynamic ways and increase their confidence so that they overcome fears and are more willing to speak before groups.

For 18 years, Idaho 4-H has conducted statewide 4-H Ambassador training for youth near Donnelly, Idaho. In November 2001 the public speaking component of the Ambassador program was spiced up through the integration of multiple intelligence concepts with beginning and advanced Ambassadors ages 13 - 19. Teens exhibited such a high level of satisfaction with the "Chili Pepper" workshops that presenters were requested to repeat the program at the Western Regional 4-H Teen Leadership Retreat in January of 2002. Extension professionals and adult chaperones also enhanced their public speaking skills as a result of the program.

Chili Peppers as Metaphor for Five Speech Components

Chili peppers were the metaphor used to enhance public speaking. Youth focused on five major speech components: the aroma (title), hot spice (opening), hot sauce (central idea), meat and potatoes (body), and then adding more hot sauce (conclusion). The pepper theme was built into the entire program (growing, cooking, cleaning, decorating, cultural aspects, history, etc.). Multiple intelligences were used in planning the program, and 4-H Ambassadors were introduced to the concept through this workshop.

To better understand MI and its integration into public speaking, teens divided into multiple groups of 10 (standing, sitting, and laying on the ground) and read together "Bugs" by Margaret Wise Brown. They loved this activity, requesting several times to "do it again," using a variation of SPEAK-UP delivery techniques and methods.

In keeping with the pepper theme, teens verbalized the hows and whys of the tongue twister "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers" musically, linguistically, and bodily-kinesthetically. Naturalistic, kinesthetic, and linguistic activities were then used to reinforce the concepts of pitch, expression, volume, and cadence. These incorporations of Gardener's (1999, 1993) MI theory into public speaking had a tremendous impact on the Idaho 4-H Ambassadors.

Multiple Intelligences Use Enhances Learning

Gardener suggests that intelligence has more to do with the capacity for (1) solving problems and (2) fashioning products in a context-rich and naturalistic setting. He describes the eight intelligences (spatial, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, and naturalist) that relate to learning and educational practice. Individuals who incorporate multiple intelligences in their teaching and learning practice are more effective in knowledge transfer (Silver, Strong, & Perini, 2000).

Educators can learn to apply MI theory to today's learners (Bruetsch, 1998). Application of this theory enhances team building, assessment, productivity, and knowledge gain among all ages of learners (Lazear, 1998; Armstrong, 2000). Research suggests that the actualization of MI by teachers, Extension educators, 4-H professionals, and trainers will enhance learning and behavior change among all learners (Laughlin, 2001). MI links, bridges, and connects the dots from awareness to actualization of learning in Extension practice. Idaho Extension educators found using MI applications with teens "spiced up" learning, engagement, understanding, and fun!

Gardner suggests that we should place equal attention on individuals who show gifts of all eight intelligences. During SPEAK-UP, spatial learners were exposed to several varieties of dried Chili peppers in baskets that could be incorporated into the pepper framework. Costumes, table decorations (napkins, tablecloths, etc.), and posters of peppers were used to emphasize the pepper theme.

Bodily-kinesthetic learners were stimulated using projection activities, tasting "pepper" jellybeans, and practicing speeches in pairs and small groups. The support materials were presented in a logical-mathematical framework as a set of flip cards and in a "speech delivery tip outline" handout.

Interpersonal dialogue was cultivated during closed-armed and open-armed posture activities, in pairs, group work, and in presenting speeches. Participants reflected intrapersonally through writing their speeches. Naturalistic environments were used to reinforce speech concepts as group-reading events took place inside and outside of program facilities.

Lessons were planned using the Multiple Intelligences Lesson Plan Book by Anne Breutsche. SPEAK-UP approaches were sequenced as individual and small group tasks in a safe environment. Four (Fun! Ethics! Self-responsibility! Self-discipline!) entertaining activities based in multiple intelligences targeted specific SPEAK-UP goals and objectives. Using the Chili theme as a springboard, 4-H Ambassadors embraced different speaking methods and incorporated multiple intelligence approaches into group and individual speeches to end the Ambassador program.

Key youth development concepts included: Planning/preparation of speeches (use of "Build-on" speech outline cards, emphasis on practice, research on topics, and knowing your audience) delivery techniques of speeches (eye contact, body posture, humor, voice), personal presence (dress, non-verbal cues), and a discussion about social skills.

Achievements: Integration of MI into Public Speaking Programs

Forty-five first-year 4-H Ambassadors gave speeches. They exhibited creative use of the information gained in the SPEAK-UP development program. Through documented observation, teens gave innovative introductions using visual imagery and metaphors. Over half of participants used speech outline cards to present speeches. Over 40% of the teens used humor and fun in their presentation. Several participants exhibited efficiency in microphone use. Over 90% of speakers used the five major speech components highlighted in SPEAK-UP program. Teens formed new friendships, gained confidence, and had fun when working in pairs and small groups on components of their speech.

Teen participants reported that they learned leadership and responsibility through this public speaking experience. Several linked 4-H demonstrations to public speaking for the first time. Senior 4-H Ambassadors shared that public speaking helped them in their family business, overcoming their fears, community involvement, and work experience.

John Paul Murphy, Utah 4-H Specialist, noted; "When participants had an opportunity to say what they learned the most from the Western Region Teen Leadership Retreat and what they would take home to use in their 4-H programs, almost every kid mentioned the SPEAK-UP workshop and its great learning impact."

Spicing up 4-H teen public speaking with multiple intelligences approaches and the chili theme brought forth new understanding in the learners. One teen exclaimed, "4-H is amazing . . . it is experiential learning." Several indicated that the use of music in speeches was "good." Adult chaperones indicated they would use multiple intelligences and the SPEAK-UP development process in their communities, 4-H clubs, and in the promotion of Conservation District programs and events. Achievements of the Integration of MI into the Speak-Up program reinforced the ancient Chinese proverb "Tell me, I forget. Show me, I remember. Involve me, I understand."

References

Armstrong, T. (2000). Multiple intelligences in the classroom (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Brown, M. (undated). Fun in speech activities. Edmonton, AL Canada: 4-H Canada, 4-H Branch -Alberta Agriculture.

Bruetsch, A. (1998). Multiple intelligences lesson plan book (2nd ed.). Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Lazear, D. (1998). The rubrics way: Using MI to assess understanding. Tucson, AZ: Zepher Press.

Laughlin, K. M. (2001). The gift of Extension: Time, teaching, learning and mentoring as components of Extension practice. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho.

Murphy, J. (2002). SPEAK-UP workshop evaluation. Boise, ID. Western Regional 4-H Leadership Retreat.

Silver, H., Strong, R., & Perini, M. (2000). So each may learn: Integrating learning styles & multiple intelligences. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

A Simple Method to Evaluate Series-Type Extension Programs

K. S. U. Jayaratne
Evaluation Specialist
sunil@uga.edu

Gail Hanula
Coordinator of E.F.N.E.P. and
The Family Nutrition Program
ghanula@uga.edu

Connie Crawley
Foods and Nutrition Specialist
ccrawley@uga.edu

University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia

Introduction

Evaluation of program impact is critical for securing the limited resources available to the Extension Service in an era of financial accountability. Extension stakeholders are keen on results of educational programs. Therefore, it is important to develop, deliver, and evaluate high impact Extension programs.

The levels of impact vary with the type of Extension program. According to Williams, Dickey, and Hergert, Extension programs range from short-term to in-depth programs (As cited in Rockwell, Jha, & Krumbach, 2003). Some Extension programs are very short presentations, some are daylong workshops, and others are presented as a series of lessons.

The series-type Extension programs are more effective than one-time programs in achieving significant impact because there is repeated interaction with the same client over a period of time. However, series-type Extension programs demand more time than short-term Extension programs. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the impact of series-type programs to justify the time investment and to secure stakeholder support.

Extension agents need a simple method to evaluate program impact due to their busy schedules. This article presents a simple evaluation approach used to document the impact of a series-type nutrition and exercise Extension program presented in Georgia.

How Does This Evaluation Method Work?

This evaluation approach is based on Prochaska, Norcros, and DiClemente 's (2004) change theory and Rodger's (1983) adoption theory. It focuses on tracking the clients' behavior changes toward the planned direction. Change theory describes "not ready to change," "getting serious," "have a plan," "take action," "keep at it," and "change" stages during the changing process (Prochaska, Norcros, & DiClemente, 2004). According to Rodgers (1983), people go through awareness, interest, evaluation, testing, and adoption stages before changing their current practices.

Extension programs facilitate clients' changing and adoption process. The Likert-type scale of this instrument was designed to capture the client's process of change during the Walk-a-Weigh nutrition and exercise Extension program. The following example illustrates how this method was used to document the impact of the Walk-a-Weigh program in Georgia.

Evaluation of a Series-Type Nutrition & Exercise Extension Program

• Program Objective: Participants will reduce excess body weight by adopting a healthy life style.

• Evaluation Steps

  1. Identifying the major behavior changes needed to achieve the objective: Changes in dietary and exercise habits are the major behavior changes this program promotes.

  2. Designing the instrument to record the extent to which the clients practice each of the identified behaviors. The planned behaviors are listed on the instrument as illustrated in Table 1 with a Likert scale to record the change process.

  3. Recording and comparing each of the participants' responses at the beginning and end of the program to assess the number of individuals that improve their behavior. The example in Table 1 illustrates 10 behaviors critical for weight reduction. The movement of an individual's response at the beginning of the program from a column on the left side of the instrument to a column on the right side of the instrument at the end of the program indicates his or her behavior improved. An individual's improvement in behavior can be quantified by subtracting the pre-test reading from the post-test reading of each of the recorded behaviors.

The results can be summarized as a percentage of participants who improve their practices and a comparison of pre- and post-test means as illustrated in the Table 2.

Discussion and Implications

The task of an Extension program evaluation is to help Extension agents document program impacts as well as to improve educational programs. Program evaluations should be accurate and useful for making decisions about the program (Patton, 1997).

This evaluation instrument was able to document the impact of the Walk-a-Weigh program and to prove its effectiveness by comparing pre- and post-test mean values. Table 2 shows that the participants significantly improved their dietary and exercise behaviors. The means of the desired behaviors shifted from the lower numbers in the left hand columns at pre-test toward the higher numbers in the right hand columns at post-test, indicating that the program made a significant impact on participants. Compared to pre-test means close to 3, most of the post-test means of the planned behaviors were close to 4, indicating that the participants' response had changed to "I'm doing this regularly" from "I'm doing occasionally."

The comparison of each of the participants' pre- and post-test means was used to calculate the percentage of individuals who improved their behaviors. For example, over 60% of the participants improved most of the dietary behaviors advocated by the program. However, only 49% of the participants improved their exercise habits. Agents can use this information to structure future Walk-a-Weigh programs to include more information and strategies to help participants to improve exercise habits.

Listing the specific program objectives on the evaluation instrument helps the Extension agent and the participant to focus on the objectives during the teaching and learning process. This uses the program time and educational resources more efficiently while contributing to the cost effectiveness of the Extension program.

The major implication of this type of evaluation approach is its usefulness in evaluating Extension programs taught as a series. It can be used to evaluate other Extension programs taught as a series by modifying the behaviors listed on the instrument to match the program content and objectives. For example, if the instrument were modified for a financial literacy program, "keeping track of personal spending" could be a potential behavior that could be measured. This evaluation tool is very versatile and can provide many opportunities to show impact and program effectiveness in Extension programming.

References

Patton, M. Q. (1997). Utilization focused evaluation: The new century text. (3rd ed.) Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.

Prochaska, J., Norcross, J., & DiClemente, C. (2004). Change how you change. Available at: http://www.proactive-coach.com/change/index.htm

Rockwell, S. K., Jha, L., & Krumbach, E. (2003). Success outcome markers in extension (SOME): Evaluating the effects of transformational learning programs. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003october/a4.shtml

Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations. New York: Free Press.

Staying Connected and Proactive Statewide

Mohamed F. R. Khan
Extension Sugarbeet Specialist
North Dakota State University & University of Minnesota
Fargo, North Dakota
mkhan@ndsuext.nodak.edu

Duane R. Berglund
Extension Agronomist
North Dakota State University
Fargo, North Dakota
dberglun@ndsuext.nodak.edu

Introduction

The mission of the Cooperative Extension Service is to help people improve their lives through an educational process that uses scientific knowledge focused on issues and needs. Over 100 land-grant colleges and universities in all states and territories of the United States provide solutions to the public using non-credit educational programs.

Extension educators nationwide are involved in improving lives and communities in six major areas, namely:

• 4-H youth development
• Agriculture
• Leadership development
• Natural resources
• Family and consumer sciences, and
• Community and economic development

Extension education is administered through approximately 2,900 county and regional offices, which bring land-grant resources to address human, plant, and animal needs in rural, urban, and suburban areas.

Generally, all states use a similar system to provide information and conduct extension educational programs. Most states have Extension specialists for specific subject matter. Extension specialists may have statewide responsibilities or may be responsible for providing service for particular counties or districts. Extension specialists are usually located on campuses or at Research and Extension Centers. It is generally the county agents located in county offices or technical advisors affiliated with regional offices who provide research-based information to address issues and problems of citizens. Generally, the system used by Extension professionals to obtain and deliver information and programs to clients are similar in principle, regardless of the program areas.

Extension specialists, county agents, and technical advisors responsible for vast areas and/or varied subject matter need to have a forum for meaningful discussions so that they can provide consistent and effective programs. This article discusses how Extension educators responsible for crop production successfully used conference calls to stay connected and proactive in the primarily agricultural state of North Dakota. Extension educators who need to stay connected and informed at the county, regional, or state level could use a similar system.

Situation

North Dakota has over 39 M acres, representing 87% of its landmass, in agricultural production, including rangeland. Commercial crop production takes place in all counties, with the production of over 15 major crops statewide. North Dakota is currently the leading producer of 11 crops. These crops include the following:

• Durum wheat
• Hard red spring wheat
• Barley
• Oats
• Flaxseed
• Navy beans
• Pinto beans
• Dry edible peas
• Oilseed sunflower
• Non-oilseed sunflower
• Canola

Agronomy and plant science Extension specialists with statewide responsibilities are located on campus at North Dakota State University (NDSU) in Fargo. Area Extension specialists with responsibilities for specific districts are stationed at NDSU Research and Extension Centers in Carrington, Dickinson, Williston, and Minot. County agents with agronomy responsibilities are located in county offices statewide.

Extension educators generally provide services throughout the year. However, the demand for information is greatest during the planting and early growing season. Because most growers usually encounter similar problems and pest outbreaks, educators could be answering the same questions numerous times. Extension educators in counties have vast areas to cover to visit growers' fields and long distances to travel to meet regularly with specialists on campus or with area specialists at Research and Extension Centers. Educators in counties are usually well trained with a wealth of experience. However, diversified crop production statewide required that specific information were made easily available to county agents. Specialists on campus and the area specialists were the main source of information for educators in counties.

It was necessary to provide a forum whereby all Extension educators involved in crop production could meet on a regular basis to share information, discuss ideas, and concur on recommendations. The most opportune time for educators providing crop production recommendations to meet was during the growing season, when there was a high demand by clients for production information in a timely manner. This resulted in the establishment of weekly conference calls annually during the early growing season.

Staying Connected with Conference Calls

During April through early July, Extension specialists on campus participate in conference calls, first with area specialists and then with county agents responsible for crop production. Conference calls are conducted on Tuesday mornings for 1 hour each. For years, the conference calls were conducted by telephone. Since 2002, videoconferencing facilities on campus and at Extension Centers have been used. The Extension agronomist organizes the conference calls. Dates, times, locations, facilitators, and telephone numbers to be called are provided to all participants prior to the first conference call.

During the conference call, all specialists and county agents provide a weekly report. Participants are apprised of current field conditions, growing season progress, status of insect, weeds, diseases, nutrients, and potential problems regionally and statewide. Requests are made to specialists on campus to send specific information to area specialists or county agents or for particular information to be made available to growers and other clients via newsletters, websites and list servers. Requests and problems are anticipated, and specialists and county agents proactively provide pertinent information in a timely manner.

Impact of Conference Calls

• Conference calls facilitated communication and discussion among all Extension educators statewide responsible for providing crop production recommendations.

• Conference calls have allowed educators to discuss and concur on recommendations for particular situations.

• Camaraderie has been fostered among all Extension educators during conference calls.

• Conference calls have resulted in the provision of relevant crop production information in a timely manner.

• Producers have successfully used information provided by Extension educators, resulting in growers producing a safe, high quality, inexpensive, and abundant food supply. Recipients and users of information are ardent supporters in counties and the legislature for the Extension Service.

• Conference calls are an inexpensive method to facilitate discussions or provide timely information among Extension educators at different locations.

Agriculture Environmental Management System Electronic Manure Handling Process Map

John D. Harrison
USU Extension Specialist
Agriculture Waste Management
ASTE Department
jdh@cc.usu.edu

Aditya H. Toney
Undergraduate Programmer
adityatoney@cc.usu.edu

Dallen R. Smith
USU Extension Project Coordinator
dallens@cc.usu.edu

Utah State University
Logan, Utah

Introduction

Implementation of an Agriculture Environmental Management System (AEMS) is intended to result in improved environmental performance (Block, 1999; Harrison, 2002). Agriculturalists are generally unfamiliar with the terms "aspects" and "impacts" (Jackson, Kirschner, Serber, Koelsch, Risse, & Bird, personal communication, December 17, 2001).

Conceptually, these terms are in numerous agricultural best management practices (BMP). Additionally, these terms are alluded to in various EMS standards and industry codes of practice. However, the terms are well defined by American National Standards Institute/International Standards Organization (ANSI/ISO) 14001, Environmental Management Systems - Specifications with Guidance for Use (1996).

According to ANSI/ISO 14001, an environmental aspect is an "element of an organizations activities, products, or services that can interact with the environment" (1996). They continue by defining environmental impacts as "any change to the environment weather adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from organizations activities, products, or services" (ANSI/ISO, 1996).

Block (1999) identifies various methods for determining aspects and impacts. Most of these approaches are neither simple nor rational for agriculture producers and their advisors. But she defines and recommends the Process Flow Method as the easiest and most comprehensive way of identifying environmental aspects.

Electronic Process Flow Method

Following Block (1999), Utah State University Cooperative Extension Agriculture Environmental Management Systems (AEMS) participants have developed an electronic process flow method for identifying aspects and assessing impacts from the manure handling systems on animal feeding operations. This method breaks the manure handling system into manageable portions by delineating every process and support activity on a process flow diagram. Then each process and activity is individually examined to identify associated aspects. This approach expedites the identification of aspects in relation to those processes and activities. It has the added benefit of fulfilling the operational control condition to "identify those operations and activities that are associated with identified significant environmental aspects."

The manager of the animal feeding operation co-produces a process flow diagram of their manure handling system. Identification of the process flow method begins when a producer logs into the USU Agriculture Environmental Management Information System (AEMIS) on the USU AEMS Web site (http://aems.aste.usu.edu) as a guest or cooperator (Harrison, Kanade, & Toney, 2004). Once into the system, the user can find all the capabilities associated with this very powerful tool meeting the needs.

Figure 1 shows the user interface for AEMIS. The producer can then click on the link "Develop AEMS" on the menu that appears on the left hand side of the screen, which reveals a three-step process for developing an AEMS. However, this article focuses on the "Process Map" portion of the procedure. Details concerning "Developing an AEMS" are more thoroughly discussed in previous publications (Harrison & Toney, 2004; Harrison, Kanade, & Toney, 2004; Harrison, 2002).

Figure 1.
AEMIS User Interface

In the second step, a farm producer is able to tailor a Process Map suited to his farm that can be referred to any time once the user logs in. Producers begin co-production of their own process map by first identifying the type of manure (solid, slurry, or liquid) that they are handling.

When the user clicks on the green bar entitled "Select Your Manure Type," a selection of different types of manure is revealed (Figure 2). Once the user chooses a specific type of manure, the different varieties of manure under the selected category are displayed.

Figure 2.
Types of Manure

Figure 3 shows that, in this example, the producer has selected Solid manure and the Solid types are displayed. From this point on, the producer makes selections suitable to his operation until an entire process map is achieved. Throughout the entire selection procedure (or process mapping), a flow chart is simultaneously created on the side that gives a diagrammatic process map representation of his farm.

Figure 3.
Displaying Types of Solid

Environmental Aspects and Impacts Co-production

After the process flow diagram is completed, the producer is in the position to co-examine every step in every identified process or activity in order to delineate any associated environmental aspects. This approach served two purposes. First, it enables the producer to identify aspects in small, manageable portions, thereby decreasing the likelihood that significant aspects will be overlooked. Second, it enables the producer to link the identified aspects to specific operations and activities. This comprehensive process flow diagram delineates:

• Where every process or activity begins, in terms of the receipt of manure,

• The nature of any manure treatment that occur as part of the process or activity, and

• Where every process or activity ends, in terms of intermediate or final land application.

Each "Aspect" of the process map has various "Impacts" associated with it. These impacts are typically viewed as emissions to air, releases to water and nutrient loading of the land (Figure 4). It is not necessary for an aspect to have an actual impact; the potential for a significant impact is sufficient to designate an aspect as significant. Thus, to successfully manage aspects to avoid a significant impact, the producers identify and evaluate the potential impacts to avoid an adverse environmental impact in the future.

Figure 4.
Aspects and Impacts for Every Identified Activity/Process

Once the environmental impacts are identified, each impact is evaluated to establish the magnitude of impact. This evaluation becomes the basis for determining significance. Environmental impacts can be evaluated on a number of ways. The AEMS program has selected a combination of evaluation criteria that are appropriate for the producer's operations and activities. All evaluation criteria employ a four-point rating scale. Once a rating scheme has been determined and underlying constructs defined, each impact must be evaluated according to the elected criteria. Every identified impact is assigned a number that reflects its position for any given criteria. In the Figure 5, "Ammonia" is evaluated for "Likelihood," and a four-point scale is used to define degrees of likelihood. The impact is assigned a number that depicts its likelihood rating. The user can hereon rate the impacts on a numeric level.

Figure 5.
Evaluation Criteria for Each Impact

Once an evaluation criterion is established, and numeric values are assigned an impact score is derived for every identified aspect. A high impact score denotes a significant impact. "Create Significance List" in Figure 6 creates the significance to different environmental aspects as per priority (or significant impact).

Figure 6.
Creating Significance List

Summary

The process flow method eliminates much of the frustration that can arise when organizations attempt to identify and evaluate their environmental aspects and impacts. This method breaks the manure handling system into manageable portions by delineating every process and support activity on a process flow diagram. This feature makes this process the easiest and most comprehensive way of identifying environmental aspects.

References

American National Standards Institute/International Standards Organization. (1996). ANSI/ISO14001, Environmental management systems--Specifications with guidance for use. Author.

Block, M. R. (1999). Identifying environmental aspects and impacts. Milwaukee, WI: Quality Press.

Harrison, J. D., & Toney, A. (2004). A "tracking system" to assure quality and user satisfaction. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004april/tt7.shtml

Harrison, J. D., Kanade, S., & Toney, A. (2004). Agriculture environmental management information system: An online decision support tool. Journal of Extension[On-line], 42(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004february/tt4.shtml

Harrison, J. D. (2002) Managing for sustainable agriculture. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002august/a5.shtml

Teaching Entrepreneurial and Management Skills to Extension Audiences

Sarah Howe
Boundary County Extension Chair
sarahs@uidaho.edu

Steven Hines
Valley County Extension Chair
shines@uidaho.edu

James Nelson
Extension Agricultural Economist
jnelson@uidaho.edu

University of Idaho

Introduction

University of Idaho Cooperative Extension offers a training course for rural community business manager-entrepreneurs. The course generally meets for 45 hours over 15 weeks. Texts for the course are listed in the References section of this article.

In the last 3 years, University of Idaho campus and county faculty have taught the course twice on campus and at least seven times off campus. About 150 students have completed the course. These clientele numbers have been much greater than expected, suggesting that there may be significant demand for similar training in other states. Such programs can have positive impacts on rural economic development.

What Do We Teach?

As mentioned above, our course is focused on training for manager-entrepreneurs.

A business entrepreneur is a person who sees business opportunity, sizes up its value, and finds the resources to make the most of it. A business manager is a person who identifies and implements strategies to make a business productive and profitable. Entrepreneurs start new businesses and bring about change in existing businesses. Managers run businesses, focusing on efficiency and profitability.

Conveniently, the special characteristics of good managers and successful entrepreneurs do not conflict. Good entrepreneurs will be better entrepreneurs if they have good management skills. Good managers will be better managers if they have good entrepreneurial skills. In today's dynamic, competitive world, business decision makers (especially those in small businesses) must be good at both management and entrepreneurship. They must be good manager-entrepreneurs.

We teach skills that are important for manager-entrepreneurs as they endeavor to successfully startup and run businesses. These skills include:

• Developing a clear sense of purpose for a business.

• Developing business goals based on realistic expectations.

• Identifying and understanding a firm's strengths and weaknesses.

• Targeting the "right" group of customers.

• Specializing in solving customer problems.

• Organizing a business for maximum flexibility.

• Creating customer loyalty by offering unique value.

• Building enduring business relationships based on quality, honesty, and responsiveness.

• Keeping close tabs on costs, pricing, and profits.

In other words, we teach a course in basic business management with a focus on planning new businesses.

How Do We Teach It?

In order to help students grasp the relevance of what we are teaching and to try to keep them awake and mostly alert, we focus on each student developing a business plan. The curriculum addresses various topics, including planning and research, business organization, management, marketing, budgeting, financing and financial statements, cash flow, growth, and negotiations. Students focus on keys to success and formulate strategies to address them. Also, participants who successfully finish the course have completed thorough analyses of their business ideas. If they wish to pursue their ideas, they each have something to show to lenders and potential investors.

We have learned not to expect completed, presentation-ready business plans from each student. Some students choose not to complete business plans and in fact decide not to go into business. We consider such cases to be program successes. Success of an entrepreneurship program should not be measured only in terms of completed business plans, business start-ups, and expansions, but also by improvement in participants' abilities to make informed decisions (such as recognizing and avoiding risk that they judge to be unwarranted).

Often, the majority of course participants have not been in a classroom for quite some time. Consequently, it is a challenge to keep them engaged. Class format and classroom atmosphere can be used effectively to facilitate student engagement with subject matter.

A typical 3-hour class consists of lecture, guest speaker, networking, and a hands-on activity. Lectures must be relevant, well organized, and "to the point." Lectures should present concepts and issues, and then guest speakers should discuss examples. Course evaluations indicate that guest speakers are one of the most valuable components of a course.

Guest speakers provide reality checks for course material. Question-and-answer periods with guest speakers provide opportunities for small business owners and entrepreneurs to visit with bankers, attorneys, accountants, insurance agents, etc., in a setting where they are not directly seeking the services of such professionals. One Idaho participant said, "The most valuable part of the course was interacting with guest speakers, because it taught me how to talk to those professionals."

Networking and discussion are vital parts of any course--especially a multi-session adult education course. Networking provides opportunities for participants to make contacts. Often we assume that the people with whom we are working in a small community already know each other. In actuality, that is not necessarily the case.

Hands-on activities can be small special projects with timely connections to class subject matter, or they can be in-class opportunities for students to work on their business plans with input from the instructor and maybe from other students.

We in academia can sometimes forget that some of our adult learners may not have even graduated from high school. To them, the academic processes of research and writing are truly scary, and some will attempt to avoid them. It is imperative that the instructor develops an atmosphere where all students are comfortable and even those who did not enjoy school are willing to participate. The instructor must also be accessible prior to and after each class and between classes to answer questions for students who do not want to ask them in a public forum.

Final thoughts on the teaching process:

• One primary instructor should be at every class session and should provide continuity for the lessons. A facilitator will not suffice.

• The instructor must devote enough out-of-class time to planning to be prepared and ready for every class.

• The instructor must be ready every class with something to present in case a guest speaker does not show. This will happen, and when adults have paid money for a class they want their time used productively.

Partnerships and Collaborations

In each community, region, and state there are various organizations that have vested interests in small business education. Creating partnerships and collaborations with these entities has synergistic effects on your program. Potential partners include local and regional economic development committees, small business development centers, business incubators, chambers of commerce, and local banks. Not only do these collaborations add depth to your program, they are also great sources for potential participants.

References

National Home-Based and Micro Business Design Team. (2003). Cashing in on business opportunities SRDC #210. Starkville, MS: Mississippi State University Extension Service and Southern Rural Development Center.

Sumner, H. (1999). Tilling the soil of opportunity, NxLevel™ guide for agricultural entrepreneurs. Denver, CO: University of Nebraska and US West Foundation.

Wold, D., Sargent, D., & Sargent, M. (2000). NxLevel™ guide for entrepreneurs. Denver, CO: Nxlevel™ Education Foundation.

Copyright © by Extension Journal, Inc. ISSN 1077-5315. Articles appearing in the Journal become the property of the Journal. Single copies of articles may be reproduced in electronic or print form for use in educational or training activities. Inclusion of articles in other publications, electronic sources, or systematic large-scale distribution may be done only with prior electronic or written permission of the Journal Editorial Office, joe-ed@joe.org.

If you have difficulties viewing or printing this page, please contact JOE Technical Support.