April 2005
Volume 43 Number 2

Research in Brief

Ethnic and Gender Differences in Community Service Participation Among Working Adults

Thomas J. Smith
Assistant Professor
Northern Illinois University
DeKalb, Illinois
tjsmith@niu.edu

Introduction

Community service among citizens has long been viewed as a desired element of a democratic society. Commitment of one's time and energy in service to the common good is lauded by political, religious, and civic leaders, and viewed by psychologists as an example of behavior that reflects a high level of human development. The seventh of Erikson's (1963, 1968) eight stages of social development, for example, is characterized by a concern for guiding and caring for the next generation, while Maslow's (1956) study of "self-actualized" individuals revealed the quality of GemeinschaftsgefÈhl, or social interest, compassion, and humanity--qualities consistent with the value of community service.

Schools, too, have recognized the value of community service among students. A recent survey ("Survey Reveals Record Numbers," 2003) indicated that, among U.S. colleges and universities, the growth of service initiatives has increased steadily, as has the integration of service-learning into the curricula. The study also found that students are participating in public service at record levels.

McKinney (2002) found that college students who participated in community service activities showed more secure attachment to close personal friends than non-participants. A study that investigated the effects of community service involvement among 9th grade students found that such service was associated with reduced levels of alienation, improved school behavior and grade point average, and greater acceptance by the adult community (Calabrese & Schumer, 1986). Community service involvement has also been correlated with growth in cognitive empathy (Pratt, 2002), spiritual fulfillment (Serow, 1990), and the success of minority females in science-based careers (Taylor, Erwin, Ghose, & Perry-Thornton, 2001). McCarthy and Tucker (1999) found that factors influencing participation in service include desire to help, self-efficacy, and the costs of time and interpersonal conflicts.

Research Objectives

Perhaps in part due to institutional emphasis on community service within secondary and post-secondary institutions, and in part due to the ready accessibility of respondents, most research has focused on the community service involvement of youth and college/university students. Very little research has examined the extent of community service participation among working adults. Gender and ethnic differences in community service participation also have not been investigated to a great degree.

Such research is important because working adults exist as a large pool of potential volunteers who can bring valuable life experience and skills to share with their community. Identifying distinct ethnic and gender differences in community service might help to tailor and target volunteer recruitment efforts, as well as to critically examine current Extension practices and their appeal to various groups. The current study seeks to extend the scope of existing research by investigating ethnic and gender differences in community service participation among working adults in the U.S., using logit methods of data analysis.

Method

Participants

The data for this study were obtained from the 1996 National Household Education Survey (U.S. Department of Education, 1998). This survey contained responses from 6,697 adults who were 18 years or older, not enrolled in a primary or secondary school, and not on active duty in the military. Participants were selected using a random-digit telephone dialing. Responses were intended to be representative of the entire U.S. adult civilian population. As a measure of community service involvement, we considered responses to the following survey question: "Do you participate in any ongoing community service activity, for example, volunteering at a school, coaching a sports team, or working with a church or neighborhood association?" (Response options were "yes" or "no".)

For the purposes of this study, we included only those individuals (n = 4629) who were employed and considered to be in the work force at the time of the survey. Table 1 provides descriptive information about the sample.

Procedures

To simultaneously examine ethnicity and gender differences in community service participation, we applied logit modeling to the data, with participation in community service serving as the binary dependent variable, and gender and ethnicity serving as categorical independent variables. Both main effects and interaction effects can be assessed by logit modeling, and the magnitude of these effects is indicated by the magnitude of obtained standardized association parameters (with larger values indicating a stronger effect on the dependent variable).

Results

Interactive Effect of Gender and Ethnicity

As a first step in the logit analysis, we fitted a full logit model specifying each of the three proposed effects (the main effects of gender and ethnicity, as well as the interaction of gender with ethnicity). Table 2 shows the obtained association parameter (τ) for each effect in this model, as well as the ratio of each to its respective standard error (τ/se_(τ)).

The magnitude of these latter "standardized association parameters" can be interpreted as z-scores, with values greater than 2.0 indicating strong effects for the relevant category. As can be seen in Table 2, larger standardized values of τ resulted for the main effects in the model (gender and ethnicity), suggesting that there were gender and ethnic differences in rates of participation. Smaller standardized association parameter values were evident for the interaction effect, suggesting that gender and ethnicity did not interact to differentially affect participation rates. That is, there was no apparent difference in the pattern of participation (across ethnicities) between males and females. This lack of interaction between gender and ethnicity is evident in the plot of participation rates shown in Figure 1 (note that the lines are parallel).

Figure 1.
Mean Rates of Community Service Participation

Main Effects of Gender and Ethnicity

Based on this result, we next fitted a more parsimonious model that included only the main effects (gender and ethnicity). This model provided a very good fit to the data (G²=1.00, p=.80). Table 3 contains the obtained association parameters for this simpler model. The first set of standardized parameters (assessing rates of participation overall) show that non-participation in community service was significantly more likely than participation (with standardized association parameters of 8.89 and -8.89, respectively). Specifically, 40% of the sample reported participation in an ongoing community service activity, while 60% reported non-participation.

Table 3 also indicates the main effect of gender in this more parsimonious model. The standardized association parameters shown for the gender effect indicate that females were significantly more likely than males to participate in community service. Specifically, the participation rate for females was 44.0%, compared with 38.2% for males. This gender difference was strong and significant (with standardized association parameters of +/-3.54).

Finally, Table 3 shows the obtained association parameters for the effect of ethnicity. Strong and significant effects were also seen here. The magnitude of the standardized association parameters suggested that African American adult workers were more likely than adult workers from other ethnic groups to participate in ongoing community service. This effect was very strong and significant (τ=6.68). In contrast, Hispanic American individuals and individuals categorized as "other ethnicity" were less likely to report participation. Table 4 shows participation rates overall, as well as participation rates by gender and ethnicity.

Discussion and Implications

The above analyses indicated significant gender and ethnic differences in community service participation rates. Specifically, with respect to gender, adult working females show higher rates of participation than adult working males. This finding is consistent with previous studies showing gender differences among high school and college students in attitudes toward and involvement in community service participation (e.g., Trudeau & Devlin, 1996; Miller, 1994), and suggests that these attitudes and behaviors continue beyond the age of formal education and well into the working years of women. Perhaps an increased emphasis by educational and cultural institutions during the formative years of young men might serve to increase the service seen in their later years.

The findings of this study also suggest that distinct cultural expectations might exist with respect to the value of community service. Efforts to increase community service participation by Extension educators and public agencies might do well to emphasize the involvement of men, perhaps through the frequent use of males in imagery and descriptions designed to encourage such participation. Much as it has become acceptable and even desirable to see men in caretaking roles (such as childcare), it might become equally desirable to see men in roles of community service. Extension professionals might also seek to provide volunteer opportunities that appeal to families or couples, or to create opportunities for females who currently volunteer on a regular basis to invite or involve male friends or family members.

A second finding of this study was that ethnic differences in community service participation are evident among working adults. Specifically, African American individuals show the highest rates of participation, followed by White persons, individuals of other ethnicity, and Hispanic American individuals. One factor that might be advanced for the high rates of community service among African Americans is religiosity. Several studies (e.g., Pattillo-McCoy 1999; Taylor, 1988) have indicated that African American persons attend worship services, participate in church associations, and place more value on religious practices than other ethnic groups. This religious involvement may therefore bear some relationship to community service.

Hunt and Hunt (2001), however, in their analysis of General Social Surveys from 1974 to 1994, found that this heightened sense of religiosity among African Americans (relative to White persons) was specific to the urban South. No such ethnic difference existed in the rural South, and in the urban North, African Americans actually showed lower levels of religious involvement than whites. This would suggest that religiosity or church involvement differences alone may not be enough to explain the observed differences in community service participation. Further research might shed additional light on reasons for these differences.

The relatively high rate of community service among African Americans is certainly a point that could be more strongly publicized, both by civic leaders and by individuals and organizations more closely tied to community service programs. Public recognition of persons who volunteer can do much to increase participation among other individuals and groups of individuals.

The results of this study showed relatively lower rate of community service participation by Hispanic American individuals (compared to African American and White individuals). It is the opinion of the author that community involvement among Hispanic American individuals in a broad sense may be inhibited by language issues. Some Hispanic persons may feel less comfortable engaging in community service if the predominant language of the larger "community" is one with which they are less comfortable.

It might therefore be important for individuals of other ethnicities to make a particular effort to encourage and welcome the involvement of Hispanic American individuals and to be cognizant of possible language barriers. More important, efforts to set up community service activities within the cultural context of Hispanic Americans might prove invaluable as a means of increasing participation. These efforts might include announcements of community service activities in Spanish-language publications, activities led by prominent Hispanic Americans, or activities that specifically serve Hispanic American needs.

A strong implication of this study is that Extension facilitators and Extension professionals would do well to critically examine Extension programs, both in a broad sense and at the level of individual programs, to assess what aspects of those programs might attract or deter particular groups of individuals from volunteering service. In particular, are there aspects of a program or programs that make them less appealing to men and Hispanic American individuals? Does Extension service have an "image problem" among these persons, or has the possibility of such service merely been less effectively targeted to them? Can Extension programs be modified or new programs be created that might specifically appeal to these individuals?

Such questions might lead to formal assessment of programs or to formal queries or surveys of groups under-represented in Extension. The results of such assessment might lead to changes in the types of Extension programs offered or to modification of existing programs to more broadly appeal to potential volunteers.

An additional implication is that Extension programs might strive to create a more equal balance of ethnic and gender diversity by targeting those groups of persons (in particular, men and Hispanic Americans) who are currently less likely to be involved in volunteer service. Particularly with respect to ethnic diversity, because such service provides a tremendous opportunity for establishing relationships and building social cohesion within a community, such diversity can only serve to strengthen inter-ethnic ties as well as promote a mutual appreciation of diversity and culture.

Conclusions

A ready and steady supply of volunteers is critical to the delivery and facilitation of Extension programs. The study described here sought to describe specific group differences in rates volunteer service. The results of this study indicate both gender and ethnic differences in community service participation among working adults. The effects of gender and ethnicity, however, are not interactive; that is, the difference between females and males in rate of participation is consistent across ethnicities.

The strong main effects, however, indicate a need to explore developmental, environmental, or cultural factors that may differentially affect the propensity for individuals of varying ethnicity and gender to participate in community service. It also suggests that efforts to increase community service participation might be targeted to specific groups, and in gender- or ethnicity-specific ways.

References

Calabrese, R. L., & Schumer, H. (1986). The effects of service activities on adolescent alienation. Adolescence, 21(83), 675-687.

Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.

Hunt, L. L., & Hunt, M. O. (2001). Race, religion, and religious involvement: A comparative study of whites and African Americans. Social Forces, 80(2), 605-631.

Maslow, A. (1956). Self-actualizing people: A study of psychological health. In C. E. Moustakas (Ed.), The Self: Explorations in Personal Growth (pp. 160-194). New York: Harper & Row.

McCarthy, A. M., & Tucker, M. L. (1999). Student attitudes toward service-learning: Implications for implementation, Journal of Management Education, 23(5), 554-573.

McKinney, K. G. (2002). Engagement in community service among college students: Is it affected by significant attachment relationships? Journal of Adolescence, 25(2), 139-154.

Miller, F. (1994). Gender differences in adolescents' attitudes toward mandatory community service. Journal of Adolescence, 17(4), 381-393.

Pattillo-McCoy, M. (1999). Church culture as a strategy of action in the Black community. American Sociological Review, 63, 767-784.

Pratt, S. B. (2002). Moral development in college students engaged in community service learning: A justice-care perspective (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 2002). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52, 4255.

Serow, R. C. (1990). Volunteering and values: An analysis of students' participation in community service, Journal of Research and Development in Education, 23(4), 198-203.

Survey reveals record numbers of students involved in service. (2003, July 3). Black Issues in Higher Education, 12.

Taylor, R. J. (1988). Structural determinants of religious participation among Black Americans. Review of Religious Research, 30, 114-25.

Taylor, V. S., Erwin, K. W., Ghose, M., & Perry-Thornton, E. (2001). Models to increase enrollment of minority females in science-based careers, Journal of the National Medical Association, 93(2), 74-77.

Trudeau, K. J., & Devlin, A. S. (1996). College students and community service: Who, with whom, and why? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(21), 1867-1888

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics (1998). National household education survey, ICPSR version. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Systematic Assessment of Resistance to Extension Organizational Change: Evidence from the Alabama Cooperative Extension System

Rynetta R. Washington
Doctoral Student
Department of Management
washirr@auburn.edu

Samuel R. Fowler
Associate Director
Alabama Cooperative Extension System
fowlesr@auburn.edu

Auburn University
Auburn University, Alabama

Introduction

"Rebirth, renewal, and rightsizing!" These three words are all too familiar depictions of organizational changes occurring in the U.S. Cooperative Extension System (Harriman & Daugherty, 1992). Factors such as advances in technology, changes in the numbers and types of clientele, increased operating costs, and reduced funding require significant changes in resource allocations, organizational structure, and the way Extension conducts its business.

As predicted by Harriman and Daugherty, the future of the Cooperative Extension System will be significantly different from the past. Future changes will be more challenging to predict and require greater and faster adaptation. To be successful in this type of rapidly changing environment, future Extension leaders must not only know what types of changes are needed, but they must also have the tools and skills to implement change such that resistance decreases and "buy-in" increases with clientele and employees.

What action steps can be taken toward institutionalization of change in hopes of minimizing internal resistance particularly? An initial step administrators can take toward minimizing resistance to change calls for assessment of changes through the eyes of change targets, i.e., affected employees. Such an approach helps to primarily identify specific areas of resistance, and though not guaranteeing complete acceptance of change by organizational stakeholders, the participative assessment approach can potentially help evolving organizations advance toward sound institutionalization of change (Armenakis, Harris, & Feild, 1999; Di Pofi, 2002).

This article provides a case-study example of how Extension administrators can potentially help their organizations advance toward institutionalization of change and restructuring through systematic participation of agents and specialists in change assessments. Over the past 20 years, the Alabama Cooperative Extension System (ACES) has experienced several organizational transformations due to changes such as proliferation in technology among ACES employees and clientele, rapidly increasing complexity of subject-matter areas, reduced funding, and increased expectations of federal funding partners. As a result, many fundamental changes in the ACES structure and programming have been implemented to adapt to the changing times, to meet changing needs of Extension stakeholders and to better serve clientele.

This article discusses systematic qualitative and quantitative procedures for assessing Extension employees' resistance to organizational changes via analysis of two ACES change efforts: (a) implementation of a new programming model and (b) organizational restructuring efforts. For each change effort, assessment methodologies are discussed to provide a model for identifying specific functional and structural changes resisted and embraced by agents, specialists, and other Extension stakeholders. Again, though this participative approach does not guarantee complete acceptance of change by organizational stakeholders, the approach can potentially help evolving Extension organizations advance toward sound institutionalization of change (Armenakis, Harris, & Feild, 1999; Di Pofi, 2002).

Necessity for Systematic Assessments of Organizational Changes

For many Extension practitioners, systematic research is oftentimes considered ominous in nature and reserved only for "ivory tower academics" (Diem, 2002). However, high rates of failure of organizational change efforts are partially explained by the failure of organizations to carry out well-planned initial systematic assessments based on accurate data (Harrison & Shirom, 1999). Collection and analyses of such data, according to practicing organizational development professionals, are best when assessment efforts are systematically comprehensive and unbiased (Armenakis, Harris, & Feild, 1999).

Moreover, one way Extension administrators can accurately assess employee adoption of change efforts is utilization of systematic quantitative and qualitative assessment methods. A quantitative assessment focuses on formal measurement, categorization, and summarization of a situation using numbers and labels (Diem, 2002). On the other hand, a qualitative assessment typically captures a more informal, broad, and thorough description and explanation of a situation without necessarily quantifying results.

Both quantitative and qualitative approaches are oftentimes utilized by organizations in assessment efforts because the methods provide complementary information (Diem, 2002). [For additional information on quantitative and qualitative research methods, see Campbell and Stanley (1963), Hagen and Thorndike (1977), and Wentling (1980).] Citing examples of systemic quantitative and qualitative change assessments, this article offers a framework Extension administrators can adopt to potentially decrease resistance and to advance toward sound institutionalization of organizational change.

Assessment One: A New Programming Model

Before 1997, ACES programming designed to address Extension program areas was typically performed by individual staff members. However, in 1997 a new model of programming--the Extension Team Project (ETP) Driven Model--was implemented, replacing individual plans of work with Extension team projects. This new model of programming called for specialists, i.e., university faculty, to work with agents to develop and implement educational activities. In addition, to provide funding partners with measures of accountability and, therefore, funding validation, a new program management process was developed and implemented to manage program planning, reporting, evaluation, and accountability processes. The new program management process required Extension staff to use an Intranet to report details concerning project development, completion, and evaluation.

In 2003, to identify areas of resistance to these programming changes, the ACES administration instituted qualitative and quantitative assessments of agents' and specialists' adoption of the new programming model and reporting, evaluation, and accountability processes. The assessment combined the collection and analyses of qualitative and quantitative data in order to reduce the likelihood of diagnostic bias in the assessment. Data were collected in two phases.

First Programming-Change Assessment Phase: Open-Ended Interviews

The first phase of data collection entailed a qualitative assessment with interviews of a percentage of randomly selected campus-based and field-based Extension agents and specialists at Auburn University and Alabama A&M University, two primary components of ACES. First, an outside researcher randomly selected and contacted interviewees to schedule telephone and in-person interviews. During interviews the researcher then asked respondents to share open-ended strengths and weaknesses of the new programming model and reporting, evaluation, and accountability processes.

Assured that all responses would be kept anonymous, interviewees immediately provided very honest and thorough descriptions of sentiments regarding strengths and weaknesses of ACES programming changes. For example, indicating support and adoption of some programming changes, interviewees explained strengths such as the convenience and efficiency of the required online planning and reporting. On the other hand, indicating resistance to some changes, interviewees also specified weaknesses such as the need for balance of state-driven versus county-driven programming.

Once all interview data were collected, the researcher began data analysis by categorizing interviewees' statements identifying strengths of programming changes according to reoccurring themes. A resulting table was produced to indicate reoccurring themes and percentages of interviewees who shared responses represented by the themes. See Table 1 for a sample table.

In addition, interviewees' statements identifying weaknesses of programming changes--areas of resistance--were categorized according to reoccurring themes and reported in a table similar to the one given above. See Table 2 for a sample table.

To further assess adoption of the programming changes, each theme representing an identified strength or weakness of a programming change was further categorized as one of three types of "organizational-change-climate" factors: a causal, intervening, or outcome factor (see Likert, 1961, 1967). As suggested by Likert, change agents--i.e., organizational leaders--control causal factors, which consequently affect intervening factors that ultimately result in desirable or undesirable outcome factors. Thus, each theme representing an identified strength of an ACES programming change was categorized as one of the following:

• A strength causal factor--that is, a factor positively impacting agent and specialist attitudes and subsequent outcomes regarding programming changes;

• A strength intervening factor--that is, a factor reflecting positive agent and specialist attitudes, motivations, and emotions regarding programming changes; or

• A strength outcome factor--that is, an end-result behavior representing positive organizational performance. See Table 3 for a sample table of results.

Finally, each theme representing an identified weakness of programming changes--areas of resistance--was also further categorized as one of three "organizational-change-climate" factors (Likert, 1967):

• A weakness causal factor--that is, a factor negatively impacting agent and specialist attitudes and subsequent outcomes regarding programming changes;

• A weakness intervening factor--that is, a factor reflecting negative member attitudes, motivations, and emotions regarding programming changes; or

• A weaknesses outcome factor--that is, an end-result behavior that represents negative organizational performance. See Table 4 for a sample table of results.

Second Programming-Change Assessment Phase: Online Survey

Results of the first phase of the ACES programming assessment provided an unbiased, accurate frame of reference for the second phase of data collection--administration of an online survey designed to further investigate resistance to programming changes. Specifically, the open-ended interview data collected in the first assessment phase would enhance understanding of the evolving programming process by providing unique perspectives that would disclose underlying employee rational used in making quantitative judgments in the online survey. Thus, the second phase of the programming assessment involved use of an online survey (posted on an Intranet) addressing several programming issues identified in the first assessment phase.

ACES agents and specialists were invited by the administration to voluntarily and anonymously complete and submit the online survey, which was designed collectively by the outside researcher and administration personnel based primarily on data collected in the first assessment phase. The survey asked respondents to rate agreement with approximately 10 statements about specific programming changes using the following scale: "1" for "strongly disagree," "2" for "somewhat disagree," "3" for "somewhat agree," and "4" for "strongly agree." Also, the survey asked respondents to share any strengths and weaknesses of programming changes.

At the conclusion of the survey's administration, the researcher analyzed the data by calculating and reporting for each survey item: (1) the average rating and (2) the standard deviation of each respondent's rating from the average rating. These numbers were computed for each item in order to then quantitatively gauge respondents' sentiments regarding programming changes. [Recall that both quantitative and qualitative approaches are oftentimes utilized by organizations in assessment efforts because the methods provide complementary information (Diem, 2002).]

Sample survey results are as follows:

• Survey item: The on-line sign-up and reporting process and on-line success stories should be used as part of individual performance appraisals. 
  Average Rating = 1.6218 = Strongly Disagree-Somewhat Disagree
  Standard Deviation = 0.9914

• Survey item: Online success stories are a good way for me to know what my colleagues across the state are doing.
  Average Rating = 2.1176 = Somewhat Disagree
  Standard Deviation = 0.8942

Finally, open-ended strengths and weaknesses shared by survey respondents were analyzed exactly as interview data was analyzed in the first assessment phase. Results of this qualitative data and the quantitative survey data analyses generally reiterated strengths and weaknesses identified in the first phase of the assessment. To this end, use of both quantitative and qualitative change assessments permitted the ACES administration to particularly capture without bias areas of resistance to functional and structural changes--a critical step toward sound institutionalization of organizational change (Armenakis, Harris, & Feild, 1999).

Assessment of Organizational Restructuring

Acceptance of organizational change from ACES agents and specialists was a necessary condition for implementing future transformations not only in the way ACES does business, but also in its organizational structure. Thus, following the two-phase assessment of programming changes, the ACES administration attempted cultivation of more member participation in change efforts, assessments, and decision-making, with particular attention to increasing agent and specialist participation in assessments of both programmatic and organizational changes regarding future restructuring. Evolving organizations lacking active employee participation in change efforts unfortunately hamper smooth institutionalization of change efforts (Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999).

As is the case with many Extension programs around the country, ACES is forced to consider redirection and reallocation of staff and resources in response to evolving changes in both internal and external environments. Significant internal and external factors influencing Extension operations in Alabama include proliferation in technology among ACES employees and clientele, rapidly increasing complexity of subject-matter areas, reduced funding, and increased expectations of federal funding partners.

As a result, the process for developing and implementing ACES restructuring plans began in October 2002 with the naming of a Strategic Development Action Team (SDAT) to implement the recommendations from a year-long strategic planning process. The SDAT was divided into three workgroups, each addressing one of three issues: redirection and reallocation of resources and staff, internal training, and funding for new programs. Taking an initial step toward institutionalization of SDAT-proposed restructuring initiatives, ACES stakeholders were called upon to play active roles in change efforts to help decrease resistance and foster institutionalization of restructuring changes.

Various assessments have been taken by the SDAT between 2002 and the present to assess resistance to proposed restructuring changes. For example, the SDAT solicited open-ended input from both in-state and out-of-state Extension employees through phone calls, face-to-face meetings, and group meetings. In addition, organizational models from other states were considered, and extensive input was received from respective agents. Upon the SDAT's development of the propositions for ACES' restructuring, the propositions were posted on multiple occasions (as updated) on an Intranet in order to offer ACES employees the opportunity to review propositions and share open-ended comments of support and/or resistance. The ACES administration also captured feedback from stakeholders in meetings held with field staff across Alabama, Extension-funded faculty and specialists at Alabama A&M University and Auburn University, and representatives of Extension clientele organizations.

Armed with input from critical stakeholders, the ACES administration and SDAT considered proposed restructuring initiatives in terms of the solicited feedback. Though acquisition of the feedback did not guarantee smooth institutionalization of the restructuring changes, areas of resistance to the changes were identified and subsequently considered in restructuring change efforts. For example, one concern of ACES stakeholders was the proliferation of the use of technology in ACES, which is illustrated by over 2.5 million annual visits to the ACES Web site, as well as on-line publications being viewed and/or downloaded over 1.3 million times per year. Such immediate access to ACES information creates a need for costly technical support personnel and greater Internet connectivity. To address this concern, restructuring initiatives were to then be designed to make better use of new and emerging technologies.

Another example of stakeholder feedback considered during institutionalization of restructuring changes was concern for the increasing complexity of program areas and clientele. To address this concern, restructuring initiatives were to then be designed to allow ACES employees to focus in specific areas and to develop more in-depth area expertise in program areas. In addition, to address ACES members' concern for gaps between research and practice in Extension programming, restructuring initiatives were to be designed to create stronger operational links between academic research and educational programming in the field.

Summary

This article discussed examples of systemic quantitative and qualitative change assessments in order to offer a framework Extension administrators can adopt to potentially decrease resistance and to advance toward sound institutionalization of organizational change. To this end, the following action steps are recommended in order for Extension administrators to carry out more systematic, unbiased, and comprehensive assessments of adoption of organizational changes:

• Seek assistance from academic researchers in the design and administration of data collection procedures;

• Seek open-ended, qualitative stakeholder input regarding strengths and weaknesses of organizational changes via informal interviews in which interviewees' anonymity will be maintained;

• Seek quantitative stakeholder input on strengths and weaknesses of organizational changes by utilizing surveys administered and completed via available media; and

• Seek assistance from academic researchers in analyses of data collected from change assessments.

Conclusion

Research-generated knowledge is critical to successful operations of the U. S. Extension system. In times of great change and restructuring, Extension's research-generated knowledge must in part be derived from unbiased quantitative and/or qualitative research methods fostering accurate assessment of adoption of change efforts. Failure to allow active participation of Extension employees in change efforts may result in maladaption to critical change initiatives and, hence, a lack of willingness to leave behind that which may hinder Extension from successfully adapting to the times. As so aptly concluded by Harriman and Daugherty (1992) and initially quoted by Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1983), "The change master is partly a historian who knows which pieces of the past to honor and preserve while moving toward a different future, but that is not the same as letting the past define the future."

References

Armenakis, A. A., & Bedeian, A. G. (1999). Organizational change: A review of theory and research in the 1990s. Journal of Management, 25, 3, 293-315.

Armenakis, A. A., Harris, S., & Feild, H. (1999). Paradigms in organizational change: Change agent and change target perspectives. In R. Golembiewski (Ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Campbell, D., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally Co.

Diem, K. G. (2002). Using research methods to evaluate your Extension program. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002december/a1.shtml

Di Pofi, J. A. (2002). Organizational diagnostics: Integrating qualitative and quantitative methodology. Journal of Organizational Change, 15, 2, 156-158.

Hagen, E. P., & Thorndike, R. L. (1977). Measurement and evaluation in psychology and education. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Harriman, L. C., & Daugherty, R. A. (1992). Staffing Extension for the 21st century. Journal of Extension [On-line], 30(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992winter/fut1.html

Harrison, M. I., & Shirom, A. (1999). Organizational diagnosis and assessment: Bridging theory and practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Kanter, R. M. (1983). The change masters: Innovation for productivity in the American corporation. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc.

Likert, R. (1967). The human organization: Its management and value. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Likert, R. (1961). New patterns of management. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Wentling, T. L. (1980). Evaluating occupational education and training programs. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

Evaluating a Youth Leadership Life Skills Development Program

Thomas A. Smith
Associate Professor
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama
smitht8@auburn.edu

Leonard S. Genry
Therapist
Health Ministries
Dahlonega, Georgia
genrys@alltael.net

Scott A. Ketring
Assistant Professor
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama
ketring@auburn.edu

Introduction

The goal of leadership education programs is to teach leadership life skills using an experiential model. The participants learn valuable skills that are implemented within the program, moving the participant toward an active learning position (Kleinfeld & Shinkwin, 1983). However, experiential education is often more expensive than in-class educational activities, which puts pressure on programs to demonstrate effectiveness.

Boyd (1991) called for empirical research to identify effectiveness of programs and more specifically leadership training programs. Although some programs have demonstrated positive outcomes related to skill attainment, most evaluations are strictly pre-post samples plagued with an inability to address inflated pre-assessment scores (Hensel, 1991; Karnes, Merriweather, & D'Lilio, 1987; Seevers & Dormody, 1994).

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of the study described here was to evaluate the development of leadership life skills in the participants in the Appalachian Regional Commission Youth Leadership Incubator Program, also known at the Youth Empowerment Program (YEP). This program seeks to develop the leadership life skills of each participant while also implementing a program, designed by the youth, to foster economic development within their home counties.

The goal is to effectively evaluate the program using a design that takes into account the standard shift in self evaluation that occurs following training. A common feature of leadership training is that many people come to the training with a high self concept of their abilities and thus report inflated self evaluations. The high ratings at pre-test artificially deflate post-test scores. However, providing hindsight scoring at post tests and follow-up allows for the participants to re-evaluate pre-test and even post-test knowledge given post-test and follow-up awareness.

It was hypothesized that the participants will have an overall rating increase from pre-test to post-test using the hindsight method. These leadership qualities will be maintained at 9-month follow-up.

Training Program

Adolescent participants were identified by school officials from seven economically distressed Alabama counties. Final participant selection was made by the YEP county steering committee members. The steering committee was also charged with overseeing the process of mentor selection, planning the retreats and the summit, and acting as county facilitators.

University students who were residents of the seven identified counties applied to work as mentors to the adolescent participants. These mentors primarily served as a bridge between the steering committee and the teens.

Adolescent participants attended an orientation and six monthly meetings. These meetings required each team to assess county needs and subsequently plan and implement a project aimed at addressing the identified problem. Projects included teen pregnancy prevention, park renovation, water treatment and improvement, and development of recreational facilities.

Two leadership life skills training retreats and a summit were also held over the span of the program. The two retreats provided 20 hours of instruction in leadership life skills, while the week long summit provided 30 hours of leadership training (Mecsko, 1996). At program completion, each teen had received 60 hours of leadership training.

Method

Measures

The level of leadership life skills possessed by the participants was measured with the 30-item self report, "Youth Leadership Life Skills Development Scale" (YLLSDS) (Seevers, Dormody, & Clason, 1995). Subjects rated their ability on each of the 30 items along a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (no ability) to 3 (a lot of ability). Example statements on the YLLSDS are: Can listen to others, can set goals, and consider the needs of others. Seevers et al. (1995) report a Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of .98; however, for this study the alpha was .89.

Participants were also requested to rate their level of involvement in 18 different types of school, community, and/or religious clubs or organizations. Involvement level was measured on a four-point Community Involvement Scale (CIS). Choices included non-member (18 points), some meeting attendance (36 points), attendance of most meetings, or committee membership or officer and attendance of most meetings (72 points). Although the CIS is non-standardized, the Cronbach's reliability coefficient demonstrates internal consistency of .93.

Analyses

A Repeated Measure General Linear Model, designed for analyzing multiple scores for the same subject, was used. The rationale behind using this particular model is that repeated measure analyses reduce the number of statistics, compared with ANOVA or correlation analyses. Self rating of leadership ability scores was assessed at pre-test, hindsight of pre-test, post-test, hindsight of post-test, and follow-up, on the YLLSDS, and on the CIS.

Providing hindsight scoring at post-test and follow-up allows the evaluation team to control for change in the participants shift in perception as to their personal ratings (Rohs & Langone, 1996).

Procedures

The YLLSDS was administered to participants at the first retreat prior to any leadership training. The same instrument was administered again at the close of the summit, asking participants to respond twice to each item. First they were asked to report how they perceived themselves to be at the time of administration (post-test), and second they were asked to report how they perceived themselves on the same item at the beginning of the program (hindsight of pre-test).

The hindsight method was carried out to control for change in the participant's response shift as described by Rohs and Langone (1996). The response shift is a common evaluative shift occurring when participants learn new skills and at post-test realize the limit of pre-test knowledge or ability before training. Follow-up with the YLLSDS was also conducted at 9-month post treatment, with participants providing 9-month follow-up data and a hindsight evaluation of post-test knowledge.

Results

Participants

Seven participants from each county were selected for a total of 49 youth. The ages of the participants at the beginning of the program ranged from 12 to 16 years of age, with a mean age between 14.4 years of age. There were 37 females and 12 males. The majority of participants were Caucasian (n= 35), while the remaining participants were African-American (n= 11) and Native American (n= 3).

There were 29 females and 10 males at post-test. The majority of the sample was Caucasian (n= 30), followed by African-American (n=7) and Native American (n= 2) participants. At follow-up, there 25 females and 8 males. The number of Caucasian participants fell to 27, while African-Americans dropped to four participants, and Native Americans remained at two.

Chi-square analysis was used to test for differences across demographic variables between those remaining in the study and those who dropped out at post-test and 9-month follow-up. There were no differences between drop-outs and non-dropouts across demographic variables; however, fewer than expected African American respondents completed follow-up 0² (2, 49) = 6.33, p = 0.04. T-tests demonstrated no significant differences between premature terminators and completers of the study on either of the YLLSDS or the CIS, even when taking into account racial identity.

Analyses

A repeated measures analysis was conducted with the dependent variable being leadership ability scores at pre-test, hindsight of pre-test, post-test, hindsight of post-test, and follow-up, on the YLLSDS . Wilks' lambda was used as the multivariate test of significance (Green, Salkind, & Akey, 1997). The results of the ANOVA indicated a significant time effect, Wilks' Λ= .47, F(4,28) = 7.879, p <.001, multivariate η²= .53. Paired samples t-tests indicated significant differences between five of the ten possible pairings.

Analyses of community involvement at pre-test, post-test, and follow-up, revealed no significant differences in the overall level of program involvement or overall number of leadership positions held by the participants. Examination of the data indicated a mean level of involvement of 36.47 at pre-test, 37.78 at post-test, and 36.72 at follow-up. Although personal rating of leadership changed over the course of the program, the level of community involvement remained the same.

Discussion

Without the hindsight approach, the program outcomes would not have been detected. This procedure should be used in future studies that require a self-evaluation of skills and ability. The initial hypothesis of this study, that the participants scores would be significantly higher at post-test than at pre-test, and that the change would be stable at 9-month follow-up, was supported using the hindsight approach. Response shifts of the participants, measured with a hindsight test at post-test and follow-up, indicate statistically significant differences in the participants' perception of change in their leadership ability.

Outcomes demonstrated that participants were confident of their leadership abilities but became cognizant of newly learned leadership qualities. These new qualities helped participants re-evaluate actual ability. It was interesting that the re-evaluation not only occurred between pre- and post-test, but also occurred between post-test and follow-up. It seems that new mental constructs of leadership occur over time and are followed by a new standard of evaluation.

The above finding is consistent with the results of Rohs and Langone's (1997) study, indicating a change in the participants' standard of measurement for level of leadership skill. Participants in this program not only perceive their ability to perform leadership functions in real life as being improved during the program, they also have a higher expectation as a leader. Additionally, the lack of a significant difference between the hindsight of post-test and the follow-up scores indicates that the participants see their abilities as relatively consistent at the 9-month follow-up period. The stability of this measure provides support for the hypothesis that leadership abilities would remain consistent the nine months following program completion.

Limitations

The methodological limitations include lack of a control group and relatively small sample size. High community involvement by participants prior to beginning the program made it difficult to assess any changes in level of activity. Including a group of adolescents who were minimally involved in the community prior to program participation would have provided more information concerning program effectiveness in changing future participant activity.

Future Research

Using the pre-test/post-test/hindsight format with a self report measure should be continued. Future evaluations including both quantitative and qualitative measures would further clarify the accuracy of the shift. Having an independent evaluation of the leadership qualities of each student at different stages of the project would provide supporting data.

Conclusion

Participants improved their leadership life skill ability and maintained these skills at follow-up. The participants also maintained previous levels of involvement in community activities. The hindsight tests allowed for evaluation of a change that would not have been detected in the traditional pre-test/post-test/follow-up evaluation format. However, more needs to be done to evaluate the accuracy of the response shift.

Acknowledgments

This program and evaluation was supported by the Appalachian Regional Commission, Contract, AL-12306-96. The project was a joint effort of the Auburn University Department of Human Development and Family Studies, the Alabama Cooperative Extension System, and the Auburn University Economic Development Institute.

References

Boyd, B. L. (1991). Analysis of 4-H participation and leadership life skill development in Texas 4-H club members. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station.

Green, S. B., Salkind, N. J., & Akey, T. M. (1997). Using SPSS for windows. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hensel, N. H. (1991). Social leadership skills in young children. Roeper Review, 14(1), 4-6.

Karnes, F. A., Meriweather, S., & D'Llio, V. (1987). The effectiveness of the leadership studies program. Roeper Review, 9(4), 238-241.

Kleinfeld, J., & Shinkwin, A. (1983). Youth organizations as a third educational environment: Particularly for minority group youth. Final report to the National Institute of Education. Washington, D.C. NIE. September. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 240 194).

Mecsko, L. (1996). Youth empowerment program: Resource handbook. (Available from Thomas A. Smith, Glanton House, Auburn University, Auburn, Al., 36849-5604)

Rohs, F. R., & Langone, C. A. (1996). Measuring leadership skills development: A comparison of methods. Paper presented at the Association of Leadership Educators, Burlington, Vermont.

Rohs, F. R., & Langone, C. A. (1997). Increased accuracy in measuring leadership impacts. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 4(1), 23-31.

Seevers, B., & Dormody, T. J. (1994). Predicting youth leadership skills development among senior 4-H members: A tri-state study. Journal of Agricultural Education, 35(3), 64-69.

Seevers, B., Dormody, T. J., & Clason D. L. (1995). Developing a scale to research and evaluate youth leadership life skills development. Journal of Agricultural Education, 36(2), 28-35.

Extent of Positive Youth-Adult Relationships in a 4-H After-School Program

Jessica E. Paisley
4-H Program Assistant, Muskingum County
Zanesville, Ohio
paisley.10@osu.edu

Theresa M. Ferrari
Assistant Professor and State Extension Specialist, 4-H Youth Development
Columbus, Ohio
ferrari.8@osu.edu

Ohio State University Extension

Introduction

It is widely recognized that relationships with caring adults are essential for youth to achieve their fullest potential (Blum & Rinehart, 1998; Benson, Leffert, Scales, & Blyth, 1998; Eccles & Gootman, 2002; Tierney, Grossman, & Resch, 1995). Youth organizations provide an environment where positive adult relationships are known to develop and flourish. Adults who work in these settings create the safe, welcoming environment that provides engaging growth opportunities.

Pittman (1992) noted that youth often define their attachment to a program or organization in terms of their relationship with a caring adult. Youth have reported that such relationships matter in their lives, and studies have found these relationships to result in positive outcomes for those youth (Gambone & Arbreton, 1997; Grossman & Johnson, 1999; Jekielek, Moore, Hair, & Scarupa, 2002; Hererra, Sipe, McClanahan, Arbreton, & Pepper, 2000; National 4-H Impact Study, 2001; Rhodes, Grossman, & Resch, 2000; Sipe, 2000; Tierney et al., 1995).

The characteristics of adults who work with youth and their role in creating group climate have been discussed in previous research (Astroth, 1996, 1997; McLaughlin, 2000; McLaughlin, Irby, & Langman, 1994; Sipe, 2000; Yohalem, 2003). Significantly, a recent study has concluded that the ability of staff members leading an activity was more important to program quality than the specific activity itself (Grossman et al., 2002).

Purpose

Adventure Central, an Extension-managed youth education center in west Dayton, Ohio, was the context selected for the study described here. The center is a collaboration between Ohio State University (OSU) Extension, 4-H Youth Development, and Five Rivers MetroParks (FRMP), and there was a need to understand progress toward reaching program goals, one of which is to foster positive relationships between adult staff and volunteers and youth participants. The study addressed the following questions:

1. To what extent are participants experiencing positive youth-adult relationships?

2. What factors contribute to the development of these relationships?

3. How do participants' relationships with adults at Adventure Central compare to those with adults in other contexts?

Program Context

Adventure Central is situated within the Wesleyan MetroPark, part of Five Rivers MetroParks in Dayton, Ohio. Programs serve urban youth ages 5 to 19 from the surrounding community, which is primarily African-American with a median annual income of $18,000. After-school programming is conducted Monday through Thursday from 2:00 p.m. to 6:30 p.m. The format includes open computer lab time, dinner, homework assistance, and educational activities that focus on such topics as technology, gardening, and health and nutrition. There are five groups based on age, grade, and maturity level. Academic advancement and closing activities take place during group time. Full-day programming is conducted in the summer, when teens serve as program assistants in addition to adult staff.

At the time of the study, adults at Adventure Central included five full-time administrative and program staff members, three contracted prevention specialists, and two part-time interns. Adventure Central also relies heavily on volunteer involvement. A group leader, an assistant group leader, and other staff or volunteers supervise each small group. This staffing pattern allows for at least a 1:6 adult-to-child ratio. The vast majority of adults (80%) are African American. Two-thirds of these adults reported working at Adventure Central at least 4 days per week, and two-thirds reported having 3 or more years of previous job experience in youth development programming.

Methods

We determined that a multi-method design was needed to address the research questions. We used a survey to examine the extent of relationships between youth and adults and to compare youth-adult relationships across contexts. Qualitative observations were conducted to learn more about the processes that contribute to youth-adult relationships.

Participants

All youth attending the Adventure Central after-school program during the autumn of 2001 were invited to participate. Forty-eight youth (80%) received parental permission and completed the survey (Table 1).

Measures

Relationships with Adults

Relationships with adults were measured with a series of four scales. In general, the items measured tendencies to view adults as caring, encouraging, approachable, and trustworthy. Youth were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the statements on a four-point scale of NO! (coded as 0), no (coded as 1), yes (coded as 2), and YES! (coded as 3). This scale was modeled after Arthur, Pollard, Hawkins, and Catalano (1997). Cronbach's alphas for the scales were acceptable: Adventure Central adults (α = .76), teachers (α = .82), adults in the home (α = .77), and adults in the neighborhood (α = .69).

Interactions with Adults

To record observations, we modified a checklist for observing staff interactions in school-age childcare programs (Ohio Hunger Task Force, 1999). We created additional items based on the literature (Dungan-Seaver, 1999; Eccles & Gootman, 2002; Jekielek et al., 2002; National School-Age Care Alliance, 1998; Rosenthal & Vandell, 1996). Three broad categories of behaviors were identified: communication (e.g., uses supportive language), teaching (e.g., assists a child with homework), and conflict or discipline (e.g., handles conflict, disciplines a child).

Program Attendance

Attendance information was obtained from program records, measured by the quantity of contact hours during the 5-month study period in 2001.

Procedures

Program stakeholders reviewed the survey instrument for face validity, and a draft was pilot-tested for readability. Questionnaires were administered in a small group setting to the five pre-existing groups of youth. Staff and volunteers aided participants with reading questions as needed.

In addition, observation using the event sampling method (Beaty, 1994) was chosen for qualitative data collection. Ten separate observation periods totaling 5 hours were conducted (two observations each for five groups). To begin each observation, the observer recorded the date, time, type of activity, and child-staff ratio within the group. Each time a behavior was observed, a tally was made beside that item. Event sampling was conducted for 25-minute periods, followed by 5 minutes of additional notation. An effort was made to conduct the two observations on different days of the week and different times of day.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were computed for all measures. Spearman rank correlations were calculated to determine association between youth's relationship with adults at Adventure Central and the quantity of contact hours they received with the adults (Cohen & Cohen, 1983; Witte & Witte, 2001). Additionally, t-tests were conducted to determine significance between attendance and responses to individual scale items. Independent sample t-tests were also computed for the four adult relationship scales to measure for significant differences between contexts. The tallies for each item on the observation checklist were totaled and calculated as a percentage of the total observations.

Results

Extent of Positive Relationships with Adventure Central Adults

Mean responses for individual scale items were positive, ranging from 2.63 to 2.79, where 3.00 was the highest possible response (Table 2). Independent sample t-tests examining differences in responses by gender found no significant differences (t = -.295, p < .05), thus indicating that both male and female participants perceived positive relationships with adults at Adventure Central.

Factors Contributing to Relationships at Adventure Central

Attendance

Youth attended Adventure Central between 4 hours and 246.5 hours (M = 98.9, SD = 61.6). They were grouped into two groups based on a median split (Mdn = 76). A significant correlation was found between attendance and the adult relationship scale score, r (41) = .481, p < .01. Additionally, there were significant positive correlations between attendance and four of the six scale items (Table 3).

Differences on individual scale items were also explored using independent sample t-tests. High attendees responses were significantly more positive than those of low attendees for three of the six scale items (Table 4).

Youth-Adult Interactions

Interactions between youth and adults were primarily one-on-one (84%), with significantly fewer being whole group (9%) or small group (7%). The ratio of adults to youth was at least 1:6. The interactions were categorized as either emotional or instrumental support based on Eccles and Gootman (2002). The frequencies are reported in Table 5.

Comparing Youth-Adult Relationships Across Contexts

Independent sample t-tests revealed that relationships with adults at Adventure Central were significantly more positive than those with teachers or neighborhood adults. Furthermore, relationships with adults in the home were significantly more positive than relationships with neighborhood adults (Table 6).

Discussion

Scores indicated that youth perceived their relationships with adults at Adventure Central as highly positive. Youth trusting adults was the individual item with the highest mean score (M = 2.79), which emphasizes the importance of trust in the formation of relationships. In related research, adolescent participants at Adventure Central acknowledged the adults as a reason they continue attending (Ferrari & Turner, 2004; Turner, 2002).

One factor that was found to significantly contribute to relationship quality was attendance: Youth with greater attendance reported more positive relationships. This is a logical finding, as higher attendance would provide more opportunities for contact with an adult, thus providing interaction opportunities. Further support for this finding is provided by studies of mentoring programs (Grossman & Johnson, 1999; Grossman & Rhodes, 2002).

One-on-one interactions were more frequently observed compared to small-group or whole-group interactions. This finding was consistent with the low adult-child ratio, which appears to have facilitated greater interaction. Type of interaction may be a factor contributing to relationship quality, as individual contact allows for more private discussion and may aid in the development of trust. However, considering the participants as a whole, one-on-one interaction could negatively affect relationships if the same youth continually receive the attention, and others do not receive the attention.

The behaviors selected for observation were seen in varying frequencies. Those interactions most frequently observed were talking to a child in a positive tone, giving a child clear directions, listening to a child, and using a child's name when talking to him or her, indicating that these behaviors may contribute to the development of relationships. These behaviors are consistent with those identified in the literature as factors contributing to positive relationships. Another encouraging finding is that only a small percentage of observations (3%) could be classified as negative (e.g., tone of voice).

However, there were desirable interactions that occurred infrequently or were not observed at all. Several possible reasons for this have been considered. One likely explanation is the timing of observations relative to the program schedule. For example, there were no observations of staff asking a child about his or her day. Generally, this type of interaction occurs as youth arrive at the program, during snack time, or when the schedule is less structured. Our observations occurred during more structured time with a focus on academic activities. Another possibility is that certain interactions may occur only during particular program offerings (e.g., discussion of future plans during career exploration programming). Finally, it is possible that the interactions are not occurring. Therefore, repeated observations may be necessary.

When comparing youths' responses concerning relationships with adults at Adventure Central to those with adults in other contexts, the results were consistent with past research. In other studies, youth have also reported satisfaction of relationships with their teachers and neighbors at much lower percentages than was found for their relationships with after-school program staff (Kahne et al., 2001; MetLife, 2001; Scales & Leffert, 1999).

Several limitations should be noted. We chose to study one program before exploring between-group differences. Because no comparison group was used, we cannot generalize these findings. The sample size was small, limiting our statistical analysis. In addition, high scores on all items produced little variability. The measures used may not have been sensitive enough to detect differences that may have existed. However, the observations provided insight into the processes that contribute to the presence of positive relationships that were indicated by the survey instrument. What we observed suggests that the high scores were a realistic assessment of the relationship experiences.

Implications

This study has several implications for practice.

1. Encourage long-term participation of youth to realize important program benefits obtained through positive youth-adult interactions.

2. Recruit and select program staff with desirable characteristics.

3. Provide training for staff on youth development principles in general and building relationships in particular.

4. Conduct observation to provide insight into specific interaction practices.

5. Note desirable interactions that occur infrequently, and take specific steps to increase these practices.

6. Provide positive feedback to and reward staff who exhibit desirable behaviors.

The National 4-H Strategic Plan recommends increasing opportunities for youth to participate in long-term, sustainable relationships with caring adults (National Strategic Directions Team, 2001). The study described here emphasizes the need for intentional inclusion of features known to contribute to desired outcomes and for understanding the processes that underlie them.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the staff at Adventure Central for their willingness to participate in this study and their support throughout the process.

Portions of this research were presented previously at the 2002 NAE4-HA annual conference in Norfolk, VA, in March 2003 at the Hours of Opportunity Conference in E. Lansing, MI, at the 2003 CYFAR Conference in Minneapolis, MN, and at the Extension Galaxy II Conference in Salt Lake City, UT in 2003.

References

Arthur, M., Pollard, J., Hawkins, J., & Catalano, R. F. (1997). Student survey of risk and protective factors. Seattle, WA: Developmental Research and Programs.

Astroth, K. (1996). Leadership in nonformal youth groups: Does style affect youth outcomes? Journal of Extension [On-line], 34(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1996december/rb2.html

Astroth, K. A. (1997). Beyond resiliency: Fostering vibrancy in youth groups. New Designs for Youth Development, 13(4), 4-11.

Beaty, J. J. (1994). Observing development of the young child (3^rd ed.). New York: Merrill.

Benson, P. L., Leffert, N., Scales, P. C., & Blyth, D. (1998). Beyond the "village" rhetoric: Creating healthy communities for children and youth. Applied Developmental Science, 2(1), 138-159.

Blum, R. W., & Rinehart, P. M. (1998). Reducing the risk: Connections that make a difference in the lives of youth. Minneapolis, MN: Division of General Pediatrics and Adolescent Health, Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota. Retrieved September 10, 2004, from http://www.allaboutkids.umn.edu/kdwbvfc/fr_pub.htm

Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2^nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Dungan-Seaver, D. (1999). After-school programs: An analysis of research about the characteristics of effectiveness. Retrieved September 10, 2004, from McKnight Foundation website http://www.mcknight.org/cfc/lab.aspx

Eccles, J., & Gootman, J. A. (Eds.). (2002). Community programs to promote youth development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Ferrari, T. M., & Turner, C. L. (2004). An exploratory study of adolescents' motivations for joining and continued participation in a 4-H Afterschool program. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Gambone, M. A., & Arbreton, A. J. A. (1997). Safe havens: The contributions of youth organizations to healthy adolescent development. Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.

Grossman, J. B., & Johnson, A. (1999). Assessing the effectiveness of mentoring programs. In J. B. Grossman (Ed.), Contemporary issues in mentoring (pp. 25 - 47). Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.

Grossman, J. B., Price, M. L., Fellerath, V., Jucovy, L. Z., Kotloff, L. J., Raley, R., & Walker, K. E. (2002). Multiple choices after school: Findings from the extended-service schools initiative. Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.

Grossman, J. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2002). The test of time: Predictors and effects of duration in youth mentoring relationships. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 199-219.

Jekielek, S. M., Moore, K. A., Hair, E. C., & Scarupa, H. J. (2002). Mentoring: A promising strategy for youth development. Washington, DC: Child Trends.

Herrera, C., Sipe, C. L., McClanahan, W. S., Arbreton, A. J. A., & Pepper, S. K. (2000). Mentoring school-age children: Relationship development in community-based and school-based programs. Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.

Kahne, J., Nagaoka, J., Brown, A., O'Brien, J., Quinn T., & Thiede, K. (2001). Assessing after-school programs as contexts for youth development. Youth and Society, 32(4), 421-445.

McLaughlin, M. W. (2000). Community counts: How youth organizations matter for youth development. Washington, DC: Public Education Network. Retrieved September 10, 2004, from http://www.publiceducation.org/PENreports.asp

McLaughlin, M. W., Irby, M.A., & Langman, J. (1994). Urban sanctuaries: Neighborhood organizations in the lives and futures of inner-city youth. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

MetLife, Inc. (2001). The MetLife survey of the American teacher 2001: Key elements of quality schools. Retrieved September 10, 2004, from MetLife, Inc. Web site http://www.metlife.com/WPSAssets/26575530001018400549V1F2001ats.pdf

National 4-H Impact Study. (2001). Prepared and engaged youth. Washington, DC: CSREES/USDA. Retrieved September 10, 2004, from http://www.national4-hheadquarters.gov/impact.htm

National School-Age Care Alliance. (1998). The NSACA standards for quality school-age care. Boston: Author.

National Strategic Directions Team. (2001). The power of youth in a changing world: Jump at the chance! Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture. Available at: http://www.national4-hheadquarters.gov/strategic.pdf

Ohio Hunger Task Force. (1999). Urban school initiative school-age child care project 1998-1999: School-year evaluation report. Columbus, OH: Author.

Pittman, K. (1992). Defining the fourth R: Promoting youth development through building relationships. Washington, DC: Academy for Educational Development, Center for Youth Development and Policy Research.

Rhodes, J. (2001). Youth mentoring in perspective. The Center, 26-31. Retrieved September 10, 2004, from the University of Minnesota's Center for 4-H Youth Development Web site http://www.fourh.umn.edu/resources/Center/PDF/C2K1-A5.pdf

Rhodes, J. E., Grossman, J. B., & Resch, N. L. (2000). Agents of change: Pathways through which mentoring relationships influence adolescents' academic adjustment. Child Development, 71(6), 1662-1671.

Rosenthal, R., & Vandell, D. L. (1996). Quality of care at school-aged child care programs: Regulatable features, observed experiences, child perspectives, and parent perspectives. Child Development, 67, 2434-2445.

Scales, P. C., & Leffert, N. (1999). Developmental assets: A synthesis of the scientific research on adolescent development. Minneapolis: Search Institute.

Sipe, C. L. (2000). Mentoring adolescents: What have we learned? In J. Grossman (Ed.), Contemporary issues in mentoring, (pp. 10-23). Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.

Tierney, J. P., & Grossman, J. B. (with Resch, N. L.). (1995). Making a difference: An impact study of Big Brothers/Big Sisters. Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.

Turner, C. L. (2002). Factors contributing to adolescents' commitment to Adventure Central, a 4-H after-school program. Unpublished master's thesis, The Ohio State University, Columbus.

Witte, R. S., & Witte, J. S. (2001). Statistics (6th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers.

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Life-Skill Development Found in 4-H Animal Judging

Scott A. Nash
Extension Educator
Blackfoot, Idaho
snash@uidaho.edu

Laura L. Sant
Extension Educator
Preston, Idaho
lsant@uidaho.edu

University of Idaho

Introduction

Throughout the history of 4-H youth programming, the development of valuable life skills such as communication, problem solving, and understanding one's self have been taught through experiential learning activities (Boyd, Herring, & Briers, 1992). Animal judging activities have been traditional 4-H programs offered to youth as a means of becoming competent in animal evaluation. The traditional activities include livestock, dairy, and horse judging contests. The purpose of these activities has been to encourage the critical evaluation of the livestock and horses as a method of bringing about improvement of the animals.

The judging contest or activity centers around the evaluation of a class or group of four animals and then determination of a placing or ranking of the animals from most desirable to least desirable, based on a standard set forth by experts from the university and livestock/horse industry. The evaluation activity exercises the youth participants' decision-making and problem-solving skills as they determine the most logical ranking order of the animals. Judging participants learn to evaluate the desirable and undesirable points of conformation in a class of four animals (McCann, 1998). According to Hunsley & Beeson (1988), "The judging of livestock uses skills which involve the comparison of differences."

More important, the process of judging animals has a positive impact on the development of workforce skills. McCann and McCann (1992) stated that the livestock judging activity provides youth who have an interest in the livestock industry the opportunity to develop necessary skills for their futures and their careers. The skills developed through the evaluation process of the judging activity can be utilized in real-life situations.

Another important component of the judging activity is the participants' preparation and actual delivery of a set of oral reasons. The oral reasons are the contestants' way to describe their ranking of the animals and defend their thought processes and decisions. The reasons are typically presented in a logical and professional manner. Oral reasons allow participants to become more proficient in defending their decisions using public speaking skills (Purdue Cooperative Extension Service, 1998). Livestock judging in combination with oral reasons provides participants with valuable real-life tools. Livestock judging participants are provided the opportunity to expand their critical thinking, decision-making and communication skills (Eversole, 1990).

The Idaho Youth Horse contests have a 33-year history of judging activities to qualify youth for national competitions. The livestock judging program in Idaho has not been as structured as the horse contests. There has only been a state livestock judging contest for 6 years, and there is not an official state dairy judging contest. Other states have a rich tradition of judging activities. For example, the states surrounding Idaho have had state livestock judging contests and state horse contests since the mid 1950's and 60's. Indiana began a state livestock judging contest in 1919 (Smith & Kirkpatrick, 1990).

Even though Idaho does not have a long history of state competitions for livestock and dairy judging, many counties in Idaho have been holding county competitions for over 20 years, with one county holding an annual livestock judging contest since the 1930's. There has not been any significant research to determine if the judging activities have had an impact on the development of life skills in former Idaho livestock, horse and dairy judging participants.

In 2003, a study was conducted to determine the impact of the Idaho 4-H Livestock and Horse Judging programs on past participants' development of beneficial life skills associated with career preparation. The Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS, 1991) determined important skills needed in the work place and was helpful in designing evaluation questions for the study. The objectives of the study were to:

1. Determine the demographic characteristics of 4-H judging participants;

2. Determine the influence of the 4-H Judging Program on career preparation; and

3. Collect qualitative input from former participants on how the 4-H Judging Program influenced their personal growth from a retrospective standpoint.

Materials and Methods

The data for this study were collected using survey research methods. The data were in quantitative and qualitative forms. The questionnaire was adapted from a questionnaire used to collect livestock judging data in Indiana (Martin, 2000). The questionnaire explored the demographics of age, sex, type of judging experience (livestock, horse, dairy), and years of participation (number of years and when). It addressed the influence of judging on career preparation life skills and asked the importance of judging on gaining animal industry knowledge.

The participants were asked to rate the influence that the 4-H livestock judging activity had on the development of specified life skills. The range of the scale was from one to five, one being "not influential at all," to five being "extremely influential" on the following life skills (most of these were identified to be important workforce preparation skills in the SCANS report):

• Ability to verbally defend a decision
• Animal industry knowledge
• Decision-making
• Oral communication
• Organizational skills
• Problem solving
• Self-confidence
• Self-discipline
• Self-motivation
• Teamwork

The participants were also asked to give qualitative accounts as to how the Idaho 4-H Livestock Judging Program influenced their personal growth.

The surveyed population consisted of individuals who had participated in a livestock (including dairy) or horse judging activity in Idaho. The individuals were identified by contacting each county Extension office in Idaho requesting a list of former judging participants from that county. A letter and an email were sent to the 42 University of Idaho Extension offices explaining the research project and its purpose. Of the counties, 62% responded with a list of former participants. Additional participants were identified via telephone calls and letters to 4-H volunteers and FFA advisors. Mailed surveys with follow-up were the only instrument used to collect data.

On April 4, 2003, an explanatory cover letter was mailed with the survey and a self-addressed stamped envelope to 398 former participants of the Idaho 4-H judging program. Participants were asked to respond in 2 weeks. To help the researcher identify non-respondents, the envelopes were coded. After the first mailing, 99 responses were received, with an additional 16 returned with incorrect addresses that were not updatable and so were deleted from the list. The initial response rate was 25.9%.

At the end of 2 weeks, a post card reminder was mailed to non-respondents, and at 4 weeks from the initial letter, another letter was mailed indicating that the survey had not been received. At this mailing, another copy of the survey was included as well as a self-addressed stamped envelope. A total of 162 completed questionnaires were returned for a response rate of 41%.

When all the completed questionnaires were returned, data were entered into a spreadsheet. Numerical codes were assigned to the responses to allow for quantitative analysis. Once the data were compiled, they were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Version 9.0 for Windows, 1998) to determine the descriptive statistics for means, standard deviations, and frequencies. The qualitative data were compiled into a word document. There were a total of 152 responses to the qualitative portion of the survey. The questionnaire asked participants to respond to: How did your 4-H horse/livestock judging experience influence your personal growth? The responses were identified to fit in the following categories:

• The 4-H Judging Program had a positive influence on my life.

• The 4-H Judging Program had a positive influence on my personal success.

• The 4-H Judging Program influenced my workforce preparation.

• The 4-H Judging Program influenced my animal industry knowledge.

• The 4-H Judging Program influenced my ability to think on my feet.

• The 4-H Judging Program had no influence on me.

Results

The survey revealed that the Idaho 4-H Judging Program is a popular activity and has had an impact on the youth of Idaho for over 40 years. The median age of the participants was 20-25 years-old, and 61% of them were female. The respondents had been involved in judging from 1959 to 2002. The judging experience question determined that:

• 71.5% of the respondents participated in livestock judging,

• 42.4% participated in