April 2005
Volume 43 Number 2

Ideas at Work

Assessing Community Resources and Economic Development Programming Efforts Using a Modified Human Development Index

Joselito K. Estrada
Assistant Professor, Department of Business Administration
The University of Texas at Brownsville
Brownsville, Texas
jkestrada@utb.edu

Introduction

As one of the base programs of the Cooperative Extension System, the goal of community resources and economic development is to provide research-based educational programs and technical assistance that lead to the long-term well-being of communities (CSREES, 2003). How do we measure an extensive goal such as community well-being?

At present, community well-being is measured within the confines of various programs of excellence such as workforce preparation, business retention and expansion, community planning, and small and/or home-based businesses (Southern Rural Development Center, 2004). Each of these programs of excellence has its own outcomes indicators. Workforce preparation may use indicators such as number of youth in the labor force or number of welfare recipients, while the small and/or home-based business program may use number of new business start-ups/expansions and number of jobs created from business start-ups/expansions. Although these indicators provide useful information regarding program efficacy, such measures do not necessarily provide an encompassing view of well-being.

This article presents a measure that would provide a holistic indicator of community resources and economic development's goal of community well-being. The proposed measure is based upon the United Nations' human development index (HDI).

The Human Development Index

The United Nations Development Programme introduced the HDI, which has served as a composite measure of human development, in 1990 with the publication of the first Human Development Report (UNDP, 2001). At the heart of these human development reports is the promotion of an alternative means of viewing human development or well-being. These reports have called for a shift in the development paradigm from a focus on economic growth towards a more evenhanded interest in equity, sustainability, productivity, and empowerment.

In its original form, the HDI measures a nation's overall achievement based on three basic dimensions. The first dimension, which is longevity, is measured based on life expectancy. The second dimension, which is knowledge, is measured based on a set of variables pertaining to educational attainment. The final dimension, which is decent standard of living, is measured using adjusted income per capita in purchasing power parity U.S. dollars. Indexes are developed for each of these dimensions. The average of these dimension indexes forms the HDI. The resulting HDI provides a value between zero and one. Nations with HDI values closer to one (zero) represent higher (lower) levels of development.

National, state/provincial, and local government decision makers have used results from the estimation of HDIs as policy assessment tools. Comparisons across borders and time have led to the appraisal and adjustment of policy initiatives towards human development.

While the initial applications of the HDI have been to compare achievements in human development among nations, a number of studies have been conducted using the HDI to compare achievements at the city level or county level (Agostini & Richardson, 1997; Felder, 2002; Hanham, Berhanu, & Loveridge, 2002). On the other hand, the HDI has been used to assess human development for population groups (Corrie, 1994).

Developing a Modified Human Development Index for Use in Program Evaluation: Evaluating the Impact of the Empowerment Zone Program

Modified HDI

As a potential measurement tool for community resources and economic development programming at the county-level, a modified version of the HDI can be developed. Rather than utilize the original dimensions established by the United Nations, this modified index will incorporate dimensions or indicators that are program-specific. The general formulation of the index is as follows.

• County-Level Index = (Xi - min X) / (max X - min X)
  
  Where
  • Xi - County's value for a specific indicator;
  • Min X - the lowest observed value among all counties for the indicator; and,
  • Max X - the highest observed value among all counties for the indicator.

Use as a Program Evaluation Tool

Let us look at an example of how this index could be used as a program evaluation tool. Specifically, this example investigates the effects of the Empowerment Zone program on Cameron County, Texas (Estrada & Allen, 2004).

The Rio Grande Valley of Texas received a rural empowerment zone designation from the Federal Government in December 1994. In its application for designation, the empowerment zone corporation sought to improve the quality of life for valley residents by addressing a number of development concerns (RGVEZC, no date). Most notable of these concerns was the creation of sustainable jobs paying livable wages (economic opportunity); educational opportunities that lead to high skills training (education); and increased capacity in housing development (housing).

In general, evaluating quality of life by using the indicators cited above could take on the form of presented in Table 1. While the data presented in the table provides useful information, it does not present an encompassing view of well-being in the county.

Using the index listed above, a series of dimension/indicator indexes could be developed to show how the county has progressed vis-à-vis other counties in the state. These indexes are calculated below.

• Education Index = (X^E1 + X^E2 + X^E3) / 3
  
  Where
  
  • X^E1 Index = (X^E1_i - min X^E1) / (max X^E1 - min X^E1)
  • X^E2 Index = (X^E2_i - min X^E2) / (max X^E2 - min X^E2)
  • X^E3 Index = (X^E3_i - min X^E3) / (max X^E3 - min X^E3)
    
    
• Economic Opportunity Index =  (Y^E1 + Y^E2 + Y^E3) / 3
  
  Where
  
  • Y^E1 Index = (Y^E1_i - min Y^E1) / (max Y^E1 - min Y^E1)
  • Y^E2 Index = 1 - [(Y^E2_i - min Y^E2) / (max Y^E2 - min Y^E2)]
  • Y^E3 Index = 1 - [(Y^E3_i - min Y^E3) / (max Y^E3 - min Y^E3)]
    
    
• Housing Index = (Z^H1 + Z^H2 + Z^H3) / 3
  
  Where
  
  • Z^H1 Index = (Z^H1_i - min Z^H1) / (max Z^H1 - min Z^H1)
  • Z^H2 Index = (Z^H2_i - min Z^H2) / (max Z^H2 - min Z^H2)
  • Z^H3 Index = (Z^H3_i - min Z^H3) / (max Z^H3 - min Z^H3)
    
    
• Overall Well-Being Index =  (Education Index + Employment Opportunity Index + Housing Index) / 3

The min (max) value for each variable represents values for counties in the state with the lowest (highest) value for the variable under consideration. Estimated values for these indexes are presented in Table 2.

Summary

In a period where accountability and effectiveness are imperative, outcomes measures of Extension Service education programs are crucial. Given the extensive nature of most Extension Service base programs, especially community resources and economic development, outcomes indicators tend to be program specific rather than encompassing.

This article has introduced the development of a measure, based on the human development index, that would allow for the evaluation of the effectiveness of the community resources and economic development base program in achieving its goal of improving community well-being. Rather than discarding existing outcomes indicators, these are utilized in the development of an overall index that could be used to assess community well-being. Similar indexes could be developed for other Extension Service base programs.

References

Agostini, S. J., & Richardson, S. J. (1997). A human development index for U.S. cities: Methodological issues and preliminary findings. Real Estate Economics. Volume 25 (1): 13-41.

Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (2003). Community resources and economic development. Available at: http://www.csrees.usda.gov/nea/economics/sri/publicpolicy_sri_cred.html

Corrie, B. P. (1994). A human development index for the black child in the United States. Challenge. January-February: 53-55.

Estrada, J. K., & Allen, A. J. (2004). An assessment of the impact of the rural empowerment zone and enterprise community program on Texas' Rio Grande Valley. Paper presented at the 2004 Annual Meeting of the Southern Agricultural Economics Association, Tulsa, OK, February 2004.

Felder, J. (2002). Assessing recent socio-economic factors for the counties of the State of Mississippi. Paper presented at the 29th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Economics and Finance. Pensacola, Florida. February 2002.

Hanham, A. C., Brehanu, S., & Leveridge, S. (2002). A human development index for West Virginia counties. Research Paper 2005. Center for Community, Economic, and Workforce Development. West Virginia University Extension Service.

Rio Grande Valley Empowerment Zone Corporation. (2004). Strategic plan summary building communities: together. Available at: http://www.ezec.gov/ezec/tx/riogrande.html

Southern Rural Development Center (2004). Community resources and economic development: Programs of excellence. Available at: http://srdc.msstate.edu/cred/programs/programs.htm

Texas State Data Center. Education, housing, poverty, and income data (2004). Texas A & M University. Retrieved February 10. 2004 from http://txsdc.tamu.edu

Texas Workforce Commission (2004). Labor market information. State of Texas. Available at: http://www.tracer2.com

United Nations Development Programme. (2001). Human development reports: Measuring development and influencing policy. New York: Oxford University Press.

Communicating Program Value of Family Life and Parenting Education Programs to Decision Makers

Karen DeBord
Associate Professor and Extension Specialist, Child Development
North Carolina State University
karen_debord@ncsu.edu

Prevention education programs are designed to prevent the likelihood that someone will need more costly intervention or remediation. Parenting education, health and wellness education programs, early childhood education, or family literacy programs are examples of programs designed to prevent child abuse, create healthy family relationships, teach health practices, keep youth in school, and prevent substance abuse or early pregnancy. However, in tight budgetary times, prevention education programs often become the first targets on the budgetary cutting block. To relieve pressing societal needs, intervention programs, such as substance abuse treatment programs, juvenile justice programs, alternative schools, or job training programs, become prioritized.

Documenting the impact of prevention programs and justifying investment in them is difficult. The savings to taxpayers must be couched in terms of the potential savings in later remediation and intervention. Elected officials rarely are interested in how many people attended, that the participants rated sessions as positive, or even that participants hope to incorporate a new skill they learned. They want to know what programs cost and compare this to how they are beneficial to the economy or to their local budgets.

One model (Kalambokidis, 2004) indicates that when a service is recognized as having significant public value, the value is stated when even citizens who do not directly benefit from the service will endorse its public funding. One example is taxpayer dollars funding public schools. Schools serve the greater good. Family life and parenting education programs that are publicly funded also meet the definition Kalambokidis (2004) gives for serving the public good when the community realizes the spillover benefits of the program in their communities.

One method of justifying program need is to apply cost benefit formulas. However, cost-benefit models are complex, and projections are generally derived through randomized designs. Subsequent educational programs, then, must be implemented according to a similar design as the original study to realize the same affects (Aos, Lieb, Mayfield, Miller, & Pennucci, 2004). This is complicated further when considering that causal inference is difficult in socially embedded programs. To claim that one sole program resulted in lowered child abuse or minimized teen school dropout is generally inappropriate. Further, since Cooperative Extension often partners with multiple community agencies, credit for successful outcomes often goes to partnering agencies. How then, can educational program value be communicated in understandable terms?

Using Longitudinal Data to support Family Life and Parenting Education Programming

Using existing longitudinal data, a review of longitudinal studies that document the effects of high quality early childhood education and parenting skills training programs helps provide program value justification. The difficulty in justification is that there is not an immediate return on the expenditure. For example, the High/Scope Perry Preschool Project (Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993) followed children until they were 21 years old, finding that for every dollar invested in high quality preschool programs, about $7.00 is returned to society in eventual savings from averted crime, remedial service, and child welfare services.

Similarly, the Chicago Child-Parent Centers program (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Mann, 2002) illustrated the cost-benefit of programs that included parenting education components. These programs resulted in reduced expenditures for school remedial services, for criminal justice, and child welfare. While averting tangible costs to victims of crime and maltreatment, the programs increased the earnings capacity of program participants who then contributed to the tax base.

Prevent Child Abuse America offered an extensive cost analysis (Fromm, 2001). The report focused on abused and neglected children who are more likely to suffer from depression, alcoholism, drug abuse, severe obesity; require special education in school; and become juvenile delinquents and adult criminals. Estimated annual costs of abuse were examined and included costs to the judicial system, law enforcement, and mental health ranging from $14.4 billion to the child welfare system to over $6 Billion in hospitalization costs nationally.

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy asked the question "does prevention pay?" (Cohen, 1998). They concluded that well-implemented programs could achieve significantly more benefits than cost (Aos, Leib, Mayfield, Miller, & Pennucci, 2004). But they issue a call for more rigorous evaluation and warn that without program fidelity, there is insufficient evidence to determine whether a program produces positive or negative returns for taxpayers.

How to Communicate Program Value

As is often required, communicating with local decision makers in sound bytes about program value is less than satisfactory. A concise formula is not available, however this author challenges others to build on the following notions to collectively arrive at some strategies to convey the value of prevention education in communities.

Local Extension staff must truly deliver research-based programs. This practice must be extended beyond delivering research-based facts to delivering educational programs according to best program delivery practices. One example from the field of parenting education is research specifying that parents who participate for a longer duration (6 months-2 years) and who used all services offered (at least three-five programs) had better outcomes than those receiving less intense and shorter term services (Whipple & Wilson, 1996). Many of our current parenting education programs are 2-hour sessions offered once or series of six or eight sessions. Six to 8 weeks is a large investment of staff time, but it will result in little change in parent behavior.

Extension Advisory Councils should be carefully reviewed to assure they are comprised of people who truly understand the value of the programs and can defend this value. In 1992, Black, Howe, Howell, and Becker stated that Extension can no longer afford to use advisory councils simply as a grassroots advocacy base. The councils must be used to ensure Extension programming is germane to the needs of the people and the programming efforts are effective. Thus, members must actively advocate for programs that meet public need while understanding program goals. Building a foundation of informed supporters may require content-related training for members.

When developing justification for investments in family life education programs, concisely compare the cost of what may happen if prevention education were not in place. Consider presenting decision makers (including Advisory Councils) with national, statewide, or local statistics to explain prevention program efforts. Two ways to explain program impact follow.

Example 1

Parenting education is a program that serves the public good. Parents who lack an understanding of their children's developmental stages, who hold unreasonable expectations for their child's abilities, or who are unaware of effective discipline strategies, may be abusive or neglectful. Prevention activities such as parent education, home visitation, and parent support groups, provide many families the support they need to stay together and care for their children in their homes and communities (National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information). Communities with parents who exercise poor parenting skills are at potential risk for negative outcomes, including school failure and juvenile criminal activity such as vandalism or gang association.

Nationally, 12 in 1,000 children are abused annually (National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse, 1999). If children are abused, placement of children in foster care is needed, which costs approximately $23.75 per child per day (Honig & Morin, 1996). If children are abused, they are more likely to turn to illegal acts. Incarceration of a young adult varies from state to state. The cost in North Carolina is approximately $62.43 per inmate per day (NC Department of Corrections).

Applying national child abuse figures to local programming may work out as such: An outreach program similar to that reduces abuse in parents served parents of 300 children in a given year. This intense program statistically may have deterred 4.2 children from being abused.

The cost savings would be calculated as such:

4.2 children X 23.75 (foster care factor) = $99.75 per day

The average stay in foster care is 2 years (730 days).

730 X 99.75 = $72,818

This would yield a foster care cost savings of $72,818 for 2 years or $36,409 for one year.

Example 2

Approximately 97 per 1,000 women (9%) aged 15-19 become pregnant each year. The majority (78%) of these pregnancies are unintended. Comprehensive public education campaigns that address decision making, human sexuality, and human relationships have been shown to reduce long-term welfare dependency and discourage out-of-wedlock childbearing (National Governor's Association, 1996). Every $1 invested on publicly subsidized family planning services saves $4.40 on costs that otherwise would be spent on medical care, welfare benefits, and other social services to women who became pregnant and gave birth (Donovan, 1995).

In a local program serving 500 teens, 4 hours per month for 6 months was invested. At $50 per hour professional time, the cost was $1,200. Applying the cost savings of $4.40 for every dollar invested resulted in a program value of $5,280 and a benefit of $4,080 (difference of $5,280 minus $1,200).

The public value of teen pregnancy prevention has larger spill-over effects to the community. Teenage pregnancy poses a substantial financial burden to society, estimated at $7 billion annually in lost tax revenues, public assistance, child health care, foster care, and involvement with the criminal justice system. Teen mothers are less likely to graduate from high school and more likely than their peers, who delay childbearing, to live in poverty and to rely on welfare. The children of teenage mothers are often born at low birth weight, experience health and developmental problems, and frequently are poor, abused, and/or neglected (Kahn, Brendis, & Glei, 1999).

Summary

Family Life Extension educators must be diligent in conveying to others how critical prevention education programs are to communities and society. Conveying messages about program value requires informed reporting and a detailed application of existing longitudinal studies to build a case for projected savings to the community. In addition to using succinct descriptions to describe prevention programming, a strong message about the public value of programs can be used to garner public support and justify public funding.

References

Aos, S., Lieb, R., Mayfield, J., Miller, M., & Pennucci, A. (2004, July). Benefits and costs of prevention and early intervention programs for youth. Olympia: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

Black, D. C., Howe, G. W., Howell, D. L., & Becker, P. (1992). Selecting extension advisory councils. Journal of Extension [On-line], 30(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992spring/a4.html

Cohen, M. A. (1998) The monetary value of saving a high-risk youth. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 14 (1), 5-33.

Donovan, P. (1995). The Politics of blame: Family planning, abortion and the poor. New York: Alan Guttmacher Institute.

Fromm, S. (2001). Prevent child abuse America. Total estimated cost of child abuse and neglect. Retrieved November 2, 2004 from http://www.preventchildabuse.org/learn_more/research_ docs/cost_analysis.pdf

Honig, A., & Morin, C. (1996). Cost-effective prevention of child abuse and neglect by teen mothers. [Electronic version] Self-help Magazine. Retrieved April, 2003 from http://www.selfhelpmagazine.com/articles/teens/prevent.html

Kahn, J. G., Brindis, C. A., & Glei, D. A., (1999). Pregnancies averted among U.S. teenagers by the use of contraceptives. Family Planning Perspectives, 31(1), 29-34.

Kalambokidis, L. (2004). Identifying the public value in Extension programs. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004april/a1.shtml

National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information. Administration for children & families. Retrieved August 23, 2004 from http://nccanch.acf.hhs.gov/

North Carolina Department of Corrections. Cost of supervision. (2002). Retrieved May 2004 from http://www.doc.state.nc.us/DOP/cost/cost2001.htm

National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse. 1999. Current trends in child abuse reporting and fatalities: The results of the 1998 annual fifty state survey. Chicago, IL: National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse.

National Governor's Association (1996). Preventing teen pregnancies: Key issues and promising state efforts. Retrieved November 2, 2004 from http://www.nga.org/cda/files/022296TEENPREG.pdf

Reynolds, A., Temple, J., Robertson, D., & Mann, E. (2002). Age 21 cost-benefit analysis of the Title 1 Chicago Child-Parent Centers. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 24(4) 267-303.

Schweinhart, L. J., Barnes, H. V., & Weikart, D. P. (1993). Significant benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool study through age 27 (Monographs of the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, 10). Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press.

United States Department of Health & Human Services, (2003). HHS releases 2001 national statistics on child abuse and neglect. Retrieved May, 2004 from http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2003pres/20030401.html

United States Department of Justice. Juvenile offenders in residential placement (1999). Office of Juvenile Justice & Prevention. Retrieved August 25, 2004 from http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/fs9996.pdf

Whipple, E. E., & Wilson, S. R. (1996). Evaluation of a parent education program for families at risk of child abuse. Families in Society, 77 (4), 227 - 239.

Families at Five: Extending Land-Grant Research Findings to Families

Shelley A. Haddock
Assistant Professor
Human Development and Family Studies
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
haddock@cahs.colostate.edu

Toni Schindler Zimmerman
Professor
Human Development and Family Studies
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
zimmerman@cahs.colostate.edu

Jennifer T. Aberle
Doctoral Student
Human Development and Family Studies
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado

Robert J. Fetsch
Professor & Extension Specialist
Human Development & Family Studies
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
fetsch@cahs.colostate.edu

Rick L. Peterson
Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist
2251 Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
RLPeterson@ag.tamu.edu

Introduction

Families at Five is a community outreach partnership by Colorado State University (CSU) Department of Human Development and Family Studies and CSU Cooperative Extension to extend land-grant research findings to families. The primary goals of Families at Five are to educate adults and children on how to strengthen family relationships and to enhance the university's public mission of making life-long learning part of its core mission by providing greater access and partnerships in education (Kellogg Commission, 2001). This article to provides an overview of the Families at Five program.

Program Overview

Designed to disseminate science-based, practical information on building strong families (Mahoney, Kaiser, Girolamett, MacDonald, Robinson, Safford, & Spiker, 1999), Families at Five includes both an adult seminar series and accompanying program for children. The adult program, which meets at 5 p.m. to accommodate employed families, includes free, monthly, 1-hour seminars on important topics, (e.g., balancing family and work, building strong marriages, and coping with divorce). A professional expert facilitates each seminar and provides practical strategies based on current research. An accompanying children's program (ages 3-11) engages children in fun, meaningful, and age-appropriate activities on corresponding topics. Often families leaving the seminar are observed to continue talking about what they learned.

In order to extend the program's outreach, the Families at Five seminars are videotaped for Extension agents and other family life professionals to rent or purchase for use later. A leader's guide and accompanying activities are included.

Audience

The audience of Families at Five is diverse. Participants are community members from various backgrounds who seek information, support, and creative ideas to integrate into their personal and professional lives. Families at Five participants include single and coupled parents, grandparents, and professionals who work with children, adolescents, adults, couples, and families, e.g., therapists, childcare providers, professors, teachers, and scout leaders. Young adult university students participate as part of their education and personal and career development. Children come with diverse backgrounds, developmental abilities, and experiences. Many times families, individuals, and professionals attend several sessions over a semester. Families at Five has reached over 2,000 adults and hundreds of children.

Research-Based Information Encourages Critical Consumers

Families at Five seminars attempt to address some of the top priority needs that Coloradans have for research-based information on strengthening families and marriages (Fetsch & Yang, 2004; Weigel, Fetsch, Jenson, Yang, & Rogers, 1992). Including children, adolescents, and parents in separate, concurrent enrichment programs can reinforce program effectiveness and enhance family cohesion and communication (Hurd, Lerner, & Barton, 1999). Families at Five strives to de-stigmatize therapeutic services and build bridges between participant families and community services (Green, 1998; McGoldrick, Giordano, & Pearce, 1996).

Marketing

Families at Five is advertised to the community in various ways. Families at Five posters and flyers are distributed through most schools and childcare facilities in the community. Churches, therapists, and physicians are asked to display and distribute flyers. A newspaper article summarizing key points of the upcoming presentation is featured during the week prior to the presentation.

Funding

CSU Cooperative Extension, CSU, local foundations, and local businesses support Families at Five. Faculty members and students volunteer their time and expertise.

Evaluation

Families at Five seminars are evaluated for their helpfulness/usefulness, relevance, and interest level. A summary across sessions revealed that the Families at Five participants found (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) the seminars helpful and useful (4.25), relevant (4.43), and interesting (4.31). The most effective method of marketing the program was by school flyers, newspapers articles, and by word of mouth by community professionals and community members. Future research is needed to further evaluate this program to determine how much participating families' strengths are increased.

Further Plans

Future plans for Families at Five are evolving to meet the needs of an ever-growing population. An undergraduate course was developed based on videos and supplementary information. Students read and discussed current research articles on the contemporary topics in the videotapes and wrote papers on each topic. This course is currently being formatted into an on-line distance-learning course.

Conclusion

One of the most important and often unmet needs of families is for reliable, relevant information on topics that strengthen family relationships. Cooperative Extension and Resident Instruction family scholars and practitioners are well equipped to provide workshops to the public, because they have access to current family research, have been trained to disseminate information in a holistic and developmentally appropriate manner, and have access to large numbers of families.

Family education programs strengthen communities by serving the needs of diverse families and by providing information on community services. The Families at Five model can be a useful outreach model for other Cooperative Extension and university and community partnerships to extend land-grant research findings that strengthen family relationships.

References

Fetsch, R. J., & Yang, R. K. (2004, February 23). Report to Tom McBride and Janet Benavente about the CEPNA survey. Available from first author, Department of Human Development & Family Studies, Colorado State University, Fort Collins 80523-1570.

Green, R. J. (1998). Race and the field of family therapy. In M. McGoldrick (Ed.) Re-visioning family therapy: Race, culture, and gender in clinical practice (pp. 93-110). NY: Guilford.

Hurd, T. L., Lerner, R. M., & Barton, C. E. (1999). Integrated services: Expanding partnerships to meet the needs of today's children and families. Young Children, 54(2), 74-80.

Kellogg Commission. (2001, January). Returning to our roots: Executive summaries of the reports of the Kellogg Commission on the future of state and land-grant universities. Available at: http://www.nasulgc.org/Kellogg/kellogg.htm

Mahoney, G., Kaiser, A., Girolamett, L., MacDonald, J., Robinson, C., Safford, P., & Spiker, D. (1999). Parent education in early intervention: A call for a renewed focus. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 19(3), 131-140.

McGoldrick, M., Giordano, J., & Pearce, J. (1996). Ethnicity and family therapy. NY: Guilford.

Weigel, R. R., Fetsch, R. J., Jenson, G. O., Yang, R. K., & Rogers, D. L. (1992). Issues validation: A new environmental scanning technique for family life educators. Family Relations, 41, 251-255.

Cooperative Extension's Role in Mold and Moisture Education

Sarah D. Kirby
Housing Specialist
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina
Sarah_Kirby@ncsu.edu

Introduction

Mold is an issue of concern in all areas of the nation and is of particular concern in Southern states, with their warm, humid climates. Increasingly, Extension professionals across the country are being asked to address issues related to excess moisture and resulting mold in residential settings. Media coverage of mold litigation and new scientific studies concerning possible health effects associated with mold have increased the general public’s concern related to mold (Wiggins, Kirby, Smoak, & Zaslow, 2004).

While this attention has increased the overall consciousness of the general public, it has also served to create sense of alarm. Accurate information related to health issues and mold as well as sound education concerning moisture causes and controls are greatly needed (Wiggins et al., 2004).

Extension can help provide solutions to homeowner's moisture problems in four critical areas: putting the situation into perspective, providing tools to help, best management practices, and mold remediation.

Putting the Situation into Perspective

One of the most important roles that Extension plays is helping to put the mold/moisture situation into perspective for the homeowner. The attention on mold brought by the media has really caused some homeowners to become overly anxious when they find mold in their home. While mold should not be allowed to grow in the living environment and is an indication that a problem exists, there is no need to panic. Homeowners instead should focus on the cause of and solution to the problem.

Many homeowners have questions concerning testing their home for mold. Extension professionals can explain the issues and limitations of mold testing. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) advises that mold sampling usually isn't warranted if one can see visible mold growth. Homeowners need to know that currently there are no threshold limits for mold or mold spores, thus sampling a home for mold will not tell the homeowner whether or not their home's mold sample falls within an acceptable standard for mold exposure. Likewise, mold identification is generally unnecessary because all molds have the potential to cause adverse health reactions, especially in individuals with pre-existing sensitivities.

Regardless of the type of mold or amount, it should be removed from the living environment. The EPA also advises of concerns related to mold sampling protocols (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2001). In instances where mold sampling is appropriate, Extension can provide education concerning how to select a professional for mold sampling.

Providing Tools to Help

Three important tools that Extension educators can use to assist homeowners with moisture problems are a moisture audit, a moisture meter, and a humidity gauge.

A moisture audit is a written tool that takes a homeowner through various parts of his/her home and helps in identifying potential problems. This audit also provides valuable information to the Extension professional who may be assisting the homeowner in his/her investigative process.

The second tool is a wood moisture meter. When the meter's probes are inserted into a piece of wood, it will display a reading that indicates the moisture content of the wood. This reading gives the homeowner important information regarding moisture. Wood with moisture content of 20% and above is susceptible to decay.

The final tool that can be useful is a humidity gauge. This can be used to monitor the indoor humidity level in a home. If possible, humidity levels should be between 30 and 50%. High humidity levels can contribute to mold growth.

Best Management Practices

The most important principle that Extension educators must address is that mold is a result of excess moisture, and so, to control and eliminate mold, one must address the moisture problem. Of all the requirements that mold needs to thrive, moisture is the only one that can truly be controlled by the homeowner.

Homeowners should be equipped with a basic understanding of moisture movement and how to control that movement. Controlling the moisture movement methods of bulk transport, capillary suction, air movement, and vapor diffusion will eliminate the moisture that feeds the mold growth (Listeburek & Carmody, 1994).

Finally, consumers need to understand where in their home they are likely to find moisture problems and best management practices related to construction techniques and remediation practices that can help eliminate the moisture. Items such as drainage, gutter management, vapor retarders, ventilation, landscaping and grading, and flashing are all methods to controlling moisture. Proper selection and maintenance of the heating ventilation and air conditioning system is also vital to controlling moisture.

Mold Remediation

One of the most difficult issues for Extension professionals to address is mold remediation. In some instances, homeowners can perform the work themselves. In others, because of issues related to health or issues related to the size and scope of the work to be done, professional help is advisable. The first step of the remediation process is always to correct the moisture problem. Once that is corrected, homeowners can begin the process of clean up.

During the mold remediation process, homeowners or professionals will need to determine what is cleanable and what is not. Non-porous surfaces such as metal and plastic can be cleaned and treated with biocides and then allowed to dry. Semi-porous surfaces, such as wood, and porous surfaces, such as carpet, furniture, and dry wall, may require special cleaning. In some instances, particularly with porous surfaces, component removal and replacement are necessary.

Whatever the scope of the project, it is essential that proper precautions be taken by workers or the homeowner during remediation, such as using proper protective equipment, for example, gloves, goggles, respirators, and protective clothing. Remediation practices must include containment measures to ensure minimal mold dispersal. Extension professionals can assist homeowners by providing educational resources related to best management practices in mold remediation.

Summary

Moisture can cause a billion dollars of damage to homes each year. Much of the damage to homes and worry about mold can be avoided if homeowners will take preventive steps to protect their home from moisture. Prevention includes conducting routine home inspections and performing regular home maintenance.

References

Lstiburek, J., & Carmody, J. (1994). Moisture control handbook. NewYork: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2001). Mold remediation in schools and commercial buildings. (EPA Publication No. 402-K-01-001). Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Wiggins, S., Kirby, S., Smoak, E., & Zaslow, S. (2004) Mold 101: Addressing mold education needs in the Southern Region, CSREES Proposal.

Desert Bioscape Training Influences Master Gardeners' Practices

Angela M. O'Callaghan
Area Extension Specialist, Social Horticulture
ocallaghana@unce.unr.edu

M.L. Robinson
Area Extension Specialist, Water
robinsonm@unce.unr.edu

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension
Las Vegas, Nevada

Introduction

Las Vegas' water comes from the Colorado River and is stored in Lake Mead, whose volume has declined sharply because of drought and the demands of an increased population. The population of Las Vegas may exceed 2,000,000 by 2005 (City of Las Vegas, 2004), a 400% increase since 1980. New residents usually come from environments dissimilar to Southern Nevada, located in the Mojave Desert. Driest of the North American deserts, the Mojave receives 10.5 cm rainfall annually. Precipitation, light intensity, soil characteristics, and native vegetation differ from other parts of the US.

The University of Nevada Cooperative Extension program Desert Bioscape (Robinson, 1998) teaches desert-appropriate landscaping approaches. It includes 15 hours of classes on native and desert-adapted plants, local wildlife, and integrated pest management (IPM).

It is critical that Southern Nevada residents learn water-efficient practices. Residents use 67% of Southern Nevada's water, with roughly 25% wasted through inefficient landscape irrigation (Southern Nevada Water Authority, 2003). Most (60%) Las Vegas homes are owner-occupied, thus outreach to homeowners could have a significant effect on decreasing water waste. The water authority calculates that appropriate plant selection and landscape design could save approximately 113,000,000 gallons of water annually. Master Gardeners can both teach and model such water-efficient practices.

The Master Gardeners of Southern Nevada

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension (UNCE) established the Southern Area Master Gardener program in 1992. Master Gardeners receive 70 hours of training in horticultural subjects. Like much of Southern Nevada's population, most moved to the area from other environments.

Master Gardeners are recruited through mass media and word of mouth. Teaching water-efficient landscaping in underserved areas is as important as in ones that are more affluent. In the past 3 years, recruitment from communities of color has been a priority. The volunteer pool is now more ethnically and economically diverse. Participants join primarily for horticulture information, but many desire to contribute to the community (Boyer, Waliczek, & Zajicek, 2000; Schrock, Meyer, Ascher, & Snyder, 2000). Each trainee pledges a minimum of 50 hours annually, either at the help desk or in a community based project. Several projects involve teaching at community centers, libraries, club meetings, etc.

Desert Bioscape

A significant portion of the Master Gardener curriculum emphasizes desert ecology, under the title "Desert Bioscape." It is a practical approach to landscape establishment and maintenance. The standard style for Master Gardener training is to provide functional materials to be used in a home setting. Desert Bioscape instruction has been delivered to approximately 350 Master Gardener trainees since 1997.

Cooperation with Other Las Vegas Valley Agencies

The Water, Horticulture, Environment, and Economics team of Cooperative Extension works closely with the Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) and the Las Vegas Valley Water District (LVVWD), teaching classes and serving on advisory boards. Master Gardeners form the docent corps of the LVVWD's Desert Demonstration Gardens and staff SNWA events. In all situations, they use the information gained via the Desert Bioscape materials of the Master Gardener training.

Determining Usefulness of Desert Bioscape

The goal of the Desert Bioscape program is to encourage local residents to create sustainable, water-conserving landscapes. To determine whether Desert Bioscape training could effectively affect the public at large, we decided first to ascertain whether Master Gardeners who had already received the training were utilizing this information. While other Las Vegas residents have taken Desert Bioscape, Master Gardeners have been tracked over several years and were thus more accessible. They are an important part of UNCE outreach to the community; hence, their incorporation of the program material into their own landscapes seemed a good starting point for taking Desert Bioscape to a wider audience.

A survey containing questions on horticultural/gardening practices as well as questions on general Master Gardener topics was sent to 318 persons who had completed the program and were on the mailing list. Forty-eight percent (153) were returned. Most respondents were currently certified Master Gardeners.

The survey asked about changes in five areas:

• Using Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

• Water conservation

• Organic gardening practices

• Plant selection and health

• Incorporation of non-plant wildlife

The results, all positive changes, are charted in Figure 1 (n=153).

Figure 1.
Change in Behavior of Master Gardeners

Two summary questions asked about changes they had made in their home landscapes. Eighty-two percent replied positively to the statement: "I use fewer chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and have added more desert native or native-like plants to conserve water."

Furthermore, 88% affirmed that their landscapes are more sustainable as a result of taking the training. Two questions related to information dissemination. Although only 18% of respondents had actually taught classes, a large majority (141 = 92%) stated they are resource persons for neighbors attempting to make their yards more desert-appropriate: "I now understand that our yards are small ecosystems that we, as well as our neighbors, must interact with. This knowledge influences what I do and don't do in the yard" (89% affirmative).

Conclusions

Instructing desert residents about creating a sustainable landscape requires a curriculum and the means to deliver it. The Desert Bioscape program provides training for the unique conditions of the Las Vegas area. Master Gardener volunteers are important community educators. That Master Gardeners have integrated the training into their own horticultural practices indicates that Desert Bioscape can improve public awareness and use of desert horticulture techniques. It is important that these highly trained volunteers expand their teaching of the program. This survey will be further developed and sent to rural areas to determine if the results are similar.

References

Boyer, R., Waliczek, T. M., & Zajicek, J. M. (2002) The Master Gardener program: Do benefits of the program go beyond improving the horticultural knowledge of the participants? HortTechnology 12: 432-436.

City of Las Vegas. (2004). Retreived May 2004 from http://www.ci.las-vegas.nv.us/history/default.htm

Robinson, M. L. (1998) DESERT BIOSCAPE: A sustainable urban environment UNCE Special Publication. SP 98-08

Schrock, D. S., Meyer, M., Ascher, P., & Snyder, M. (2000). Reasons for becoming involved as a master gardener. HortTechnology 10: 626-630.

Southern Nevada Water Authority. (2003). Retrieved May 2004 from http://www.snwa.com/assets/pdf/drought_handbook.pdf

Accommodating Youth with Disabilities in 4-H Horse Programs

Colleen M. Brady
Assistant Professor
Department of Youth Development and Agricultural Education
Purdue University
W. Lafayette, Indiana
bradyc@purdue.edu

Katie E. McKee
Hackettstown High School
Hackettstown, New Jersey
kemckee2003@yahoo.com

Introduction

This article provides a basis for accommodating youth with disabilities in 4-H horse programs. These guidelines are based on the experiences we have had and what we have found to be successful in the Indiana Horse Program. They are all based on the pedagogy of inclusion.

Inclusion as a Philosophy

In the Indiana 4-H Horse and Pony program, we are committed to the inclusion philosophy to make 4-H more accessible to youth with disabilities. There is an extensive body of educational research indicating that the inclusive philosophy maximizes learning for youth with and without disabilities. Integration has been found to improve social acceptance, self-esteem, and social skills for all youth involved (Wolfe & Hall, 2003) when it involves the active mixing of youth with and without disabilities (Rafferty, Boettcher, & Griffin, 2001). All youth can benefit from the opportunity to become more aware of differences and more tolerant and accepting of others (Killoran, 2002).

Youth with disabilities have been found to benefit from interaction with their peers in a multitude of ways. The range of activities they can participate in is expanded, providing them with more opportunities to learn and interact, resulting in greater preparation for the real world (Rafferty et al., 2001).

Youth without disabilities reap social and academic rewards, as well. The primary results of an integrated education for youth without disabilities are in the areas of friendship, social relationships, and tolerance for diversity (Fisher, 1999). In the Fisher (1999) study of students' perspectives of inclusion, while several students spoke to the rights of students with disabilities to be with their non-disabled peers, one student expressed that he has a right to benefit from a class with a diverse student population and that includes students with disabilities.

Our Experiences

Over the past several years in the 4-H Horse and Pony program in Indiana, one of the major barriers to inclusion expressed by volunteers at the club level has been a concern that they aren't quite sure "how" to include youth with disabilities. The following steps are needed to prepare volunteers and Extension staff to assist youth with disabilities:

• Round table sessions for working with people with disabilities in volunteer training programs. Successful moderators have included instructors from Purdue University's North American Riding for the Handicapped Association (NARHA) accredited riding center.

• Multi-State Judges and Show Managers School sessions on communicating with parents and making judges aware of accommodations that need to be made.

• Added classes at the State Fair Horse Show that are appropriate for youth with disabilities and meet the same qualifying criteria as other classes.

• Rules allowing managers the flexibility to modify class rules to meet the needs of youth with disabilities (Brady, 2003).

• Provision of information, such as A Perfect Fit: 4-H Involvement for Youth With Disabilities (Tormoehlen, 1994) to leaders to increase their awareness of the needs of youth with disabilities.

Criteria and Implications

It is vital to keep in mind when developing accommodating that every situation is unique and every child has his or own strengths and limitations. It is important to work with the child and the family to develop a way to accommodate the disability that is safe and provides a meaningful educational experience for the child. Professionals such as teachers, vocational rehabilitation specialists, and others who provide services for people with disabilities can be valuable resources. Extension staff members should take advantage of the resources available at the university to seek guidance in making accommodations for youth involved in their programs and ensuring compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act.

All accommodations should meet two basic criteria:

1. The accommodation allows the child with a disability to participate (observation does not constitute participation) in the same collective activity as their peers without disabilities.

2. The accommodation does not adversely affect how other participants in the activity perform, are judged, or are evaluated. It is not the intent of an accommodation to guarantee success, or superior recognition, for any participant.

Accommodations can be planned much more effectively with prior notice. It is recommended that the registration materials for any events and activities have a contact number for people to call and a box to check on the form if registrants need accommodations for disabilities.

Equally important in developing effective accommodations is creativity. We must challenge ourselves to think of different ways to include people in an activity and of different ways an activity could be conducted to meet the needs of all interested youth. This may mean making some changes in the way a class is run or in the way information is communicated in order to make the activity accessible.

Many disabilities can be accommodated easily and with little additional expense to the family or the organization. In some situations, especially relative to academic events such as judging, horse bowl, hippology, or public speaking, the family can provide input on how the school has accommodated the child's disability that can serve as a guideline in the 4-H program. Activities can be made accessible to children with disabilities by providing volunteers to assist with reading or writing, printing written material in larger font, or taking tests on a computer.

The area that frequently becomes more complicated when providing accommodations is when the horse is involved. A primary concern is always safety, and no accommodation should ever be made that creates an environment that is unsafe. Keep in mind that interacting with horses has inherent dangers, but caution must be taken to avoid being so overly careful in making accommodations that the end result is a failure to be accessible.

Some examples of ways to accommodate youth with disabilities are to:

1. Allow the use of equipment and modification of tack and equipment that enables the child with a disability to participate fully, e.g., allow a child in a Western style class to carry a whip or use a snaffle bit on a senior horse or drive a modified cart. It is important to note that under NO CIRCUMSTANCES should the child be tied/attached to the saddle or any other equipment.

2. Provide a signaling system or auditory assistance to communicate the call of a class to a visually or hearing impaired child

3. Have a child in a halter class that is in a wheel chair enter the ring last, with or without an assistant, and stand slightly away from the line up, or relocate the class to a place with a harder, level surface to facilitate the wheelchair.

One common concern is that the accommodation creates an "unfair advantage" for the child with the disability. The purpose of the accommodation is to provide an opportunity for children with disabilities to participate in the same activities as their non-disabled peers. The people who are concerned about it being "unfair" must remember that the child with the disability is overcoming far more to be able to participate than most of the non-disabled children can even imagine. Providing an opportunity for everyone to participate does not create an "unfair advantage" for anyone.

Remind those making this claim that the purpose of 4-H is to provide a positive, interactive learning environment for all youth, and that we have a responsibility as educators, leaders, and parents to make our programs accessible and invitational to all youth. We have truly made progress toward our goal of positive youth development when all of the participants in an inclusive program can learn to be more accepting and understanding of people with differences.

References

Brady, C. (2003). Indiana 4-H horse and pony handbook. 9th Edition. 4-H 661. Purdue University Cooperative Extension.

Fisher, D. (1999). According to their peers: Inclusion as high school students see it. Mental Retardation. 37(6) 458-467.

Killoran, I. (2002). A road less traveled: Creating a community where each belongs. Childhood Education. 78(6) 371-7.

Rafferty, Y., Boettcher, C., & Griffin, K. (2001). Benefits and risks of reverse inclusion for preschoolers with and without disabilities: Parents' perspectives. Journal of Early Intervention. 24(4), 266-286.

Tormoehlen, R. (1994) A perfect fit: 4-H involvement for youth with disabilities. A leader's guide. 4-H 788. Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service.

Wolfe, P. S., & Hall, T. E. (2003). Making inclusion a reality for students with severe disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children. 35, 56-60

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