February 2004
Volume 42 Number 1

Features

Leadership Styles of Agricultural Communications and Information Technology Managers: What Does the Competing Values Framework Tell Us About Them?

Kimberly L. Parker
Extension Associate Professor
University of Vermont
Burlington, Vermont
Kim.Parker@uvm.edu

Introduction

Although the Cooperative Extension Service has been in existence for almost a century, it must have strong management and leadership to remain a viable organization in a rapidly changing, more complex, and increasingly diverse world marked by limited resources (Smith, 1990). While the terms "management" and "leadership" are often used synonymously, according to Campbell (1997) management refers to ensuring continuing efficient operations of the organization in its current mode. Leadership, in contrast, involves change.

Both skills are desirable and required in today's workplace, and practitioners must use both in what has evolved to be more of an art than a science. According to Belasen (1998), the art of managing and leading organizations today lies in embracing incompatible forces instead of choosing between them.

Ladewig and Rohs (2000) believe that Extension faces three major leadership challenges. First, many managers today are expected to address issues in areas in which they have limited knowledge and experience. Second, with the emergence of information technology and access to information that is contrary to most hierarchical management structures, new management competencies and styles will be required in practically every organization. Third, most managers in Extension lack any professional training in management competencies and leadership styles.

The study described here compared the leadership styles of managers of agricultural communications, information technology, or combined agricultural communications and information technology units at land-grant institutions that are state partners in USDA-CSREES to identify their leadership strengths as well as potential areas for improvement.

Background

At most institutions, departments that specialize in agricultural communications and information technology support the Cooperative Extension Service. Over half of these units, whether or not they are combined, also support the Agricultural Experiment Station. Agricultural communications units first appeared in the early 1900s to provide communications leadership and work with all forms of traditional communications, including:

• Media relations,
• Public affairs,
• Publishing,
• Printing,
• Exhibits, and
• Photography.

With the emergence of the WWW, most of these units have also assumed responsibility for Web site development and maintenance.

Information technology units are a much newer phenomenon, many coming into existence around the advent of microcomputers in the early 1980s. These units are responsible for information technology applications and operations, and support business that is efficiently and effectively conducted through the use of state-of-the-art information systems and technologies.

In most states, the agricultural communications and information technology units are separate; however, in some states the two units combined to form one administrative unit under single leadership. Vacin (1991) reported that between 1983 and 1991 11 land-grant universities consolidated their agricultural communications and information technology units, and more consolidations have occurred since then. While to some, combining these two units has seemed justified by emerging technologies that have made the missions of these two units more closely aligned, others do not feel a merger is warranted.

Methodology

Theoretical Basis

The Competing Values Framework developed by Quinn (1988) was selected as the theoretical basis for the study. It defines eight roles, or behaviors, that are required of managers in any organization. While individuals may have preferences and strengths in certain roles, the ultimate goal is to achieve comfort and balance using each of the eight roles. They include:

1. Facilitator: facilitates interaction by being process-oriented
2. Mentor: shows consideration by being caring and empathetic
3. Innovator: envisions change by being creative and clever
4. Broker: acquires resources by being resource-oriented and politically astute
5. Producer: initiates action by being task-oriented and work-focused
6. Director: provides structure by being decisive and directive
7. Coordinator: maintains structure by being dependable and reliable
8. Monitor: collects information by being technically expert

The eight roles each fall into one of four quadrants on a graph created by two axes (Figure 1). The vertical axis ranges from flexibility to control, and the horizontal axis from an internal focus with a longer time horizon to an external focus with a shorter time horizon. Because each axis is a continuum, categories are not mutually exclusive. Each quadrant of the Competing Values Framework represents a major model in organizational theory. These include the rational goal model, the internal process model, the human relations model, and the open systems model.

Figure 1.
Competing Values Framework

Research Questions

Using the Competing Values Framework, is there a difference among the manager roles preferred by agricultural communications leaders, information technology leaders, or leaders of combined agricultural communications and information technology units at land-grant institutions that are state partners in USDA-CSREES?

Using the Competing Values Framework, is there a difference between the manager roles preferred by men and women who are agricultural communications leaders, information technology leaders, or leaders of combined agricultural communications and information technology units at land-grant institutions that are state partners in USDA-CSREES?

Using the Competing Values Framework, is there a difference among the manager roles preferred by agricultural communications leaders, information technology leaders, or leaders of combined agricultural communications and information technology units at land-grant institutions that are state partners in USDA-CSREES, based on other demographic factors, such as: age, education, department structure, units supported, years of employment, years of leadership experience, and region of the country employed?

Design

This study was quantitative and employed a cross-sectional design. Data were collected from each participant once during the data collection period to describe and compare variables at a single point in time.

Instrumentation

A two-part instrument was used for this study. Part one, designed by the researcher, was used to collect general demographic information about each survey participant. The information collected, as well as the corresponding variable name in parentheses where appropriate, included:

• The respondents' name;
• Their e-mail address;
• Their job title;
• The institution where they were employed;
• Their department name;
• Whether their department structure was separate or combined (STRUCTURE);
• The units supported by their department (SUPPORT);
• Whether or not they were a manager (MANAGER), and if so, the area(s) they managed (AREAS);
• The number of years they had been employed at the current institution (YEARS);
• The number of years they had work in a leadership role at the current institution (LEADER);
• The total number of years they had worked in a leadership role (TOTAL);
• Their gender (GENDER);
• Their age (AGE);
• Their highest educational degree (EDUCATION); and
• The major for their highest educational degree (MAJOR).

The region of the country that they worked (REGION) was assigned based on the location of the institution where the respondent was employed.

Part two of the survey instrument was the Competing Values Leadership Instrument: Self-Assessment developed by Robert E. Quinn (1988), which is comprised of 16 statements. Respondents select the most appropriate response to each statement using a Likert-type scale that ranges from 1 (very infrequently) to 7 (very frequently). Statements are then paired to form eight scales that characterize leadership behavior; the score for each is calculated by determining the average response to the two statements. The variables for this instrument included responses to the 16 statements (Q1-Q16) and the computed scores for the eight leadership roles (FACILITATOR, MENTOR, INNOVATOR, BROKER, PRODUCER, DIRECTOR, COORDINATOR, MONITOR).

Sampling

The population that this study attempted to draw conclusions about was past, present, and future managers of agricultural communications and information technology units at land-grant institutions that are state partners in USDA-CSREES. To study this population, a sample comprised of the individuals who were currently managers in 49 states and USDA-CSREES was selected. Vermont was omitted because at the time of the study the researcher was the manager of Vermont's combined agricultural communications and information technology unit. The sample was random in that the composition of this group of managers constantly changes, and the individuals surveyed from the period of September 23 to October 31, 2002, comprised a membership of individuals unique to that point in time.

Data Collection

Data collection was entirely electronic. Agricultural communications and information technology managers were initially contacted on September 23, 2002, using e-mail distribution lists available for each group through USDA-CSREES. This preliminary communication introduced the study and included an embedded HTML link to the Web-based survey. The survey collected demographic information on each subject as well as replicating the Competing Values Leadership Instrument: Self-Assessment. When respondents finished completing the survey and used the "submit" button the survey was sent to the researcher via e-mail. Follow-up e-mail messages were sent weekly to remind individuals to participate. Data collection took approximately 1 month, concluding on October 31, 2002.

Results

Demographics

Surveys were sent to 100 individuals, and 94 responses (94%) met the criteria of currently being managers and could be used in the study. Respondents were from 48 states as well as CREEES leaders from USDA. Rhode Island did not have these managers on their staff at the time of the study. Categorical variables in this study included AREAS, STRUCTURE, SUPPORT, REGION, GENDER, EDUCATION, and MAJOR, and are summarized in Table 1. Continuous variables in this study included AGE, EMPLOYED, LEADER, and TOTAL, and are summarized in Table 2.

The typical manager was male, age 49, with a Master's degree in a discipline other than agricultural communications or information technology. This individual managed either agricultural communications or information technology, but not both, and the majority of their units supported both the Cooperative Extension Service and the Agricultural Experiment Station.

On the average, managers had been employed at the current institution for more than 15 years and had been in a leadership position at this institution for more than 8 years, although including other institutions the total number of years they had spent in leadership positions was closer to 13 years. The mode for LEADER and TOTAL (1 and 4, respectively) is noteworthy because it is much smaller than either the mean or median of each, indicating that many respondents were relative newcomers in their position.

The breakdown of GENDER by the areas managed is shown in Table 3. It shows that while females equal males as managers of agricultural communications units (18% each), they comprise less than one third of the managers of information technology units or combined agricultural communications and information technology units (9% percent to 30%, and 6% to 19%, respectively).

Competing Values Leadership Instrument: Self-Assessment

Nine respondents did not complete all 16 questions in the Competing Values Leadership Instrument: Self-Assessment, resulting in 12 missing values. Rather than delete these records from the study, the missing values were predicted using multiple regression.

Statements one through sixteen were paired and the scores averaged to create eight managerial roles:

• Facilitator (statements seven and sixteen),
• Mentor (statements one and ten),
• Innovator (statements four and twelve),
• Broker (statements three and thirteen),
• Producer (statements six and fifteen),
• Director (statements five and eleven),
• Coordinator (statements eight and fourteen), and
• Monitor (statements two and nine).

On a scale of 1 to 7, the mean score for these eight roles was lowest for monitor (3.8), followed by coordinator (4.7), mentor (5.1), broker and director (5.3), innovator (5.7), facilitator (5.8), and producer (6.0). The standard deviation for each score ranged from 0.9 to 1.4. The mean (m) and standard deviation (s) of the eight scores are plotted on a radar chart in Figure 2 to show the average leadership profile of the survey respondents.

Figure 2.
Radar Chart of Average Competing Values Framework Leadership Profile

Research Question One

Among this group of managers, one-way analysis of variance did not indicate that there was a difference in the means of the eight leadership roles based on the areas managed by an individual. There were no significant differences (p<.05) among managers of agricultural communications, information technology, or combined agricultural communications and information technology units for any of the eight roles.

Research Question Two

One-way analysis of variance indicated that in this group of managers, gender influenced the producer role, with women having a significantly higher mean score than men (p<.0492). The mean score for females was 6.3 with a standard deviation of 0.7, while the mean score for males was 5.8 with a standard deviation of 1.1. The means of the other seven roles were not significantly different between men and women.

Research Question Three

Analysis of variance did not find differences in the leadership roles based on level of education, major for highest degree, structure of the unit, or units supported by the department the individual managed. Pearson correlation coefficients did not find an association between the eight roles and age, years of employment at the current institution, years in leadership at the current institution, or total years in leadership positions.

The region of the country, however, influenced the coordinator role, with the Southern region having a significantly higher mean score than other regions (p<.0491). Fisher's LSD indicated that the Southern region scored significantly higher in the coordinator role than the North Central and Western regions, but not the Northeastern region. The mean score for the Southern region was 5.1 with a standard deviation of 0.9, the mean score for the North Central region was 4.3 with a standard deviation of 1.4, the mean score for the Western region was 4.3 with a standard deviation of 1.2, and the mean score for the Northeast region was 4.9 with a standard deviation of 1.3.

Discussion

To Merge or Not to Merge?

In this study, 18 of the states, or 36%, had combined agricultural communications and information technology units. This is an increase from the 11 states that Vacin reported having merged units in his 1991 study. In most cases, the on-going justification for combining units has been the similarity in their missions, brought even closer through their shared use and reliance on emerging technologies. While this has made sense to some people, especially in an era of eroding budgets, others have resisted such mergers vigorously.

In light of the current study, which concluded that managers of agricultural communications units and information technology units are not significantly different in any of the eight manager roles, merging may be less painful than many would believe. The majority of managers did not receive formal education in the discipline they are managing anyway, so leadership qualities and experience may be more important for managers than a working knowledge of all the disciplines in the combined unit, as Vacin (1991) suggested is a requirement. The outcome of this study, which determined that managers of agricultural communications units, information technology units, and combined information technology units are more similar than different, may help defuse the issue of whether or not to merge.

Achieving Strength and Balance in Leadership Roles

On a scale of 1 to 7, managers in this study assessed themselves to be above the midpoint for each of the eight leadership roles. While the scores were high, indicating self-perception is quite good, Quinn (1988) suggests the goal is to become a "master manager" by excelling in each of the eight roles. The first implication is obvious, that all managers will become adept in each role. The second implication is somewhat subtler, that good managers will achieve balance in executing all eight roles.

The managers in this study had the lowest average scores in the coordinator and monitor roles, the two roles that comprise the internal process model. Leaders who have a tendency towards a conservative, cautious style characterize this model. The coordinator is expected to maintain the structure and flow of the system, and the monitor is expected to know what is going on in the unit, to determine whether people are complying with the rules, and to see if the unit is meeting its quotas.

While managers may view these attributes as negative, they are important roles to be comfortable in, and should be used in concert with the other six roles to be an effective manager. In this study, managers from the Southern region demonstrated more strength than some other regions in the coordinator role. These results could reflect a more conservative, traditional nature associated with the South.

The group of managers in this study most closely resembled the profile of effective managers Quinn (1988) called "conceptual producers," who also score lowest in the coordinator and monitor roles. Quinn characterizes this group as conceptually skilled because they work well with ideas and are particularly good at coming up with new ideas and selling them. Like many managers matching this profile, the individuals in this study had a higher level of graduate education and were in the upper-middle levels of management. According to Quinn, although these people tend to pay little attention to details they are highly trained, conceptually skilled, production-oriented managers who are clearly seen as effective. Leadership training, however, could make them even better.

Changing the Face of the Typical Manager

In this study, the majority of managers were men. According to Goering (1990), male leadership has typically dominated USDA-CSREES and its state partners. More women have advanced to positions of leadership in agricultural communications than information technology. Traditionally, more women have been attracted to careers such as writing, editing, and media relations than information technology. Men have more heavily dominated information technology as a discipline since its inception. In drawing from their existing pools of managers, combined units are also more likely to be managed by a man.

A goal of USDA-CSREES and its state partners should be to recruit, hire, and advance more females to change the typical profile of these managers to be more gender neutral. While the women in this study had leadership styles that were for the most part, comparable to men, they also had strengths that could improve the overall profile of these leaders.

In particular, these women exemplified the rational goal model, characterized by leaders who are predisposed towards a directive, goal-oriented style reflected in the producer and director roles. They were stronger producers than their male counterparts, being more inclined to be task-oriented and work-focused and to have high interest, motivation, energy, and personal drive. Clearly, rather than being a drawback as future USDA-CSREES state partners leaders, women are a potential asset that should be tapped.

References

Belasen, A. T. (1998). Paradoxes and leadership roles: Assessing and developing managerial competencies. Available at: http://www.esc.edu/ESConline/Across_ESC/Forumjournal.nsf/ web+view/8CEDA4FD8DBF9952852567CA0066523E?opendocument

Campbell, R. R. (1997). Leadership: Getting it done. Available at: http://www.ssu.missouri.edu/faculty/RCampbell/Leadership/chapter3b.htm

Goering, L. A. (1990). Women in Extension management. Journal of Extension [On-line],28(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990winter/a7.html

Ladewig, H., & Rohs, F. R. (2000). Southern Extension leadership development: Leadership development for a learning organization. Journal of Extension [On-line],38(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000june/a2.html

Quinn, R. E. (1988). Beyond rational management. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers.

Smith, K. L. (1990). The future leaders in Extension. Journal of Extension [On-line], 28(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990spring/fut1.html

Vacin, G. L. (1991). To merge or not to merge: Observations and recommendations. Journal of Applied Communications, 75(2), 51-55.

ORIGINS: A Valuable Web-Based Resource for Community Economic Development

Suzette Barta
Assistant Extension Economist
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK
sdb1113@okstate.edu

Michael D. Woods
Professor and Extension Economist
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK
mdwoods@okstate.edu

Robert Dauffenbach
Director, Center of Economic and Management Research
University of Oklahoma
Norman, OK
rdauffen@ou.edu

Jeff Wallace
Director, State Data Center
Oklahoma Department of Commerce
Oklahoma City, OK
Jeff_Wallace@odoc.state.ok.us

Introduction

Often, tough times bring out the best in people. Despite a growing national economy throughout most of the 1990s, many rural communities in Oklahoma continued to decline economically following the oil industry bust of the mid-1980s. A few unfortunate communities watched their downtowns die, their young people move away, and their schools close. Other communities stood up and said "we're not going to take this without putting up a fight," and fight is what they have done.

Leaders in these spirited communities formed active coalitions designed to affect local change. For example, since 1986, 44 communities have been a part of the Oklahoma Main Street program--focused on developing their economies through downtown revitalization and historic preservation. Others have focused on business and industry attraction, while still others have become experts in applying for available grants towards economic development projects.

Many of these active communities have discovered that there are resources available to them and organizations willing to work with them in their economic development efforts. The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service (OCES) at Oklahoma State University, the Oklahoma Department of Commerce (ODOC), and the University of Oklahoma (OU) are all examples of willing partners in these efforts. In fact, these three organizations have partnered with each other for the last 15 years to bring one very important resource to community and business leaders across the state. That resource is data.

All communities seem to be hungry for data in their economic development efforts. They need economic data to understand the community's employment and income situation; demographic data to understand the community's characteristics in terms of age, sex and race; and retail sales data to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the local economy. Industrial Development Authorities need data so they know what kinds of business and industry to recruit. Grant writers need income statistics in order to show financial need. Potential business owners need demographic data in order to estimate the size of their potential market.

Extension economists at OSU or the State Data Center at ODOC, or the Center for Economic and Management Research at OU are all happy to provide assistance in the area of data retrieval. However, much of the relevant data is already available to the public in the form of ORIGINS--an electronic database of Oklahoma specific information including employment, income, population, and retail sales.

Recent acquisition of a mobile, wireless computer lab has made it easier than ever for the ORIGINS partners (OSU, ODOC, and OU) to take ORIGINS out into the communities where it belongs. Web training workshops offered by the ORIGINS partners are designed to teach participants how to use the site and how to implement the data for their own purposes. This article introduces the ORIGINS Web site and describes how Extension educators are using this valuable Web-based resource to assist Oklahoma communities in their economic development efforts.

History of ORIGINS

In response to Oklahoma's plummeting economy in 1986, political candidates began to talk about "economic development" as the state's number one policy issue. One policy suggestion was to create a readily accessible economic development database (Hoff-Hisey, Woods, Dauffenbach, Lingerfelt, & Wallace, 1995) containing a wide array of Oklahoma-specific data. As a result, ORIGINS (Oklahoma Resources Integration General Information Network System) was established by the Oklahoma Economic Development Act of 1987 as a cooperative effort between Oklahoma State University, the University of Oklahoma, and the Oklahoma Department of Commerce.

When first developed, the database was maintained at OSU, and the user was required to dial into the OSU mainframe computer system through the use of a personal computer, modem, and communication software. A toll-free telephone number was available to in-state users, but out-of-state users would be subject to long-distance charges. Users were limited to 173 minutes per logon, while data retrieval was often slow. To help speed up retrieval time, graphics were avoided.

Today, the database is housed at the University of Oklahoma and has been accessible to the public, at no charge, through the World Wide Web since 1995. Especially when compared to the ORIGINS of the early 1990's, the database is extremely simple to use. Just log on at http://origins.ou.edu/.

The three original entities--OSU, OU, and ODOC--still collaborate to bring this electronic bulletin board to the citizens of Oklahoma. Each entity has its own distinct role in the delivery of ORIGINS. ODOC is the home of the state data center and is the first to receive new data from sources such as the Census, the Bureau of Economic Analysis, and the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Programmers at OU's Center for Economic and Management Research (CEMR) continually update the information available on ORIGINS. As a result, the data is probably the most up-to-date collection of Oklahoma-specific data available on the Web. These programmers are always searching for ways to make the Web site more user-relevant and more user-friendly.

Economists at the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service at OSU are responsible for taking the Web site directly to Oklahoma communities. Among other activities, OCES conducts ORIGINS training workshops across the state. The workshops are both exercises in how to use the Internet and how to access and implement the wealth of information that is available from ORIGINS and on the Web.

Even though the ORIGINS partnership has been around for a number of years, its relevance couldn't be any more timely than it is in today's technologically advanced environment. According to Cleland and Maggard, (2002) Web-based resources are needed in the development of community-building skills, and according to the US Department of Commerce's report, Falling Through the Net, increasing the number of Americans using technology tools is a "vitally important national goal."

ORIGINS Data

ORIGINS is a portal to many kinds of social, economic, and demographic data that are specific to the state of Oklahoma and Oklahoma counties. Data on ORIGINS is organized into three categories: data series, reports, and data summaries. Below is a sample of some of the data available in each of the three categories.

Data Series Available on ORIGINS

• Retail sales estimates: Includes monthly sales subject to sales tax for Oklahoma counties and selected Oklahoma cities. Also includes monthly retail sales estimates for selected Oklahoma cities, metropolitan areas and the state.
• Employment: Includes Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates of number of full- and part-time jobs by sector annually for Oklahoma counties.
• Labor force: Includes monthly unemployment figures and unemployment rates by county.
• Income: Includes Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates of annual total personal income by county and per capita income by county.
• Population: Includes 1990 and 2000 Census data on population.

Reports Available on ORIGINS

• Oklahoma Statistical Abstract: Contains statistics in areas ranging from government to manufacturing to education.
• Oklahoma Business Bulletin: Is a scholarly journal published quarterly by the CEMR.
• Economic Outlook: Is an OSU publication that forecasts the state's economy.
• Local Area Labor Force Reports: Are based on surveys of the labor market conducted by the CEMR. Currently, labor force reports are available for 28 communities.

Data Summaries Available on ORIGINS

• Agricultural Overview
• Government Abstract
• Labor Force Review
• Price Indexes
• Income Summary
• Mining Review

New Features on ORIGINS

The days of limited logons are gone. So too is the necessity of avoiding graphics. Today's ORIGINS has some graphic features that are very impressive. For example, the retail trade data series has a graphing option. The user selects the information and ORIGINS will create the graph. In addition, several of the data series have a mapping option. Just click on the title of the map you would like to see, and ORIGINS will create a county map of Oklahoma such as the one shown in Figure 1.

Some of the maps that are currently available on ORIGINS include the following.

• Total Population 1990
• Total Population 2000
• Percent Change in Population 1990-2000
• Percent Change in Per Capita Personal Income by County, 1990-1999
• Percent Change in Per Capita Personal Income by State, 1990-1999
• County Unemployment Rates: 1980, 1990, 2000, 2001
• Sales Subject to Sales Tax for Oklahoma Counties: 2001 Level

Figure 1.
Example of Mapping Option on ORIGINS

ORIGINS Training

The reports and statistics found on ORIGINS are designed to assist students, economic developers, community volunteers, grant writers, business-owners, researchers, etc. It is unfortunate, however, that many of these groups do not know about the Web site, and those who have heard of the site are often daunted by the sheer volume of information that is available. To help acquaint the public with the Web site, the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service offers an ORIGINS Web training workshop to interested community groups. The purposes of the class are three-fold:

• ORIGINS awareness
• Site navigation
• Uses for the data

A typical ORIGINS training class generally consists of 10-20 community leaders who often include, but are not limited to, Chamber and Main Street directors, city employees, tribal representatives, librarians, bankers, and business owners. Generally, a county educator will take the lead in setting up one of these training workshops. The need for this training may arise as the county educator becomes involved in one or more community groups, such as the local Chamber of Commerce. This was the case in Pottawatomie County, where the county director worked with the Shawnee Chamber of Commerce to set up the session and to invite the interested parties.

Once organized, the 2-hour training walks the participants through the ORIGINS Web site, highlights the available data, and suggests local uses of the data. Other Web sites that are good sources of data, such as the U.S. Census Bureau site (http://www.census.gov), are also examined.

Until recently, the requirements for hosting an ORIGINS training workshop were difficult for a small community to meet. Most community groups do not have easy access to a computer lab that is Internet ready and will seat 10-20 people. In the past, these workshops were often held at career-technology centers (vocational schools), or, sometimes, community groups would travel to the campus of Oklahoma State University to participate in a workshop. Neither option was particularly convenient for many communities. 

Today, it's much easier for a community to host a Web-based workshop. The recent availability and affordability of wireless networking technologies have drastically reduced the requirements for doing so and have opened the door to computer-based training for previously underserved populations (Parsons et al, 2002). The OCES currently has one mobile, wireless computer lab with 20 laptop computers available for use across the state. The requirements for a hosting a workshop are simply:

• A room large enough to hold the number of people the group plans to invite, and
• One high speed Internet line such as DSL, cable modem, or T1 fiber optic line.

Attaching the wireless lab to an Internet connection gives the participants the ability to work along, online, with the instructor. They are even given a little time to "play around" online. This "play time" is actually very beneficial because it allows the participants to search for the kind of information that is of interest to them while the instructor stands by, ready to answer any questions.

ORIGINS Training Evaluation

About a year ago, our partners at the Oklahoma Department of Commerce and the University of Oklahoma asked us to begin providing them feedback on the Web site. We have always been in the habit of evaluating our workshops, but now we also ask questions on our evaluations that directly pertain to the Web site and how it is being used in communities. Summaries of these evaluations and comments are provided to our partners and are used by programmers at OU to make the Web site more user-friendly.

For example, ORIGINS Web training classes were recently held in Shawnee, Oklahoma and Tulsa, Oklahoma. Through coordination by the Pottawatomie County Extension Director, the Shawnee Chamber of Commerce took advantage of the mobile wireless computer lab and held their training session in a small classroom at the Pottawatomie County Extension Office. The Tulsa session was hosted by an economic development organization based in Skiatook, Oklahoma. Unfortunately, Skiatook did not have a facility equipped with high speed Internet access, so the group decided to hold the training at the Tulsa campus of Oklahoma State University.

Between these two sessions, a total of 25 participants completed program evaluations. Results of these evaluations have been very positive, indicating that community leaders find this kind of training to be valuable to them in their local economic development efforts.

Of the 25 respondents, 52% had never heard of ORIGINS before, and 72% had never used it. It's a shame that these people did not know that this valuable resource existed, but the good news is that 100% of the participants indicated that they would probably use ORIGINS in the future, and 76% said they would definitely use ORIGINS in the future. This kind of response is very exciting because it says two things:

1. ORIGINS is a valuable resource for community leaders, and
2. ORIGINS Web training classes are an important way to introduce ORIGINS into the communities.

When the people who indicated that they would definitely use ORIGINS again were asked how they planned to use it, some of the most common answers included:

• Grant applications,
• Planning,
• Compiling the data for business prospects,
• Understanding the market, and
• Just to have the data and statistics available.

A lot of different kinds of data are available on ORIGINS, but the data many participants believed would be the most useful to them in the future included:

• BEA Employment data (17 of 25),
• Census 2000 (16 of 25),
• Oklahoma Labor Force Information (14 of 25), and
• BEA Personal Income data (12 of 25)

When asked to identify what they liked most about ORIGINS, many respondents said they were impressed with the wealth of information that was available in one place. Ironically, the biggest problem identified is that there is "almost too much information in one place." This wealth of data available to communities over the Internet has changed the way community leaders and activists access information. The training sessions offer to "hand-hold" these leaders for a few hours as they increase their level of confidence in their ability to use this technology. Community contacts and Extension staff report use of ORIGINS for everything from grant applications to small business development.

Adding Value to ORIGINS Data

As indicated above, many community leaders immediately recognize how they can use the data that is available on ORIGINS. Others may prefer to have the data assembled for them in order to address a particular issue or concern. Economists at the OCES certainly recognized this need as they began to develop their community economic development (CED) toolkit (Barta & Woods, 2002). For instance, the ORIGINS Report, as it is called, is a very popular component of the CED toolkit among Oklahoma communities. The ORIGINS Report is an environmental scan of a community and/or county that highlights trends in population, employment, income, and retail sales. For an example in Cimarron County Oklahoma, see our Web site at http://www.rd.okstate.edu/ORIGINSrpt.htm.

Another very popular report in Oklahoma's CED toolkit is the Retail Trends Report (Barta & Woods, 2001). This report highlights trends in a community's retail market by tracking sales tax collections as provided by the Oklahoma Tax Commission. Sales tax collections are used to estimate trade area capture and retail pull for the local economy. A "gap analysis" for the community in 8 separate retail sectors can reveal relative strengths and weaknesses. For a recent example tracking retail sales in Dewey, OK see our Web site http://www.rd.okstate.edu/Retail.htm.

Economic Impact studies, which also utilize ORIGINS data, describe the expected impact on the local economy due to a change in the economic base. The concept can be applied to a wide range of situations. Examples include:

• The Economic Impact of Special Olympics Oklahoma on the Economy of Stillwater, Oklahoma;
• The Economic Impacts of East Central University on the Economy of Pontotoc County, Oklahoma; and
• The Economic Impact of the Sports Complex on the Economy of Antlers, Oklahoma.

The Center for Economic and Management Research (CEMR) at the University of Oklahoma also has some data tools available to communities. For instance, Local Area Labor Force Reports conducted by the CEMR analyze the availability of labor in local areas with particular focus given to identifying and profiling the underemployed. A local group that is interested in learning more about their labor market generally sponsors these studies. Researchers at the CEMR place hundreds or even thousands of random telephone calls to residents in the area. Currently, 28 Local Area Labor Force Reports are available on the ORIGINS Web site.

Concluding Remarks

The electronic bulletin board/data base called ORIGINS has been around for 15 years, and it represents a unique and successful partnership between the two major state universities, Oklahoma State University and the University of Oklahoma, as well as with the Oklahoma Department of Commerce. Each year this Web-based resource improves as programmers at OU and ODOC become more and more skilled at updating the data files and finding better ways to present the data. Their biggest challenge is how to reasonably present such a large amount of data.

In today's world, more and more data and information are becoming available online. Extension educators across Oklahoma (and the nation) recognize this fact and are taking advantage of it. When citizens in their county have data needs, educators are sending them directly to ORIGINS or are finding the data for them on ORIGINS. In fact, we recently conducted an ORIGINS training class specifically for Family and Consumer Science educators in northwest Oklahoma. Understanding the Web site will make it easier for these educators to deliver data and information to their clients. Some of these educators indicated that they would definitely use ORIGINS for such things as focus and advisory groups and program development.

Technological advances, such as affordable wireless networking, are also making it easier for Extension Educators at OSU to take this resource to the public. Value-added data products, such as the "ORIGINS Report," can be quickly posted to the Internet for public consumption. The greatest challenge for educators at the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service is how to get community leaders, many of whom are not yet comfortable with the Internet, to take advantage of this valuable resource.

References

Barta, S., Trzebiatowski, S., Pirtle, R., Frye, J., & Woods, M. (2002). Analysis of retail trends and taxable sales for Dewey, Oklahoma and Washington County, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, AE-02001, [Online]. Available at: http://www.rd.okstate.edu/Retail.htm

Barta, S., Trzebiatowski, S., Gillin, S., Ralstin, S., & Woods, M. (2002). A summary of economic conditions and trends in Boise City and Cimarron County, Oklahoma, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, AE-02011, [Online]. Available at: http://www.rd.okstate.edu/ORIGINSrpt.htm

Barta, S., Trzebiatowski, S., Frye, J., Arnold, J., & Woods, M. (2002). The economic impact of East Central University on the economy of Pontotoc County, Oklahoma, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, AE-02014.

Barta, S., Trzebiatowski, S., Frye, J., Johnson, L., & Woods, M. (2002). The economic impact of the sports complex on the economy of Antlers, Oklahoma, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, AE-02134.

Barta, S., Woods, M., Trzebiatowski, S., & Cain, D. (2002). The economic impact of Special Olympics Oklahoma on the economy of Stillwater, OK. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, AE-02135.

Barta, S., & Woods, M. (2001). Gap analysis: A tool for community economic development, Journal of Extension, 39(2), [Online]. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001april/iw5.html

Barta, S., & Woods, M. (2002). The community economic development toolkit, Journal of Extension, 40(5), [Online]. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002october/tt5.shtml

Cleland, C., & Maggard, S. (2002). Cultivating resilient communities and rural prosperity in a dynamic and uncertain environment, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, White

Paper [Online]. Available at: http://www.reeusda.gov/1700/whatnew/whtpapers/index.htm

Hoff-Hisey, H., Woods, M. D., Dauffenbach, R., Lingerfelt, H., & Wallace, J. (1995). ORIGINS--Evaluation of a statewide electronic database to aid community developers. Journal of the Community Development Society, 26(2), 240-251.

National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (2000). Falling through the Net: Toward digital inclusion: A report on Americans' access to technology tools, U.S. Department of Commerce, [Online]. Available at: http://search.ntia.doc.gov/pdf/fttn00.pdf

Parsons, R. L., Hanson, G. D., Beck, T, J., & Martin, A. B. (2002). A successful portable computer lab training program, Journal of Extension, 40(3), [Online]. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002june/a6.html

Pond Management: An Evaluation of Web-Based Information Delivery

Clifford Kraft
Assistant Professor
Department of Natural Resources
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
cek7@cornell.edu

Introduction

A continuing demographic transition of the rural and suburban landscape has changed rural land use patterns over the past several decades, leading to the increased construction of ponds on rural properties. Rural property owners often have the resources to construct ponds, and cultural perceptions have made pond ownership a symbol of the ideal rural lifestyle.

Yet many new rural landowners have little familiarity with the reality of pond management and have no effective link to the knowledge base disseminated by county Cooperative Extension educators during the 1950s and 1960s, when county Extension agents were widely recognized as the key source of information for farm pond management. This article describes an effort to incorporate Web-based delivery into 21^st century pond management training programs.

Web-based sources of information and communication offer new methods for providing information, soliciting inquiries from pond owners, and linking energetic private landowners with others willing to share their expertise or provide assistance to others. The Internet provides the advantage of being able to address current topical issues with little time lag between problem identification and program delivery. The purpose of the study reported here was to determine the effectiveness of Web-based delivery as an educational tool for improving pond management.

Background

In 1998, the New York Pond Management program was reconstituted to address the needs of a large audience of rural property owners. Many rural landowners have little familiarity with managing natural resources, yet are strongly motivated to do so. This program effort was also guided by county educators, who reported widespread demand for information on this subject.

For example, a survey of rural landowners in south central New York, conducted by a regional Cooperative Extension educator, identified "Managing or building a pond" as the topic of greatest importance. In another survey of New York educators, pond management was identified as one of four top priority natural resources management topics of interest (Schneider & Smallidge, 2000).

During the past decade, traditional sources of written communication have been increasingly replaced by electronic information delivery, due both to fiscal constraints and the need for rapidly updated information. Although Web-based delivery of training materials by Cooperative Extension educators is no longer novel, Web use is still new enough such that many aspects of its relative benefits are being explored (Muske, Goetting, & Vukonich, 2001). In 1999, the Internet was the fourth major communications medium after word-of-mouth, the printed word, and broadcast media (O'Neill, 1999). Web use has clearly increased since that time, as the number of Web sites continues to grow (Internet Software Consortium, 2003).

In order for Cooperative Extension educators to maintain credibility in an information age with numerous competing sources of information, convenient access to information must be available. Written publications are increasingly costly to print and take up valuable storage space (Jones, 1990).

Additionally, electronic publications can alleviate the problem of inadvertently distributing out-of-date information (Shaffer & Hussey, 1992), which can occur as publications remain "on the shelf" despite having been replaced by updated material. Out-of-date information is often contained within written publications due to a lack of resources to prepare and publish revisions, or the "success" of a publication (i.e., in terms of sales) can obscure the need for revision, especially as resources become limiting.

As was anticipated by Tennessen, PonTell, Romine, and Motheral (1997), timely Web information can be regularly updated and delivered to county offices and target audiences via PDF (printable document format) files, readily accessible within most households. Internet information delivery also facilitates electronic publication of documents that cannot be regularly updated or printed due to low demand or financial constraints.

This study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of Web site use in improving pond management practices within New York state, as well as to generally evaluate Web site use as a means of improving pond management information delivery. The following three research questions were asked.

1. Can Web-based information effectively deliver information to a statewide audience?
2. Can a Web site be used to identify pond management priorities where targeted information is needed?
3. Can Web-based information delivery influence pond management practices?

Methodology

Web servers routinely log requests for resources, with each request considered a "hit" in the Web jargon. Although Web site developers often assess Web site use by tallying hits, these are an inadequate measure of use.

• First, search engines regularly download pages from a wide range of Web sites and therefore can represent a large number of hits that are unrelated to intentional Web site use.

• Second, multiple images on a single Web page can represent independent download events, additionally inflating these events as a measure of Web site use.

• Finally, user contacts with a Web page do not provide any indication of whether the user actually obtained any information during this interaction.

The Fish Management in New York Ponds Web site (hereafter referred to as the "pond management" Web site) was made available on-line in May 2000 at http://pond.dnr.cornell.edu/. The site provides a form from which users can submit questions and also includes a posting of "Commonly-asked Questions" that incorporates responses to such questions. This feature is intended to both reduce the volume of direct responses required and also provides a convenient listing of responses to conventional questions.

Due to problems with using "hits" as a measure of Web page use, this study took advantage of information provided through the question-and-answer section of the pond management Web site. Interactions with Web site users provided direct evidence of information exchange and provided an opportunity for follow-up evaluation of impact resulting from this interaction.

A quantitative assessment of questions submitted by users provided temporal information regarding Web site use and identified topics of interest to Web site users. An email survey was sent to 271 users who had submitted questions through the Web site prior to January 1, 2003 (a response to each inquiry had been previously sent within 1 month of submittal). If no response to this survey was received, a follow-up survey was emailed 1 month after the initial survey. The survey asked whether users had:

1. "Used the Fish Management in New York Ponds Web Site to change pond management practices?"

2. "Change(d) pond management practices" in response to the email answer to their question?"

Results

Eleven questions were submitted through the Web site via email during 2000, 75 questions were submitted in 2001, 189 in 2002, and, as of June 2003, approximately 150 were submitted, indicating a projected total of 300 inquiries during 2003. The seasonal pattern (Fig. 1) of questions submitted to the Web site indicates that users were more interactive during warmer months (i.e., April through October) than during late fall or winter. The seasonal pattern exhibits a discernible peak in June and July that could either reflect a greater number of management issues that need to be resolved at that time of year or the greater availability of free time and attention to outdoor natural resource management issues on rural properties.

Figure 1.
Seasonal Pattern of Inquiries to Pond Management Web Site

Questions submitted to the pond management Web site encompassed a broad variety of subjects, summarized into four primary areas (Table 1). These major subject areas were identified following the first 18 months of Web site activity and did not subsequently change. However, sub-categories within these areas did change from year to year, depending on unusual conditions (e.g., a long, snowy winter produced numerous questions about fish die-offs in ponds). These subject areas and major sub-categories were used as categories for organizing the "Commonly Asked Questions" pages on the Web site and were also used in organizing program material for ongoing pond management workshops.

Of the 271 surveys sent to individuals who had submitted inquiries through the pond management Web site, 171 responses were received, corresponding to a response rate of 63%. More than half of the people responding to the survey indicated that they had changed their pond management practices based upon information obtained through the Web site, and one-quarter of the respondents indicated that they had implemented "major changes" (Table 2). The proportions of respondents who had implemented major or moderate changes in pond management practices based on responses to their questions was slightly lower in both the "major" and "moderate" change categories, but these still accounted for almost 50% of total respondents.

Even with the potential bias resulting from the possibility that respondents were more likely to have implemented pond management changes than non-respondents, a substantial proportion of Web site users and those who submitted questions had changed their management practices as a result of Web site use.

Almost half of the respondents (46%) indicated that they had used the fish management Web site more than once to obtain information. Eighty-eight percent of the individuals who submitted questions through the Web site lived or owned property within New York state.

Discussion

This study demonstrates that electronic communication with stakeholders has helped change pond management practices and improves information dissemination related to pond management in New York state. The question-and-answer component of the subject Web site has also helped identify specific information needs, as well as develop an understanding of the ability of broad audiences to apply recommended practices. Web-based information delivery has provided an ability to quickly respond to timely pond management issues related to variable weather conditions, such as summer drought and winter die-offs of fish due to cold and snowy winters.

Although the number of questions submitted through the Web site has increased annually, it is uncertain how long this will continue. Responding to these inquiries (at a rate of one per day) remains feasible due to a repository of pre-established responses to specific questions, and the benefits of user interaction still outweigh the perceived distraction of such efforts.

It is also unclear to what extent posting responses to commonly asked questions has reduced direct inquiries, though the Web site will continue to be modified to improve user awareness of such information. Most users who submit questions own property with ponds in New York, and users from beyond the northeastern U.S. receive a response suggesting that they solicit information from appropriate regional sources.

Although it was initially thought that landowners would be less inclined to use the Internet during mid-summer, when the weather is favorable and people are likely to spend time outdoors, these results suggest an opposite trend. Users seemed to be comfortable consulting the Pond Management Web site searching for relevant information that was readily applicable to their ongoing pond activity. Apparently, the stereotype of an Internet user as someone who spends time on-line when the weather is lousy does not apply to individuals seeking information related to pond management.

It is unclear to what extent the seasonal pattern of Web site use was influenced by Web site promotion, training workshops, or other seasonal events. For example, each spring (usually in April), Web site contact information was provided via an email announcement to New York Cooperative Extension county offices, as well as county Soil and Water Conservation District offices. These announcements were timed with the knowledge that many of these offices conducted spring pond management workshops or sponsored spring sales of fish for stocking in ponds. These offices often subsequently included Web site contact information within their educational materials or newsletters.

It is also possible that the seasonal pattern of Web site use was influenced by pond management workshops through New York that annually enrolled an average of 750 participants. Although these workshops did not exhibit a clear seasonal trend, they tended to occur during late winter and early spring. Interest in pond management could have been stimulated by these workshops due to the fact that the pond Web site was featured in workshop instructional materials.

Overall, it is most likely that the seasonal pattern of interest exhibited in Web site inquiries reflects the seasonal pattern of issues related to managing rural ponds. Inquiries about sources of fish for stocking, maintenance problems, and winter fish die-offs occurred most frequently during spring, within 1 month of ice-out. Summer questions often addressed subjects such as leeches, water quality concerns, and vegetation management. Summer was also a time of the year when questions were most varied and often identified new concerns that were subsequently addressed in Web page revisions throughout the following year. Fall questions often returned to issues of fish management, and that was the time of year when inquiries most frequently addressed issues of new pond construction.

Although this Web site was designed to address questions about fish management in New York ponds, questions were frequently submitted regarding subject areas that this Web site did not comprehensively address, such as vegetation management. Web-based links provided a ready ability to provide access to other sources of information on such subjects.

Conclusions and Future Directions

Overall, the development and maintenance of a pond management Web site and interaction with users throughout New York state has provided an ongoing opportunity to develop and refine pond management materials on relevant subjects. New ideas and insights are continually being identified through Web-based interactions. For example, users have requested an on-line discussion forum for pond management issues that is now under development. New topics, revisions, and new links are regularly added on-line.

While a continual effort is maintained to improve the features of the Web site, this delivery approach is only as good as the information provided. The quality of Web-based information can benefit from the ease with which Web-based information can be updated, as well as the graphic and interactive features not possible in print media. As demonstrated in this effort, Web site development clearly provides an improved ability to understand and address user needs in a changing environment.

References

Cockburn, A., & McKenzie, B. (2001). What do Web users do? An empirical analysis of Web use. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 54: 903-922.

Gellersen, H-W., & Schmidt, A. (2002). Look who's visiting: Supporting visitor awareness in the Web. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 56: 25-46.

Jones, P. (1990). Producing a CD-ROM: preparation of Extension publications. CD-ROM EndUser 2: 14-16.

LaBorde, L. (2003). Impact of the Penn State Food Safety Web Site as a food safety information resource for Extension professionals. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003april/rb5.shtml

Internet Software Consortium (2003). Internet domain survey. Available at: http://www.isc.org/ds

Muske, G., Goetting, M., & Vukonich, M. (2001). The World Wide Web: A training tool for family resource management educators. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001august/a3.html

O'Neill, B. (1999). Teaching consumers to use the Internet to make consumer decisions. Journal of Extension [On-line], 37(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999june/iw4.html

Schneider, R. L., & Smallidge, P. J. (2000). Assessing Extension educator needs in New York to address natural resource issues for the new millennium. Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000june/a4.html

Shaffer, D. L., & Hussey, G. A. (1992). PENpages: Sharing agriculture and Extension information internationally through the Internet. Quarterly Bulletin International Association Agricultural Information Specialists 37: 97-101.

Tennessen, D. J., PonTell, S., Romine, V., & Motheral, S. W. (1997). Opportunities for Cooperative Extension and local communities in the information age. Journal of Extension [On-line], 35(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997october/comm1.html

Teo, H-H., Oh, L., Liu, C., & Wei K-K. (2003). An empirical study of the effects of interactivity on Web user attitude. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 58: 281-305.

Micro Business Use of Technology and Extension's Role

Glenn Muske,
Associate Professor
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
muske@okstate.edu

Nancy Stanforth
Associate Professor
Kent State University
Kent, OH
nstanfor@kent.edu

Michael D. Woods
Professor
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
mdwoods@okstate.edu

Introduction

According to the Small Business Administration (Pratt, 2002), "technology, telecommunications and the Internet are changing the way businesses market and provide products and services." The technology movement both pushes and pulls businesses towards adaptation and adoption of new and modified business strategies. The pull may be a result of consumer demand and increased efficiency, while the push grows out of the need to communicate with suppliers who adopt on-line ordering systems. Both factors are reasons for business owners to recognize the power of technology and analyze its potential in their business.

The term "technology" may be applied to a number of products and services such as computers, telephone systems, and security devices. Each type of technology brings unique benefits to firms. Personal computers (PC) and the Internet are the two examples of technology often considered the most revolutionary in changing the way business works. Large businesses have adapted new technologies as part of their strategies to remain competitive. Likewise, small businesses are utilizing technology at an increasing rate (Pratt, 2002).

Yet little is known about the use of technology among micro businesses, those businesses employing 10 people or fewer. For micro business owners to remain competitive, they will need to adopt new technologies into their business operations. The purpose of the study reported here was to understand how technology, largely PCs and the Internet, is used in Oklahoma micro businesses and to suggest ways to increase adoption and use. The role of the Cooperative Extension Service working as a catalyst for technology adoption was also explored.

Supporting Literature

Small and Micro Businesses

In the United States, over 99% of businesses are considered small, defined by the SBA as employing fewer than 500 people. These businesses employ 51% of the workforce and produce 52% of the gross domestic product (Henderson, 1997; Pratt, 2002; U. S. Census, 2001). Small businesses are an integral part of a market economy and a prime provider of goods and services in the dynamic environment where the ability to change is crucial to long-term viability (Sexton, 1999; Small Business Administration, 1998).

The difficulty with SBA's small business definition is that it is overly broad. The micro business segment, those employing 10 or fewer employees, represents the heart of the American economic engine. According to Devins (1999), 94% of all firms and 84% of employer firms would be classified as micro businesses.

First, this segment created 69% of all new jobs in the 1990's (Sexton, 1999). Micro businesses employ as many as 25% of all workers in total (Family Economics and Nutrition Review, 2001; U. S. Census, 2001). Second, micro businesses generate 13% of all receipts, with receipts from self-employed individuals operating unincorporated businesses not even counted (Family Economics and Nutrition Review, 2001; U. S. Census, 2001). Third, micro businesses represent the source of most new innovations and patents (Pratt, 2002, 2003).

In a rural economy, the role of the micro business is even greater. In Oklahoma, 77% of employer firms and nearly 99% of all firms are micro in size, and they employ 13% of all workers. These entrepreneurial firms can represent a substantial portion of the difference in economic growth among communities (Reynolds, Hay, & Camp, 1999). Micro businesses create jobs, increase local income and wealth, and connect the community to the larger, global economy (Henderson, 2002).

Often little consideration is given to this subgroup, the micro business, in terms of research or how they may differ from other "small businesses." The owners in this subgroup may face different issues, or similar issues may have different "best solutions." One such example may be the differences in the utilization of technology between the micro and the small business firm.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Information and communication technology (ICT) is widely thought to have changed the way in which firms do business. Businesses of all sizes have the opportunity using ICT to:

• Enhance the company's efficiency and effectiveness;

• Reach and service new and existing consumers in the global marketplace; and

• Increase communication with current and potential business partners (Baker, 2000; Emmanouilides & Hammond, 2000; Griffith & Palmer, 1999; Kleindl, 2000; Pratt, 2002; Southern & Tilley, 2000; Thong & Yap, 1995).

ICT may allow small businesses to compete with larger firms (Emmanouilides & Hammond, 2000; Jones, 2000; Kleindl, 2000). Estimates of the number of small firms using computers range from 27% to 68% (Emmanouilides & Hammond, 2000; Pratt, 2002; Southern & Tilley, 2000).

Yet little is known about whether these same use patterns are true among micro businesses. The assumption is that all businesses benefit from increased ICT use (Southern & Tilley, 2000). Bridge and Peel (1999) and Griffith and Palmer (1999) found that companies with more detailed business strategies tended to incorporate ICT into the business environment and that the smaller businesses were less likely to utilize ICT.

But the use of ICT in the micro business may be hindered for several reasons. First, because the owner is often also the ICT specialist, he or she must not only decide if ICT is right but then must implement and operate the system (Graham, 2000; Jones, 2000; Kleindl, 2000). Second, there may be cost barriers to incorporate the appropriate hardware, connections, and software. Applications such as electronic data interchange (EDI) are often prohibitively expensive for small firms, and yet, without EDI capabilities, smaller firms may be unable to take advantage of the financial discounts that EDI processing can offer (Vlosky, 2000; Wilson, 2000). Third, Henderson (2002) suggests that among rural micro businesses, access to high-speed broadband access may be limited and toll charges may apply just to reach a dial-up service, if service can be found at all (U. S. Dept of Labor, 2001).

The objectives of the study reported here were to examine ICT usage among Oklahoma micro-businesses. Specifically, the study examined the following questions.

1. How is ICT used by micro businesses in Oklahoma?
2. What kinds of applications are used by these businesses?
3. What do the findings mean in terms of Extension's mission?

Methodology

The sample was drawn by compiling lists provided by the Oklahoma State University Food and Agricultural Products Center, the Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, and the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Home/Micro Business program. Owners on these lists had previously identified themselves as owning a value-added business. It is important to recognize that two of the three sources of names are often traditionally identified with agriculture and agriculture-related businesses. A screening question asked about the business size in terms of number of employees. Only the owners of micro business firms, defined as those with a workforce of 10 people or fewer, were interviewed. The employees could be working either full- or part-time.

The Oklahoma State University Bureau of Social Research conducted telephone interviews, each lasting between 20-30 minutes. If there was no answer to the phone call, three additional contacts were attempted at other times and days. Seventy percent of the 274 owners identified, or 193 owners, responded to the survey. Questions concerned technology use, ownership characteristics, business goals; and success as defined by profit. Data was analyzed using SPSS software. It is important to remember, when considering transferring this study to potentially other audiences, that the focus was on value-added products and that the sampling frame was developed from agencies often identified as having an agricultural background.

Results

Description of Owners

Eighty-three percent of the owners were involved in a product/production business. Overall, 37% were producing food products, with the remaining 46% involved in another product/production-related business. Twelve percent had service firms, and 4% were in retail sales. The current owners had started 74% the business, and 44% were sole proprietorships. Firms were located in rural areas or on farms 48% of the time, with 24% in cities with populations greater than 50,000. Sixty-nine percent of the firms employed one to three workers, including the owner, and an additional 38% of the owners worked by themselves. Regarding outside employment, 31% of the owners and 46% of the spouses worked outside of the business. Males represented 54% of the sample, and 88% self-identified as white. Median age for owners was 52 (Table 1).

Sales and Profits

Firm sales were made in a wide geographical area, with the predominant area locally. Fifty percent of firms indicated that customers within 50 miles of their businesses generated one-half of their sales, and 27% indicated that 75% or more of sales take place within that 50-mile radius. Only 12% of owners indicated that 50% or more of sales were generated outside of that 50-mile circle but still within Oklahoma. When examining international sales, 1% reported that half their sales were international, while 76% reported no international sales at all.

Profits at these firms varied widely, with more than a quarter earning no profits and only about 10% earning more than $50,000. With an estimated average annual profit of more than $35,000 per firm, the group added a total profit of nearly $6 million dollars to the Oklahoma economy (Table 2).

Technology

The micro-businesses owners were active users of technology, with 77% (148 owners) using a computer in the business. Of the 148 owners who used a computer, 95% used e-mail, 87% word processing, 80% kept electronic financial records, and 62% did graphic design. More than 50% of the respondents used computers for desktop publishing and accessing databases. Although the computer industry has claimed that application service providers (ASP) are the wave of the future, most of these respondents have yet to use ASPs (Table 3).

Sixty-six firms, or 34% of the owners (45% of the technology users), had a business Web site, and 50 of these firms use these sites to conduct sales. Thirty-four other business owners indicated they sold products and services via the Internet without having a Web site. More than half of the firms used technology for both business-to-consumer and business-to-business sales.

Sixty percent of the firms' Web sites had been operating for more than a year, and 12% more than 4 years. The Web sites provided customer information and service, generated sales leads, and provided marketing information. Most owners had assistance in designing and building the Web site, but many maintain the site themselves. Annual Web site expenses were modest, with most spending less than $1,000 per year. Revenues were modest as well, with most firms realizing Web-based sales of less than $4,500 annually. There was no significant correlation between Web site revenues and Web site expenses. In other words, investing more in a Web site did not generate more revenue for these firms.

Web sites generated average annual profit of $6,680, yet only 4% of firms said these profits added to the overall firm profitability. A substantial difference in profitability was noted due to the longevity of the Web site. Those who had launched the Web site earlier had substantially higher profits than those with newer Web sites did. Web sites in existence more than 20 months had profits of $10,339 versus $3,021 for newer Web sites. Firms with a Web site were also more likely to have higher sales outside of a 50-mile radius surrounding the business. In particular, United States sales increased from 8% to 24% for Web site owners.

Owner satisfaction with the Internet varied widely, with most rating their connection as good to excellent (56%). Satisfaction with their Web site varied as a function of their satisfaction with revenue generated (F = 77.09, p = .00). Owner satisfaction with the number of contacts generated by the Web site was evenly distributed, with slightly more satisfied owners than unsatisfied owners. The opposite pattern was seen for satisfaction with Web site sales, with slightly more owners expressing dissatisfaction as opposed to satisfaction with sales.

Although not reported here, a comparison of rural and non-rural businesses found no differences in level of total sales, who used computers, who had access to the Internet, or who had a Web site. A slight difference was found among rural owners, who reported slightly slower access speeds to the Web.

Open-ended comments concerning problems with the Web sites included a number of common complaints. Technical glitches were noted, from getting the site set up to the inability of search engines to bring up their sites. Keeping it current was also an issue, whether the firm updated themselves or outsourced the work. However, many firms reported no particular problems. None of the reported problems were unique; they are frequently reported technology problems.

Those who have adopted technology had done so with the goal of improving efficiency (65.3%). Few used technology to reduce the workforce. Specific technology adopted was for product, market, and/or management reasons.

Regarding how owners would like to receive continuing education, technology was not among the preferred methods (data not shown). Only 20% wanted to learn through an on-line course, and only 22% wanted to acquire information via the Web. The preferred method of learning was through seminars (62.1%).

There was no difference in preferences between those who had Web sites and those who did not. Familiarity with technology apparently does not influence the manner in which owners prefer to acquire information. Seminars may be preferred for a number of reasons, including the opportunity for interaction with peers, the ability to ask questions and get more or less immediate answers, the availability of experts for one-on-one consultation, and the social aspects of going where others are gathered.

Discussion and Implications

The micro business is an important element of the American economy, providing both financial and non-financial benefits to the owners. ICT is often seen as a way for small businesses to compete in the global marketplace. These micro-business owners were relatively active users of ICT and used it in a variety of ways to enhance their business. More than 80% of micro business owners used ICT to access the Internet, do word processing, and keep financial records.

Business owners found technology helpful for customer service, marketing, and information searching. For those owners with Web sites, the sites did generate sales and additional profit. Both sales and profitability did increase substantially, although not significantly, the longer the firm had a Web site.

In a separate report, analysis of where sales were made found that businesses with Web sites had significantly larger sales outside of their immediate trade area (Muske & Woods, in press). In an SBA (Pratt, 2002) study, 35% of small businesses with Web sites gained sales of 10% to 99% directly from their Web sites. Even though Web sites did increase contacts, sales, and profitability, there was a mixed response as to the owner's satisfaction with the returns. This may reflect the owner's often anticipated high expectations not being fully met.

Several opportunities exist, then, for Extension to play a role in helping micro business owners understand and incorporate technology in the business. Such ideas include the following.

• Help owners understand technology, its role, and its future within the business community.

• Develop a cost-benefit analysis of ICT. Reinforce realistic expectations of Web sites.

• Aid the owner in learning to use ICT, both hardware and software. Examples include programs such as:

       • Accounting software such as Quicken®

       • Presentation software such as PowerPoint®

       • Graphics and design programs

• Assist them in gaining access, either directly or indirectly, to competitive ICT networks.

• Help owners evaluate the need for a Web site and then to provide resources to help them develop it. Access Minnesota Main Street is a good example of such an Extension effort.

• Work with Web providers to better understand the micro business owner's needs.

• Help owners understand that more costly Web sites may not mean more profits. Instead it is important to market the Web site address and work on building profits over time.

• Educate owners about the benefits of ICT to help them overcome their voiced concerns of lack of time to learn, lack of motivation to learn, and simple disinterest.

• Develop integrated customer service programs that show how ICT can be used without making the business seem less personal and having less customer service.

Technology is here to stay, and ICT can help businesses be competitive. Business owners were anxious to receive ICT training and help. Owners who had worked with the Cooperative Extension Service (n=57) and had a Web site were slightly more likely to show a larger business profit (x² (57,2) = 4.886, p = .082) (data not shown in tables).

Extension is uniquely positioned, through its work in business and community development, to encourage ICT used among micro business owners. Extension educators must remain aware of technology changes and pass that information along to business owners. Extension can also help micro business owners understand and identify appropriate ICT and then implement it within the business.

References

Baker, B. L. (2000). Taming the Internet's wild frontier. The Small Business Journal, 1-2. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on December 31, 2000, http://www.tsbj.com/

Bridge, J., & Peel, M. J. (1999). Research note: A study of computer usage and strategic planning in the SME sector. International Small Business Journal, 17(4), 82-87.

Devins, D. 1999. Supporting established micro businesses: Policy issues emerging from an evaluation. International Small business Journal, 18(1): 86-97.

Emmanouilides, C., & Hammond, K. (2000) Internet usage: Predictors of active users and frequency of use. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 14(2), 17-32.

Fallin, M. (February, 1998). Business forum report. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: Office of the Lieutenant Governor.

Family Economics and Nutrition Review. 2001. Small business: Evidence from the 1998 survey of small business finances. Family Economics and Nutrition Review, 14 (1), 84-85.

Graham, J. R. (2000). Making business sense out of the Internet. http://www.smartbiz.com/

Griffith, D. A., & Palmer, J. W. (1999, January-February). Leveraging the Web for corporate success. Business Horizons, 3-10.

Henderson, J. (2002). Building the rural economy with high-growth entrepreneurs. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City Economic Review, 87(3), 45-70.

Jones, M. (2000, April 3). Small business gets the Web--Low-cost thin servers are plugging small businesses into the Web, delivering Internet access, e-mail services and security. Internetweek, (807), PG66-67.

Kleindl, B. (2000). Competitive dynamics and new business models for SMEs in the virtual marketplace. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 5(1), 73-85.

Muske, G., & Woods, M. (in press). The smallest of the small: What micro businesses add to the local economy. Journal of the Community Development Society.

Prattt, J. H. (2002). E-biz: Strategies for small business success (SBAHQ-00-C-0004). Washington, DC: Small Business Administration, U. S. Dept of Commerce.

Reynolds, P. D., Hay, M., & Camp, S. M. (1999). Global entrepreneurship monitor. Kansas City, MO: Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership.

Sexton, L. A. 1999. Small business is good business. Arkansas Business and Economic Review, 32 (3), 18-19.

Southern, A., & Tilley, F. (2000). Small firms and information and communication technologies (ICTs): Toward a typology of ICTs usage. New Technology, Work, and Employment, 15(2), 138-154.

Thong, J., & Yap, C. (1995). CEO characteristics, organizational characteristics and information technology adoption in small businesses. Omega, 23(4), 429-442.

U.S. Census (2001). 1997 Economic Census. http://www.census.gov/epcd/www/econ97.html

U. S. Department of Labor (2001). Current Population Survey - Computer and Internet Survey. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Dept. of Labor.

Vlosky, R. P. (2000, Summer). An overview of e-business. Southern Perspectives, 4(3), Southern Rural Development Center.

Wilson, T. (2000, August 14). An exchange for small biz -- Web service links mom-and-pop businesses with EDI marketplaces. Internetweek, (824), PG36.

Educational Interests of Extension Agents: Implications for the Delivery of Educational Programming at a Distance

M. Craig Edwards
Associate Professor
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
edwarmc@okstate.edu

Bryan McLucas
New Media Strategist
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
bryan@uga.edu

Gary E. Briers
Professor
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
g-briers@tamu.edu

Fredrick R. Rohs
Professor
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
frrohs@uga.edu

Distance education is coming of age and is becoming commonplace. Nearly one-half (44%) of the 2-year and 4-year degree-granting institutions in the United States offered distance education courses during the 1997-1998 academic year (U.S. Department of Education, 2001), a trend that continues to increase. But in the University of Georgia's College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, the technology potential seems to remain particularly unfulfilled.

Different colleges of agriculture have taken a variety of paths to offering educational programming at a distance. For example, Texas A&M University's Department of Agricultural Education and Texas Tech University's Department of Agricultural Education and Communications have been national leaders in developing and offering a Joint Doctor of Education in Agricultural Education at a distance, the "doc-at-a-distance" program (Texas A&M University, 2002).

In addition, Texas A&M University (2002) and similar institutions such as Iowa State University, Department of Agricultural Education and Studies, (Iowa State University, 2002) have created Master's of Agriculture degree programs that are delivered at a distance, either in part or entirely. The Iowa State University degree program is offered "via distance education courses and [through] on-campus workshops," while the Texas A&M University Master's of Agriculture (MAG) degree program's "primary delivery system for course materials and student communication" (Texas A&M University, 2002) is