December 2004
Volume 42 Number 6

Tools of the Trade

What Cooperative Extension Professionals Need to Know About Institutional Review Boards: Recruiting Participants

Randy Brown
Area Extension Specialist/Associate Professor
University of Nevada, Cooperative Extension
brownr@unce.unr.edu

Sally Martin
State Specialist/Professor
Human Development and Family Studies
smartin@unr.nevada.edu

Dan Weigel
Area Extension Specialist/Professor
University of Nevada, Cooperative Extension
weigeld@unce.unr.edu

University of Nevada, Reno
Las Vegas, Nevada

Introduction

As more Extension professionals conduct evaluations, needs assessments, and research that is professionally published and presented, there is a great need to understand the process for navigating the Institutional Review Board (IRB) review process. Each university has its own IRB whose purview is to review all university-affiliated research conducted with human subjects. While some Extension professionals may have considerable experience with IRBs, others may lack understanding of or struggle with particular issues that are inherent in community-based research typical of Extension professionals.

This article examines challenges associated with recruiting participants, providing tips for preparing an IRB proposal and the implementation of a more sound and productive study. It is part of a series helping Extension professionals through the process and providing tips from a group of authors who have collectively served nearly 20 years on University Institutional Review Boards. (See the first article, in the October JOE, "What Cooperative Extension Professionals Need to Know About Institutional Review Boards.")

Tips for Recruiting Participants

Essentially, the recruitment section in an IRB submission details the process for obtaining participants in a research project. For example, this is where Extension professionals may explain how they are going to get program participants to be involved in evaluations of particular programs or where Extension professionals conducting needs assessments describe how they will gather samples of local residents. The fundamental issue underlying recruitment is that a potential participant needs to make a free, informed, and uninfluenced choice to volunteer for the study. Below are some issues that are common, particularly for community-based practitioners and researchers to keep in mind when preparing to submit a protocol to an IRB.

Recruiting Vulnerable Audiences

When recruiting participants, it is important for Extension professionals to remember that several groups of people are deemed as vulnerable by IRBs. Vulnerable participants are minors, prisoners, fetuses, pregnant women, persons who are cognitively impaired, human in vitro fertilization, or persons who are economically or educationally disadvantaged. In terms of recruitment, these audiences may be more vulnerable to being involuntarily forced, coerced, manipulated, or subjected to undue influence in order to participate. Special care is needed when Extension professionals want to include such audiences in their studies.

Coercive Recruitment

One of the main issues IRB reviewers examine is the potential for coercion in the recruitment process. Any risk that a potential participant might feel pressure to participate should be removed or lessened. A situation that is common in community-based research is when a teacher, supervisor, or program coordinator is in a position of authority and that person is directly recruiting participants. For example, staff might feel coerced to participate in a district or regional director's study of the quality of communication within the district.

A person of influence over a potential participant may exert coercive pressure knowingly or unknowingly. In cases such as these, Extension professionals could recruit potential participants through someone who does not have the same influential relationship or could strongly and repeatedly emphasize the voluntary nature of the study to potential participants.

Overly Enticing Rewards

A second situation that could be considered coercive is when the reward to participate in the research is so desirable that people volunteer in spite of potential risks. For example, if parents are promised free program sessions for allowing their child with special needs to participate in a somewhat risky study, this could be considered a coercive recruitment strategy. In this situation, parents may be so anxious to get additional help for their child that they sign up for the project against their better judgment. In such cases, Extension professionals should avoid rewards that are so compelling that potential participants may ignore risks to get the rewards or, at a minimum, clearly explain any potential risks to potential participants.

Risk

If there is risk in the recruitment process, Extension professionals should elaborate on how these risks will be addressed. For example, if potential participants feel compelled to participate because others in their peer group have volunteered, the researcher needs to describe how the risk of this happening will be addressed.

Recruitment Confidentiality

People need to feel that their decision to participate is confidential. If the topic of the research involves any sensitive subjects, the researchers should attempt to protect potential participants' identity. For example, if Extension professionals are trying to recruit for an AIDS treatment project, contact with a potential participant should be made discreetly and the person should not be identified. A remedy in this case would be posting a flyer so individuals could contact the researcher privately if they are interested. If recruiting in a large group, Extension professionals could provide an envelope to each person to return paperwork, whether or not they sign-up for the study.

Distinction Between the Program and Study

Often, Extension professionals are conducting research that evaluates the effectiveness of a particular program. Recruitment efforts need to emphasize that participation in the program is not tied to participation in the research study and that these are separate choices. For example, if recruitment takes place at the beginning of a program, it should be made clear to potential study participants that whether or not they choose to participate in the study will not affect their opportunities to continue in the program.

Training Recruiters on the Recruitment Process

If someone besides the Extension professional is doing the recruitment, such as program staff, the recruiter has to be trained according to approved procedures. It is important to refer to this training in an IRB protocol. If community members are recruiting, again, the Extension professional should make sure they are prepared or even have a script to read to potential participants.

Recruitment Approval from a Particular Entity

If Extension professionals are going to recruit potential participants for a study at or from a particular organization or agency, that entity needs to approve the recruitment. For example, if an Extension professional is recruiting potential participants from a community center, the center needs to approve this recruitment. It is typical to have a letter from an agency official that allows for this recruitment. The letter should accompany the IRB submission.

Language-Appropriate Materials

Recruitment material should contain language appropriate for the potential audience. This is particularly important for younger and more "at risk" audiences. For example, a flyer that is recruiting low-income youth should be simple enough for this potential audience to understand the purpose, procedures, and risks of the project.

Details, Details, Details

Finally, it is important to provide the IRB with very explicit detail as to what will happen when a potential participant is being recruited. For example, what will be said, who will say it, and when will it be said. If potential participants are going to be recruited via mail or through a flyer, Extension professionals should provide a recruitment letter and/or flyer. Or if recruitment takes place in person, they should provide a script of what will be said to a potential participant. When submitting an IRB protocol, Extension professionals should walk the IRB reviewers through exactly what will happen.

Conclusion

Addressing these issues will make for a better IRB submission and ultimately better quality research. Having sound and successful research will strengthen Extension professionals' move toward sharing our unique and important community-based work.

3D Visualization in Community-Based Planning

I-Shian Suen
Assistant Professor
isuen@iastate.edu

Timothy O. Borich
Associate Professor and Extension Specialist
borich@iastate.edu

Community and Regional Planning
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa

Introduction: GIS and Extension

The United States Department of Agriculture and its Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service already funds Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Extension education programs in a number of states and plans to expand this effort through the Geospatial Extension Specialists (GES) Program (CSREES, 2003). Programming for agriculture, youth, water quality, community development, and Extension administration has become more common (CSREES, 2003; Estrada & Steil, 1997).

The advancement and availability of GIS technology along with other analytical and modeling tools has been increasingly utilized in community planning and development, but the lack of integration and interactivity among these tools has dwarfed their combined potential. To bridge this gap, the Orton Family Foundation has put together an innovative set of tools for rural community planning called "CommunityViz" that integrates community modeling with GIS and enables users to envision alternatives for their community's future (The Orton Family Foundation, 2002).

3D Modeling Capability of CommunityViz

In the process of community planning, prognosticating the future and dealing with potential consequences has always been a challenge to planners, decision-makers, and stakeholders in a community. Community planning is often further complicated by competing interests groups divided by issues that span both space and time (Myers, 2001). CommunityViz provides tools through which residents and leaders alike can better envision the consequences of alternative plans and decisions. As described by the developers of CommunityViz 1.3, a brief introduction to the three integrated modules is provided here (The Orton Family Foundation, 2002: 2).

• "Scenario Constructor is a scenario analysis tool that provides the underlying framework for the alternative-comparison capabilities of CommunityViz. It also provides a rich set of quantitative impact analysis capabilities, offering the functionality of a 'spatial spreadsheet' that can perform numerical computations on geographic data in real time."

• "SiteBuilder 3D enables users to build photo-realistic, three-dimensional, interactive models of their land-use proposals. Once built, the models allow virtual 'fly-through' and exploration, giving users the ability to visualize land-use proposals and even change them in real time."

• "Policy Simulator uses agent-based modeling techniques to simulate likely future impacts of community planning proposals, providing planners with a view of likely economic and demographic outcomes years into the future."

These modules function as extensions to ArcView GIS and provide an extensive set of decision-support tools to help users analyze and visualize information about their community and make informed decisions.

Among the three modules of CommunityViz 1.3, SiteBuilder 3D enables the user to visualize and navigate the landscape in a virtual 3D environment. As shown in Figure 1, the scene was created with a base terrain generated from point features with elevation information. The base terrain was further textured using a satellite image. Buildings were extruded to their heights and textured with the provided 2D textures. Finally, 3D tree models were selected from the model library and placed onto the base terrain.

Figure 1.
A 3D Scene Created with SiteBuilder 3D

An Envisioning Project: Altoona's New City Center

The Iowa State University Extension Service in conjunction with the Department of Community and Regional Planning conducted a pilot project using CommunityViz to help the city of Altoona visualize its proposed comprehensive plan. The central theme of the Altoona comprehensive plan proposal is the transformation of its Eighth Street corridor into a downtown district that would give unique character to the city. Several alternatives were visualized, and the city decided to create a new city center in the downtown district.

The Altoona envisioning project began with a data needs study to identify the required data sets, their availability, and formats. These data sets include a digital elevation model (DEM), aerial photographs, site plans, street network, and so on. Next, the proposed new city center was created in a virtual three-dimensional digital model using the SiteBuilder 3D module (Figures 2 and 3).

Figure 2.
The 3D Model of Altoona's New City Center

Figure 3.
A Closer View of Altoona's New City Center

Real-time navigation in the 3D environment is also supported by SiteBuilder 3D. The user can control the motion mode, speed of movement, and eye point distance from the ground so she or he can virtually drive or walk around town or even fly over it with ease. A user-defined tour in the 3D environment can be created by putting together a series of control points that define the tour path. Tours can be recorded and saved as animation files in .avi format. The end result is the development of realistic visual models from which local decision makers can reach informed decisions.

Potential Applications in Extension

CommunityViz 1.3 is an invaluable decision-support tool that can be easily integrated into Extension programming. Its unique combination of spatial analysis, 3D visualization, and long-term forecasting capabilities greatly enhances the exploratory and predictive power for a community to plan alternative futures. CommunityViz is also an effective educational tool that encourages visionary and strategic thinking in the planning process.

In addition to its analytical capabilities, CommunityViz has great potential to facilitate consensus building, citizen participation, and proactive planning. Representation of a community's future can serve as an essential means for gaining agreement (Myers & Kitsuse, 2000) and uniting people toward common goals. To that end, CommunityViz provides a dynamic digital environment to enhance decision-making and community planning.

Conclusion

While this 3D Extension programming is in its development stages within Iowa, CommunityViz 1.3 appears to have a great potential as an educational and planning tool in the area of community resource development. It is an innovative software suite that enables the user to perform real-time decision analysis and exploration, interactive 3D visualization and navigation, and long-term policy outcome forecasting within the already popular ArcView GIS environment. Beyond data generation, it provides a visualization of the impacts of decisions useful to the general public and decision-makers alike. It is a tool that offers a more proactive approach for Extension to assist communities in envisioning and shaping their future environment through informed planning.

References

Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service. (2003). Geospatial Extension specialists program Web site: http://www.csrees.usda.gov/fo/fundview.cfm?fonum=1092

Estrada, J. K., & Steil J. R. (1997). Evaluating the effectiveness of adopting a GIS in the Extension Service: Evidence from the Cooperative Extension Service at Mississippi State University. Journal of Extension [On-line], 35(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997october/a1.html

Myers, D. (2001). Putting the future in planning. Journal of the American Planning Association, 67(4), 365-367.

Myers, D., & Kitsuse, A. (2000). Constructing the future in planning: A survey of theories and tools. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 19(3), 221-231.

The Orton Family Foundation. (2002). CommunityViz: Scenario Constructor Version 1.3 User Manual. Boulder, CO: CommunityViz.

Total Resource Management: A Successful Professional Development Program

William E. Fox
Extension Range Associate
College Station, Texas
w-fox@tamu.edu

Bruce Carpenter
Associate Professor and Extension Livestock Specialist
Ft. Stockton, Texas
b-carpenter@tamu.edu

Texas Cooperative Extension

Introduction

Traditional approaches for Extension programming in natural resource management have tended to be reductionist in nature. Many traditional educational materials/topics are subject specific and have limited integration to provide an overall view of natural resource management.

The Total Resource Management Professional Development Program was designed and developed to provide educational outreach to natural resource management professionals from a "holistic" approach. The program provides an opportunity to gain knowledge through participation in cross-discipline activities that focus on integrating ecological, economic, and socio-political aspects into a strategic management process of planning and decision-making.

Renewable natural resource sustainability is dependent upon managing all resources to achieve healthy functioning ecosystems and financial survival of the landowner. Success depends upon the ability of the manager to manage and utilize all resources to meet personal goals and those of society. Through the development of professional training programs, the Texas Cooperative Extension along with its partners, Natural Resource Conservation Service and Texas Parks & Wildlife Department, have implemented a program that will increase educational outreach for natural resource management from a "holistic" approach.

Methods

Participation and cooperation of inter-disciplinary and inter-agency representatives in the planning, development, and implementation of the Total Resource Management Program was critical to a successful program. Therefore, through steering and advisory committee input, the program was developed by a multi-discipline team to address the multiple needs of training for Total Resource Management. The Steering Committee and Advisory Committee were made up of a diverse group of professionals including:

• Texas Cooperative Extension
• Natural Resource Conservation Service
• Texas Parks and Wildlife
• Private Landowners
• Rangeland Consultants

Participatory learning is the key approach to the development of the workshop series. It is understood that the interaction between natural resource managers would strengthen the learning experience and provide for a more "holistic" learning experience. Workshop participants were drawn from a diverse audience and asked to team up with others, not necessarily from their own agency. This allows for learning from different perspectives that each agency brings to the management of the natural resource base. Participants represented multiple agencies from three states:

• Texas Cooperative Extension (Specialist & County Agents)
• Texas Parks & Wildlife (Regional Director -- District Wildlife Biologists)
• Natural Resource Conservation Service (Regional -- Field Office from Texas, Oklahoma and Louisiana)
• Texas General Land Office
• United States Fish & Wildlife Service
• Southern Region Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education Program
• Noble Foundation (NGO)

The diversity of the participants provided for a greater learning experience through the participatory learning approach.

Participants were tested through a post-/pre-test that asked them to compare their understanding of topics prior to the workshop and after the workshop. For all topics, there was an increase in knowledge gained. Figure 1 illustrates the results.

Figure 1.
Cumulative Results of Participant Knowledge Increase for TRM Workshop Series

Discussion

The conservation of the nations' renewable natural resources ultimately is dependent upon the values that society places on their functions and processes. Therefore, it is not possible to separate the societal influences from the purely ecological or economic. This integration of ecological, economic, and socio-political concepts is the cornerstone of the Total Resource Management approach.

Through the use of strategic management concepts centered upon the strategic planning process, TRM provides educational programs that integrate multi-level planning to provide a tool for rangeland managers to use in the decision-making process.

The initial focus of the "Total Ranch Management" program was geared towards individual landowners as the target audience. In the first 4 years, the original team of educators worked with over 200 families and county Extension agents to provide detailed instruction. As is often the case, the extent of the individual contact usually stopped at the ranch gate.

With the resurgence of the Total Resource Management, a new approach was developed that focused on the "assistance agent" as the primary target audience. The concept was that the "assistant agent" can gain the instruction from the program and carry that knowledge to the individual clientele in their respective locations. This approach provides for development of a "snowball" effect that can potentially expand the educational experience beyond that which could be affected by one team of instructors.

Participants are encouraged to develop their own Total Resource Management programs at the county or regional area and then draw upon their knowledge as well as input and information from the core instruction team to expand the audience. This provides for a more localized application of concepts thus bringing it closer to home for those who participate.

Conclusion

To date, 74 "assistance agents" have participated in the TRM program in Texas. As indicated, the program provides for not only professional development of the participant, but also the professional interaction of natural resource management professionals. The current program is a 2-year pilot of the TRM approach, and with its successful completion, the objective is to increase the influence of the program beyond the boundaries of Texas and into the training regimes of agencies that effect the management of the nations' natural resource systems.

Total Resource Management is applicable in multiple facets of natural resource management as well as business and family management. The concepts of strategic planning provide a foundation for decision-making that can be of value to all who choose to plan rather than be planned for!

Why Should 4-H Horse and Pony Youth Wear Certified Equestrian Helmets?

Katherine McKee
Graduate Assistant
kmckee@purdue.edu

Colleen Brady
Extension Specialist
bradyc@purdue.edu

Department of Youth Development and Agricultural Education
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana

Introduction

As more state 4-H programs across the country require members to wear helmets whenever mounted, the question of why youth are being required to wear helmets becomes more important. A survey was administered to the participants of the 2003 Indiana 4-H Horsemanship Camp to determine their feelings about helmets and their use patterns. Only 49.46% of youth surveyed believed that a helmet made them safer when mounted. This article provides a resource for adults to use in explaining why so many programs encourage or require helmet use.

Equestrian Injuries

Fifty-four percent of riding injuries occurred when riders were mounted performing non-jumping activities, and 21.1% of riders reported head injuries as a result of riding accidents. In fact, 31.1% of all riding injuries reported are to the head and face (Nelson, Rivara, Condie, & Smith, 1994; Whitlock, 1999). Nelson, Rivara, and Condie (1994) found that riders who sustained head injuries wear helmets infrequently and that the number of years riding, riding style, and gender do not have significant effects on injury rate, while Paix (1999) found that injury rates increased when level of competition increased.

The unpredictable nature of the horse, the speed at which a horse travels, and the rider's distance from the ground--up to three meters--combine to put equestrians at higher risk for serious injury than participants in automobile and motorcycle racing (Watt & Finch, 1996; Paix, 1999). The human skull can be shattered at 7-10 kilometers per hour, which means that a fall from a trotting horse can shatter the skull (HorseQuest.com, 2000). Watt and Finch (1996) reported that the majority of serious equestrian injuries and deaths involve head injuries and that the age group reporting the greatest number of injuries is 10-19 year olds. Most 4-H members fall in to the 10-19-age category.

Head injuries occur most frequently in riders who are 21 years of age or younger, and the use of an approved helmet has been shown to reduce the rate of injury. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that young riders be supervised when riding and be required to wear an ASTM/SEI-certified helmet with the chins strap attached (Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness, 1992). Riders who are unsupervised probably have the highest risk of injury because their actions while mounted are not regulated (Watt & Finch, 1996).

Head Injuries

Head injury information is important to equestrians because the most common reason for equestrian death or admittance to hospitals is head injury (HorseQuest.com, 2000). Most brain injuries are minor. But brain trauma has a cumulative effect, and the results of brain injuries range from shortened attention spans to vegetative states and death, depending on the severity of each individual injury and the number and timing of previous injuries (Family Caregiver Alliance, 1997; Merck, 1995). Second impact syndrome affects junior and senior high school age athletes at a higher rate than athletes in other age groups, once again showing that 4-H youth are in a high risk category for serious injury (McCrory & Berkovic, 1998).

Equestrian Helmets

Most serious head injuries can be prevented with the use of an ASTM/SEI-certified, properly fitting, equestrian helmet with the chin strap fastened (HorseQuest.com, 2000). Yet only 20% of equestrians use an approved helmet every time they ride (Cirelli, Cloud, Chvilicek, & Magnum, 2000). Since The United States Pony Club made helmet use mandatory in 1983, their head injury rate has fallen 29% (HorseQuest.com, 2000). ASTM/SEI-certified helmets will decrease equestrian deaths and serious head injuries if used properly (Lamb, 2001). Not wearing a helmet, wearing a helmet that is inadequate or improperly fitted are factors associated with most riding injuries (Watt & Finch, 1996).

Helmets protect the skull in two different ways. First, they protect the head from the crushing force of the fall by having a stiff outer shell. Second, they absorb energy to reduce the force on the skull and brain (HorseQuest.com, 1999). In order to be approved by the ASTM, helmets must pass a series of crush tests and penetration tests (HorseQuest.com, 1999).

Although there has been an increase in the number of people riding in the last 20 years and an increase in most types of injuries due to riding, Chitnavis, Gibbons, Hirigoyen, Parry, & Simpson (1996) found a significant decrease in the number of skull fractures. Chitnavis et al. (1996) attribute this decrease to the increased use of and improved quality of equestrian safety helmets. It is important to realize that equestrian helmets--ASTM F-1163--are different from bicycle helmets in a variety of ways that make bicycle helmets inadequate protection for equestrian (BC Medical Association).

The American Academy of Pediatrics stated that young riders should wear helmets that meet ASTM and SEI standards and that organizations promoting or sanctioning riding events should require the use of helmets (Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness, 1992). Lamb (2001) stated that Cooperative Extension Services should take the responsibility for educating people about the risks involved in equestrian sports and the proper use of helmets.

Conclusion

It is important that Extension staff and leaders help participants in their horse and pony clubs understand the real reason behind helmet use, protection and safety of our youth. Passing off the reason as a "decrease in liability" promotes an attitude of "only when I have to" toward helmet use. We need to help educate our youth and their parents to understand that helmets are a necessary part of safe equestrian activity and that youth should wear helmets whenever they ride, not only when our rules require it.

References

BC Medical Association. Equestrian helmet fact sheet. Retrieved September 17, 2003 from http://www.horsecouncilbcsite.com/brochures/brochures-00-mainpage.html

Chitnavis, J. P., Gibbons, C. L. M. H., Hirigoyen, M., Parry, J. L., & Simpson, A. H. R. W. (1996). Accidents with horses: What has changed in 20 years?. Injury, 27(2), 103-105.

Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness. (1992). Horseback riding and head injuries. American Academy of Pediatrics.

Family Caregiver Alliance. (1997). Traumatic brain injury. Retrieved September 17, 2003, from http://www.caregiver.org/caregiver/jsp/content_node.jsp?nodeid=579

HorseQuest.com. (2000). Equestrian helmet fact sheet. Retrieved December 8, 2003 from http://www.horsequest.com/journal/articles/helmet2.htm

HorseQuest.com. (1999). Equestrian helmet safety test scores. Retrieved July 8, 2003 from http://www.horsequest.com/journal/educate/helmet.html

Lamb, C. (2001). Equestrian helmet use in national 4-H programs. NARHA news, 14(1).

Merck. (1995). Trauma of the head. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. Retrieved September 17, 2003, from http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/section14/chapter175/175a.htm

McCrory, R., & Berkovic, S. F. (1998). Second impact syndrome. Neurology, 50, 677-683.

Nelson, D. E., Rivara, F. P., & Condie, C. (1994). Helmets and horseback riders. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 10(1), 15-19.

Nelson, D. E., Rivara, F. P., Condie, C., & Smith, S. M. (1994). Injuries in equestrian sports. Physician and Sports Medicine, 22(10), 53-62.

Paix, B. R. (1999). Rider injury rates and emergency medical services at equestrian events. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 33(1), 46-48.

Watt, G. M., & Finch, C. F. (1996). Preventing equestrian injuries: Locking the stable door. Sports Medicine, 22(3) 187-197.

Whitlock, M. R. (1999). Injuries to riders in cross country phase of eventing: The importance of protective equipment. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 33(3), 212-214.

The Self-Guided Horse Facility Analysis: A Proactive Safety Education Tool for Equine Facilities

Elizabeth A. Greene
Associate Professor and Extension Equine Specialist
Betsy.Greene@uvm.edu

Josephine F. Trott
Post Doctoral Associate
jtrott@uvm.edu

University of Vermont
Burlington, Vermont

Introduction

There are inherent dangers associated with equine activities, as documented by the fact that 44 states have equine limited liability statutes. These statutes protect horse people from frivolous lawsuits if there is no negligence involved. However, many equine professionals and amateurs put themselves and/or their clientele at unnecessary risk in their barns and facilities while working with horses. This article examines some causative factors for accidents and potential solutions for helping horse people to become more safety conscious.

Faulty Assumptions

Accidents happen when people make false assumptions about the risks involved in working with and around horses. Often these false assumptions are inherited by each incoming group of new horseback riders and instructors. Six major assumptions that prevent people from taking adequate and necessary safety precautions in their everyday riding program include the following.

1. My facilities are very safe.
2. Others that are not careful have accidents . . . not me.
3. My school horses are "bomb-proof" and very dependable.
4. I will be able to react quick enough to prevent an accident in the arena.
5. My horses will take care of the beginner riders.
6. Falling off is a necessary part of learning to ride.

Professionals allow themselves to believe these myths because these assumptions appear to hold true in most equine facilities, most of the time.

Often, equine professionals get accustomed to working within or around the shortcomings of their facilities and do not realize that these inherent dangers are not obvious to inexperienced people. For example, a beginner might not realize that horses may spook at equipment in the barn aisle or that a specific horse does not stand in the cross ties.

Professionals often allow themselves to believe that their program is safe since they have never had a serious accident. Sometimes, if they have not experienced an accident, they cannot conceive either the possibility or the potential devastation associated with a serious injury or death.

In the arena, good lesson horses will often adapt to the riding skills of their riders and are tolerant of incorrect or rough aids from beginners. Horses attain the title of a "school horse" through being predictable and dependable most of the time, supporting the apparent plausibility that school horses will never hurt or will even protect the rider.

"Old school" instructors may gauge the rider's level of experience by the number of times the rider has fallen off, even stating that the falls will increase the "toughness" of the rider, rather than acknowledge the unsafe situation that may have caused the fall.

Finally, some instructors believe that keeping their clientele ignorant of the dangers involved will protect them from lawsuits.

The Truth Behind the Myths

In reality, dangers do exist in the riding programs of even the most competent professionals. Many safety-conscious people have been in or exposed to a serious accident in the sport and focus on safety because of that experience. Based on the results of barns evaluated using the Self-Guided Barn Safety Analysis booklet, most equine facilities have areas that are unsafe, regardless of the care taken in designing for safety. Extension professionals have the opportunity to intervene prior to an avoidable injury.

Problems can vary from the actual structure or set up of the barn/arena, to the behavior and/or habits of the participants. For example, dependable school horses do exactly what they are expected to do most of the time, but in the case of an unexpected perceived danger, noise, or distraction, the natural instincts (fight or flight) of the horse will override the training.

Unfortunately, some equine professionals will rely on the "ignorance is bliss" theory and fail to warn clientele of inherent dangers associated with their facilities or horses. Any professional is expected to provide a safe environment and adequate warning of the risks involved working with and around horses. If the professional had previous knowledge of safety issues and chose not to address them, it would be classified as negligence by the court. There is enough documentation in the courts where the stable or instructor has been found to be negligent at some level and therefore responsible for an injury or death, to show that avoidance won't work.

An Ounce of Prevention

The Self-Guided Horse Facility Analysis is designed to help stable owners or users evaluate the risks at facilities and prevent accidents involving themselves, clientele, visitors, and horses at their barn. This easy-to-use booklet provides a proactive, educational tool that will alert barn owners and users to dangerous environments or procedures. Using checklists and supporting information to identify problems, it enables users to improve the safety of their facility through either structural or procedural changes. By helping people identify high-risk areas and the potential liability that exists, this tool may decrease the exposure of equine enthusiasts to accident or injury through education.

Ideally, this tool will be used to educate incoming amateurs, professionals, and youth involved with horses. It has been endorsed by the American Medical Equestrian Association/Safe Riders Foundation, and the United States Eventing Association has used it in their national Instructor Certification Program. The booklet is available through UVM Extension by contacting the first author.

Bringing People with Common Interests Together at a Trade Show

Mohamed F. R. Khan
Extension Sugarbeet Specialist
North Dakota State University & University of Minnesota
Fargo, North Dakota
mkhan@ndsuext.nodak.edu

Introduction

In the 1950s, Paul Wagner, an agent for the railroads, made this comment:

The beet farmers of the Red River Valley are the most active grower group between Minnesota and the west coast. This Red River Valley gang includes the best farmer-managers in the region. Their leadership could result in several more factories in Minnesota and North Dakota in the next 20 years. These farmers have the kind of stuff it takes to turn the ailing sugarbeet industry in the United States around--they could own and operate their own factories" (Youngquist, 1989).

Wagner's words became reality. Sugarbeet production in the bi-state area increased from 114,165 acres in 1957 (Youngquist, 1989) to over 730,000 in 2003 (Anon., 2004). Four sugar factories were constructed, and starting a trend in 1973, sugarbeet growers purchased and successfully managed all sugar factories in Minnesota and North Dakota.

History of the ISBI

The International Sugarbeet Institute (ISBI) started in 1963 as educational seminars on sugarbeet production and was part of the Red River Valley Winter Show. In 1969, the program was named the Red River Valley Sugarbeet Institute to reflect that machinery, equipment and other allied services were demonstrated at the trade show. In 1986, to recognize the participation of sugarbeet growers of Canada, the program was named The International Sugarbeet Institute. Initially, the ISBI was held 1 day each at the Fair Grounds in Fargo, North Dakota, and the 80,000 square feet National Guard Armory at Crookston, Minnesota. Since 2002, the ISBI has alternated annually between the Fargodome in Fargo, North Dakota, and the Alerus Center in Grand Forks, Minnesota.

Objective and Focus of the ISBI

The ISBI was initiated to provide a forum whereby growers and all allied industry services representatives can meet face-to-face over 2 days to discuss issues of mutual interests. Growers have the opportunity to compare machinery, equipment, and service providers. Growers informed service providers of their particular needs and any special requirements. New machinery, equipment, services, and innovations are introduced to growers at the ISBI.

The ISBI focuses on improving sugarbeet production. Consequently, only machinery, equipment, and services directly related to sugarbeet production are showcased at the event. The exposition receives great coverage in major sugarbeet magazines and agriculture newsletters. About 3,000 to 4,000 growers and allied industry personnel participate annually in the event, where about 130 exhibitors showcase more than $3 M worth of machinery and equipment, and the entire spectrum of services provided for sugarbeet production. The Fargodome and the Alerus center, each with 100,000 square of display space, provide excellent trade show facilities. The timing of the show in March is ideal for invited motivational and inspirational speakers who put growers in a positive mood to start the growing season.

Management of the ISBI

The ISBI is a non-profit organization. Exhibitors pay a small fee to cover the expenses of renting the facility and other necessary services. Volunteers managed the affairs of the ISBI. The broad-based management committee comprised of representatives from the following:

• Growers and management of the three sugar cooperatives in the bi-state area
• Exhibitors,
• North Dakota State University and University of Minnesota Extension Services,
• Northwest Research and Outreach Center, University of Minnesota, and
• Red River Valley Sugarbeet Grower Association.

The committee has successfully managed the ISBI over the past 40 years.

Discussion

The ISBI serves as a unique educational tool for bringing together sugarbeet growers and allied industry representatives who share and exchanged ideas and discuss new production practices, new technology, industry plans, and goals. Prominent leaders and policy makers are invited to inform participants of current issues affecting growers and agriculture. The interaction and education of policy makers and growers have resulted in strong national support for the sugar industry.

The Grower Idea Contest is a common feature at the ISBI. The contest serves to rapidly share new, grower-developed ways to conduct common practices among growers of the entire industry. Alan Dexter, a 35-year veteran of the ISBI committee, once stated that the ISBI "served as a catalyst for improvement of the sugarbeet industry" (Youngquist, 1989).

The ISBI has been nurtured over the past 40 years and become the largest and most successful sugarbeet trade show in the world. The success of the ISBI can be gauged by the participation, over decades, of growers and representatives of all segments of the sugarbeet industry. The unselfish contribution of the ISBI committee that plans and manages for all eventualities has played a significant role in making the ISBI a success.

Lessons Learned

• People are willing to volunteer their time, energy, and talent for a good cause.

• The management committee has been successful because it is comprised of representatives from all groups that participate in the event.

• The management committee works as a team for the sole purpose of making the ISBI successful.

• Participants return year after year because the program has been developed to attract their interest.

• Face-to-face discussions and meetings have led to the development and adoption of many innovations that contribute to the economic viability of the sugarbeet industry.

Usefulness of Trade Shows

• Trade shows like the International Sugarbeet Institute bring together a large number of people of similar interests together at one location.

• Trade shows provide a great opportunity for Extension educators to solicit views and inputs on particular issues, topics, or programs that affect the participants.

• Extension educators could use the opportunity to implement new programs or provide updates on topics or areas that would be of interest to the attendees.

• Trade shows provide an excellent venue for participants, including Extension educators, to renew old acquaintances and develop new relationships.

• Most trade shows get great media coverage. Extension educators could use the media to highlight specific programs and influence policy makers.

References

Anonymous. (2000). Sugar and sweetener situation and outlook yearbook. Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, May 2000, SSS-228.

Youngquist, B. E. (1989). International Sugarbeet Institute, 1963-1989. University of Minnesota.

Soil Aggregation: A Practical Exercise for Crop Producer Education

Charles S. Wortmann
Nutrient Management Extension Specialist
University of Nebraska
cwortmann2@unl.edu

S. Corey Brubaker
Resource Conservationist
Natural Resource Conservation Service
corey.brubaker@ne.usda.gov

Crop growth is often constrained by poor root development, by slow water infiltration and water movement through the soil, and by poor soil aeration. These constraints are often associated with poor soil porosity. Soil aggregation is important to developing and maintaining good soil porosity and hence to good root growth and to movement of soil water and gases. With more soil in water stable aggregates, it is expected that:

• The rate of water infiltration and percolation will increase
• Soil crusting will be less;
• Resistance to the splash effect of raindrops will increase and soil erodibility will decrease; and
• Runoff will decrease, making more water available to the crop.

The importance of soil physical properties to crop growth, including soil aggregation properties, is often under-estimated by producers, and practical exercises can be useful in conveying information on the importance of these properties.

Soil wet aggregate stability is determined as an estimate of the proportion of soil in aggregates that are stable against flowing water. Measuring wet aggregate stability for research purposes requires much equipment and time. Even some simpler tests developed for teaching (Patton, Burras, Konen, & Molstad, 2001) and for soil quality testing (USDA, 2001) need more equipment and time than is generally available in a field-based teaching event for crop producers.

The test of wet aggregate stability described here requires little cost and equipment and can be used in a practical exercise requiring only about 10 minutes of teaching time. We have found the test to be useful in teaching about how soil physical properties are affected by tillage, by land use, by sodium absorption ratio, and by clay content. We did not find it to be sensitive enough to demonstrate effects of manure application on soil aggregate stability.

The test is easily mastered by producers, and it is a test that they can use in their own fields in the diagnosis of the physical condition of the soil and in monitoring changes in aggregate stability with time or with change in management practices. The soil wet aggregate stability test is therefore valuable in conducting hands-on exercises when teaching producers about soil physical properties but has the added value of being a test that producers can apply in their own fields to diagnose problems, make comparisons, or monitor trends.

Learning Objectives

After completing the practical exercise, producers will:

1. Understand how soil aggregate stability is affected by one or more soil properties or management factors such as land use, tillage practices, soil texture, and sodium absorption ratio; and

2. Be able to apply the wet aggregate stability test in their fields to diagnose problems or to monitor effects of management practices on soil aggregate stability.

Procedure

The required materials for a practical exercise are easily available and inexpensive (Table 1). 

The exercise is conducted as follows.

1. Label one (more if replicated) cup and a paper towel for each sample.
2. Arrange cups and towels on trays.
3. Fill cups to near brimful with water.
4. Place approximately 15 g (1/16 cup or just over a tablespoon) of soil into a tea strainer.
5. Touch the bottom of the tea strainer to the surface of the water in the cup until the soil is moist.
6. Submerge the soil in strainers in the cups of water 20 times at about 2 seconds per cycle. Members of the class normally participate actively in steps 5 to 8.
7. Carefully dump the wet soil on the paper towel.
8. Observe the quantity and shape (degree of slumping) of the wet soil mass, and the presence of soil aggregates. The soil mass should be greater with less slumping and with more visible aggregates with greater aggregate stability.
9. Allow the sediment to settle in the transparent cups for 10-15 minutes and observe the soil load.
10. Decant most of the water from each cup and transfer the remaining water with sediment into 50 ml graduated cylinders. Use squeeze bottle to wash out the sediment.
11. Allow the sediment to settle again and observe sediment depth in the graduated cylinders.

Begin the exercise early in the session with the intention of returning to it twice following sedimentation intervals. First, complete steps 1 to 8, and then go on to cover other material for approximately 15 minutes while sedimentation occurs in the cups.  Then, do steps 9 and 10, which are again followed by about 15 minutes of sedimentation in the graduated cylinders. Finally, sediment depth in the cylinders is determined.

The implications of the results of the practical exercise are generally immediately obvious to producers, creating an opportunity for further discussion of the important of aggregate stability and factors that affect it.

References

Patton, J., Burras L., Konen, M., & Molstad, M. (2001). An accurate and inexpensive apparatus and method for teaching and measuring stable aggregate content of soils. Journal Natural Resources and Life Science Education 30:84-88.

USDA (2001). Soil quality test kit guide. Soil Quality Institute, ARS-NRCS-USDA.

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