December 2004
Volume 42 Number 6

Research in Brief

Association of Natural Resource Extension Professionals Membership Survey: Results and Implications

Ben Jackson
Professor and Timber Harvesting Extension Specialist
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
bjack@uga.edu

Bill Hubbard
Southern Regional Extension Forester
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
whubbard@uga.edu

Mindy Habecker
Natural Resources/Community Development Extension Educator
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin
habecker@co.dane.wi.us

Mike Kroenke
Lake Superior Basin Educator
University of Wisconsin
Ashland, Wisconsin
mike.kroenke@ces.uwex.edu

Mike Reichenbach
Extension Educator
University of Minnesota
Cloquet, Minnesota
reich027@umn.edu

Viviane Simon-Brown
Sustainable Living Educator
Oregon State University Forestry Extension
Corvallis, Oregon
viviane.simon-brown@orst.edu

Sarah Traaholt
Extension Educator
University of Wisconsin
Ashland, Wisconsin
sarah.traaholt@ces.uwex.edu

Introduction

The Association of Natural Resource Extension Professionals (ANREP) is a national organization for Cooperative Extension Service (CES) professionals working in environmental education, fisheries, forestry, wood sciences, range, recreation, waste management, water, wildlife, and related disciplines. As a member of the Joint Council of Extension Professionals (JCEP), ANREP promotes communication, cooperation, and professionalism among Extension professional organizations, the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy's (ECOP) Personnel and Organizational Development Committee, and the United States Department of Agriculture - Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (USDA-CSREES) in general. The association's objectives are to:

• Bring Extension professionals together to discuss mutual natural resource issues, needs, and opportunities;

• Advance natural resource Extension through continuing education for Extension professionals;

• Promote cooperation among states and regions, agencies, associations, and businesses on natural resource education programs;

• Develop, sponsor, and promote education and training that advance natural resource management; and

• Strengthen communication with Extension administrators.

Since the organization's establishment in 1994, ANREP's officers had been concerned with determining how best to meet member needs. A survey was designed to provide for membership input into the strategic planning process. When the surveys were sent out, members were told of this planning process and that their survey input would help determine the organization's future direction. An ad hoc Survey Committee developed and issued a mail-out and follow-up electronic opinion survey to all members. Returned surveys were collected and results compiled. Summary information from the returned surveys is presented here.

The approach used in the survey may prove beneficial to other Extension organizations and associations as they attempt to involve their members in their strategic planning process. The specific questions asked also could have relevance to other Extension groups because much of what was asked represents issues common to all Extension organizations.

Procedure

A 19-question survey was mailed and later e-mailed to all ANREP members in May and August, 2001, respectively. Members were urged in the August e-mail correspondence not to complete and return the electronic form if they had already submitted the mail-out form. Completed survey information was entered into and analyzed using Microsoft Access and Excel. Answers to questions that could be summarized numerically were subjected to simple statistical analyses, i.e., percent of total response and ranking and ordering.

Questions where respondents were asked to provide textual statements were more difficult to analyze. In an effort to group responses, keywords that represented common responses were chosen and used for the grouping of comments. After grouping, the percentage of total responses per keyword for each question was determined. Finally, the general summarization of the comments by keywords formed the foundations for conclusions reached for each question. Results were grouped and analyzed into seven different categories. This procedure allowed for interpretations of the findings where overlap on common issues were addressed by different questions. (Jackson, Greene, & Baxter, 1993)

Results

Eighty-four respondents or 38% of the total membership completed and returned the surveys. The majority of the completed returned surveys came from the May mail-out effort Respondents were not asked to provide their name so there was no absolute assurance that members did not submit two surveys. However, with this possibility in mind, all of the surveys were examined question-by-question for duplication. There were none.

Demographics

All respondents answered the question about the state where they were employed. The 28 states represented were spread over all four geographic regions in which ANREP is organized. The Western and North Central regions each had 32% of the respondents, while the Southern region accounted for 23%, and the Northeast contributed 13%.

When asked about program emphasis, all responded, with the single largest group (39%) indicating they were in forestry or had some forestry components in their program. Twenty-three percent listed natural resources as their emphasis. Water resources was the next highest at 14%, but when combined with water quality and watershed management, the number rose to 21% . Environmental education represented 13%, followed by wildlife and range/livestock at 8% each and community development/growth management at 5% . Fisheries, 4H and youth, renewable resources, agriculture, bioenergy, public issues and sustainability, invasive plants, program development and evaluation, land use, leadership development, soil quality, Christmas trees, economics/marketing, nutrient management, wood products, pesticide management, woodland prairie and farmland, urban forestry, outdoor education, solid and hazardous waste, public policy, and agroforestry all received at least one response.

Forty-three percent of the respondents had statewide Extension programming responsibility. Twenty-five percent were county-based, and another 19% had multi-county duties. Four percent were involved in regional or multi-state activities, while 6% had state or federal administrative assignments. As for time in Extension, the range was zero to 30 years, with the mean being 12.6 years. The most frequent response (mode) was 7 years. Concerning respondents' appointment, 76% full-time Extension, but the average was 90.7%. ANREP membership ranged from less than 1 year to 8 years, with the mean being 2.7 years. The results demonstrate a broad range of Extension experience and programming responsibility. Therefore, the data was subdivided and analyzed by specific programming, tenure or appointment groups.

Reasons for Joining ANREP

Because ANREP is new and there are other organizations that an Extension professional might join, it was valuable to determine why individuals would join ANREP. One of the most frequent answers was that there was a need for such an organization (Table 1) because ANREP is the only national professional organization that focuses completely on natural resource issues. The other top response centered on the need to network or connect with others in the natural resources programming area.

Conferences and Workshops

One question concerned respondents' attendance at any ANREP regional events or national conferences. Sixty-four percent of the 81 responding said yes, and 96% of them said they would like to attend more of these events in the future. Respondents also were given an opportunity to identify ways these events could be improved to meet their needs. Table 2 contains the grouped responses. Over one-forth were satisfied with the events as they were. Cost, location, and timing were the primary issues of concern, while the other suggestions for improvement focused on subject matter content and relevance to the respondent's particular interest.

Benefits Derived from ANREP

When asked to identify the benefits respondents liked best about being a member of ANREP, they selected the opportunity for networking most often. Almost as many said they had nothing offer primarily because they were not sure yet of the benefits they would derive. Attending meetings and conferences and greater awareness of new developments scored highly also. Of the responses offered, professional development and the opportunity to present papers at meetings ranked least often.

Overall, fewer responses were forthcoming for the question about what benefits do respondents receive from ANREP that they may not receive elsewhere. Networking and information sharing again were at the top of the list. Several respondents felt that it was still too early for them to determine a unique benefit they had received from ANREP.

Participants were asked to rate the importance of five specific ANREP functions as determined by the ANREP Board. The scale was 1 to 5 (highest). "Informal opportunity to network and connect with natural resource colleagues regionally & nationally" scored highest, with a mean of 4.31, followed closely by "Professional development opportunities and opportunities to share work at national conferences" at 4.10. "Communications (listservs, newsletter, webpage)" rated a 3.83. "Opportunity to nominate and receive national awards and recognition" and "Political action activities like JCEP and PILD (Public Policy Leadership Development)" were valued at 3.14 and 3.12, respectively.

Issues ANREP Might Address

Respondents were asked to rate the importance 14 specific issues that ANREP might consider addressing. These issues were determined by the ANREP Board members from their experiential knowledge about topics of concern to Extension professionals. A rating of "1" was the highest rank per issue. They ranked training and professional improvement opportunities first, followed by identification of national level natural resource issues and strategies to address them and assist with interstate. Pay scale and job security were rated as low priorities, along with write-in issues like international opportunities and the creation of state-level natural resources program leadership positions.

Under the "Increased training opportunities" issue, respondents were able to check eight specific opportunities, determined by the ANREP Board, that they felt applied to them. They could check more than one opportunity. Natural resources issues education ranked first with 58 respondents.

For the "National/Regional NR" issues, there were 27 write-in responses. Water issues alone made up 41% of the total. The others were: land use planning, urban interface, fragmentation, invasive species, minority ownership, certification, over-consumption, youth environmental education, and wildlife habitat. Under "Global Natural Resource" issues there were 24 responses equally distributed among: water, global warming, sustainability, population growth, environmental, and others

One open-ended question asked what ANREP can do to better meet members needs as natural resource Extension Professionals. There were few responses, but posting new programs and awareness of funding opportunities and political strength had a slight edge over the other responses.

Committees

When asked to serve on an ANREP committee or serve on the ANREP board in the future, 80% (67) responded. Forty-nine percent said yes, 39% said no, and 12% said maybe. When asked about adding or deleting committees, the response rate was low (35% ). Eighty-six percent of those responding recommended no changes. One recommendation for a new committee was an Issues Committee whose purpose would allow members to submit issues for review, research, and recommend action to the Executive Committee. A second recommended addition was to have a committee on relationships with other organizations/agencies outside Extension (e.g., state foresters, USFS, fish & game).

Satisfaction with ANREP

On a scale of "1" through "5" (most satisfied), members were asked to rate their satisfaction with the work that ANREP has done since they became a member. Sixty-nine respondents or 82% answered this question. The range was from "1" (lowest level of satisfaction) to "5" (highest), with the mean of 3.9. No one rated the organization below a "3," meaning that none of the respondents were completely dissatisfied with ANREP.

Conclusions

The results show an organization that is generally meeting the needs of its membership. Individuals joined ANREP because they personally deal with natural resource issues and there was no organization within Extension to satisfy their networking and professional development needs. ANREP's biannual conferences, communication tools, awards programs, and political/legislative opportunities were among the activities and programs highlighted by members as being useful. More effort by the leadership to communicate new programs and encourage committee involvement was suggested as an opportunity for improvement.

The survey was a valuable tool for engaging the membership in the leadership of the organization. It served the purpose of letting members know that the Executive Board was interested in their thoughts and opinions. It gave the current and upcoming leadership of the organization an idea of how well they are meeting the needs of members. It also aided the foundation for a strategic planning committee that was formed in 2003.

ANREP's membership and scope continues to increase rapidly. Membership as of November 2002 was approaching 400. These survey results and the results of the strategic planning effort will be used to guide the Association for the next 3 to 5 years.

Respondents overwhelmingly felt that being a member of ANREP was important because it provided an avenue to network with other Extension natural resource professionals on a national level. Respondents stated that ANREP is the only national natural resource Extension professional association in the United States with an exclusive focus on natural resource issues. The association provided an avenue to learn from others in a similar field. The respondents felt that there is a national Extension "home" for their natural resource programmatic emphasis, whereas they may not have felt that there was such an opportunity in the past.

Overall, the respondents were pleased with the association as a whole and expressed interest in attending more national and regional workshops and programs. Natural resources issues education, evaluation and educational techniques, targeting specific audiences, people/communication skills, and grant writing ranked high for future training opportunities. Water issues made up 41% of the national issues identified as priorities. Also listed were land use planning, urban interface, fragmentation, invasive species, minority ownership, certification, over-consumption, environmental education, and wildlife habitat. Water, global warming, sustainability, population growth, and environmental were listed as global natural resource Issues of concern.

The specific questions asked in this survey could have relevance to other Extension groups because much of what was asked represents issues common to all Extension organizations. The methodology may prove beneficial to other Extension organizations and associations as they attempt to involve their members in their future strategic planning.

Reference

Jackson, B. D., Greene, W. D., & Baxter, M. L. 1993. Local regulation of timber harvesting and trucking in Georgia. So. J. Appl. For. 17(4):200-206.

Survey of Extension Professionals' Skill Levels Needed to Practice Public Issues Education

Loretta Singletary
Extension Educator
University of Nevada Cooperative Extension
University of Nevada, Reno
Yerington, Nevada
singletaryl@unce.unr.edu

Marilyn Smith
Area Specialist
University of Nevada Cooperative Extension
University of Nevada, Reno
Elko, Nevada
smithm@unce.unr.edu

George Hill
Associate Professor
University of Nevada, Reno
Reno, Nevada
gchill@unr.edu

Patrick Corcoran
Community Development Specialist
Clatsop County Extension Service
Astoria, Oregon
Patrick.Corcoran@orst.edu

Introduction

Public Issues Education provides Extension professionals with a structured approach to educate and assist citizens in addressing complex and controversial issues. Past issues of the Journal of Extension have addressed Extension's challenges, opportunities, and emerging roles in the Public Issues Education arena (Corp & Darnell, 2002; Patton & Blaine, 2001; Longo & Dresbach, 2001; Frederick, 1998; Schumacher & Lloyd, 1997; Cooley, 1994; Bolen, 1993; Boyle & Mulcahy, 1993; Carpenter, 1993; Goodwin, 1993). A gap in the literature, however, concerns specific skills Extension professionals need to practice Public Issues Education effectively.

This article reports the results of a survey of 120 Extension professionals ranging in experience from 1 to 30 plus years. The survey examines Extension professionals' perceived skills to practice Public Issues Education and suggests future training and curriculum needs.

The Extension professional can play a variety of roles in a Public Issues Education program, including facilitator, teacher, and researcher. In Public Issues Education programs, the Extension professional does not advocate any particular solution but instead provides a neutral, supportive atmosphere for collaborative problem solving (Public Issues Education Task Force, 2002). Thus, the traditional "expert-based" Extension program model of scientific information delivery must be adapted to fit an issues-based approach to programming, such as the Public Issues Education approach allows (CSREES, 2002; Bolen, 1993).

This suggests that in addition to subject matter knowledge, Extension professionals must possess certain skills to conduct effective Public Issues Education programs. Such skills include those useful in traditional Extension program settings, such as organizing educational events, providing materials, and involving technical experts from the university (Peters, 2002; Boyle & Mulcahy, 1993). A comprehensive set of skills, however, extends beyond those needed to conduct traditional programs to include group facilitation, interpersonal communication, and similar types of "collaborative process" skills.

Methods and Procedures

For the purpose of the study, a questionnaire was designed to measure Extension professionals' perceived skills to conduct Public Issues Education programs. Questions about skills are adapted from a set of "core competencies" developed by the National Public Policy Education Sub-committee on Public Issues Education (Task Force). The Task Force is comprised of Extension professionals from across the nation actively practicing Public Issues Education and conducting applied research around these programs. Since 1999, they have worked together to identify skills that enable Extension professionals to conduct effective Public Issues Education programs.

Core competencies include the following broad categories:

• Collect and interpret information about issues, audiences, and educational settings;
• Design Public Issues Education programs;
• Communicate effectively;
• Facilitate group discussions and decision-making;
• Manage and transform conflict;
• Work with scientific and technical information; and
• Create an environment of professionalism (Public Issues Education Task Force, 2002).

A complete description and explanation of these core competencies are available through the Public Issues Education Web site <http://www.publicissueseducation.net>.

Members of the Task Force adapted from these core competencies a list of specific skills for this study. Members of the Task Force in Nevada, Oregon, and Washington reviewed earlier drafts of the questionnaire and approved the final draft. Finally, a panel of three university-based faculty members in Nevada familiar with Public Issues Education reviewed the final questionnaire. The purpose of the reviews was to identify missing skills and to check for reading comprehension of survey questions. The authors revised the questionnaire based upon reviewers' recommendations.

The resulting questionnaire featured 18 items about skills needed to conduct effective Public Issues Education programs. Using a Likert scale of 1 (not very skilled) to 5 (very skilled), Extension professionals rated their skills. In addition, participants indicated years of professional experience.

The survey sample consisted of approximately 120 members of the National Association of Agricultural County Agents who voluntarily participated in a Public Issues Education workshop. Workshop participants were selected as the survey sample because, through their attendance, they indicated an interest in further training in Public Issues Education. These workshop participants are in ideal positions to educate and directly assist communities with public issues. They also have the opportunity to consider what skills are necessary based on their field experiences. That is, presumably either formally or informally, they have tried various educational approaches and learned from both their successes and failures.

Selected facilitators distributed the questionnaire prior to the workshop and asked participants to return the completed questionnaire to them before leaving. The printed questionnaire included instructions and an exemption statement. A statement of exemption printed on the questionnaire explained that voluntary completion of the questionnaire indicated their consent to participate in the study.

Results

Completed questionnaires served as the data source for the study. Cronbach's coefficient alpha was used to estimate internal consistency of the 18 Likert-type scale items. The Cronbach score was high (r = .93) and indicates that there was high internal consistency between the variables (Carmines & Zeller, 1979).

About the Participants

Of the 120 survey participants, 110 answered the question regarding years of experience and are included in this analysis. Of these 110 participants, 20% (n = 22 ) had between 1 to 10 years, while 19% (n = 21) had 11 to 19 years, 22% (n = 24) had 20 to 29 years, and the largest group, 39% (n = 43), had 30 plus years of experience.

Relationship Between Skill Levels and Professional Experience

A statistical test (Spearman's rho) was conducted to test for relationships between perceived skill levels and professional experience. The results are significant and indicate that the Extension professionals who participated in this survey rated their skills similarly, regardless of their years of professional experience (Table 1).

Additional analysis was conducted to determine if any particular skills differ with regards to experience. For the purpose of this analysis, mean scores were simplified by collapsing the five skill ratings into low, moderate, and high skill levels (Table 2). That is, (1) low skill levels represents those who selected 1 and 2; (2) moderate skill levels represents those who selected 3; and (3) high skill levels represents those who selected 4 and 5 on the Likert scale. Overall, Extension professionals rated their skills as moderate (2).

The results indicate that one item at which Extension professionals agree they are skilled, regardless of experience, is "organize educational events and materials." Other comparatively strong skills, regardless of experience, are "provides critical information in a timely manner," "involve technical expertise from within the university," and "recognize the importance and limitations of scientific data."

Extension professionals rated only a few skills differently based upon professional experience, however. The least experienced group, 1 to 10 years, rated their facilitation skills comparatively higher than more experienced groups. These include, for example, "working with stakeholders to create and follow a set of ground rules" and "helping stakeholders work through a sequence of steps to reach a desired outcome."

In contrast, a more experienced group, 11 to 19 years, rated themselves comparatively lower at "listening actively, respectfully to opposing views." Similarly, professionals with 20 to 29 years experience rated themselves comparatively lower at "involving expertise from outside the university" and "monitoring your own communication behavior." Finally, the most experienced professionals, 30 plus years, rated their skills comparatively lower at "demonstrating sensitivity to stakeholder diversity, including gender, ethnic, and cultural differences" and "separating your personal values from your professional role in the conflict."

Conclusions

Helping communities manage public conflict is increasingly becoming a focus area for Extension professionals nationwide. The recent survey of Extension professionals indicates that they believe they are moderately skilled to conduct Public Issues Education programs. For the most part, the professionals surveyed rated their skills similarly regardless of experience.

Generally, the results suggest that in designing Public Issues Education trainings and curricula for Extension professionals, all Extension professionals should be approached and treated the same, regardless of experience.

The study discovered a few exceptions, however. The results indicate that individuals with less experience rate some facilitation skills stronger than more experienced professionals do. In contrast, experienced professionals appear to be more politically perceptive and can comfortably work with stakeholders who network through local politics. Experienced professionals, however, may benefit from focused training in facilitation skills. And they can mentor less experienced professionals to help them refine their skills in working with local politics. Instructors can call upon these various strengths for individual leadership, learning and mentoring opportunities.

Those designing Public Issues Education trainings and curricula for Extension professionals should not presume that tenure or experience in Extension guarantees high skill levels to effectively practice Public issues Education. Further assessments are needed to determine more precisely what skills and what skill levels are to be included in future trainings.

References

Bolen, K. R. (1993). Accepting the challenge. Journal of Extension [On-line] 31(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1993winter/tp2.html

Boyle, P. G., & Mulcahy, S. H. (1993). Public policy education: A path to political support. Journal of Extension [On-line] 31(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1993winter/tp1.html

Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Carpenter, Z. L. (1993). Expanding the Extension horizon. Journal of Extension [On-line] 31(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1993winter/tp3.html

Cooley, F. E. (1994). Facilitating conflict-laden issues: An important Extension faculty role. Journal of Extension [On-line] 32(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994june/a10.html

Corp, M. K., & Darnell, T. (2002). Conflict-laden issues: A learning opportunity. Journal of Extension [On-line] 40(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002february/rb1.html

CSREES. (2002). Exploring new opportunities for Extension. Washington, DC: Extension Service, USDA [On-line]. Available at: http://www.csrees.usda.gov/newsroom/white_papers/exploring.doc

Frederick, A. L. (1998). Extension education opportunities with policymakers. Journal of Extension [On-line] 36(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998april/comm1.html

Goodwin, J. (1993). Contrasting viewpoints about controversial issues. Journal of Extension [On-line] 31(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1993fall/a7.html

Longo, M. F., & Dresbach, S. H. (2001). Ideas to assist Extension field professionals in building linkages and alliances. Journal of Extension [On-line] 39(2) Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001april/iw1.html

Patton, D. B., & Blaine, T. W. (2001). Public issues education: Exploring Extension's role. Journal of Extension [On-line] 39(4) Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001august/a2.html

Peters, S. J. (2002). Rousing the people on the land: The roots of the educational organizing tradition in Extension work. Journal of Extension [On-line] 40(3) Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002june/a1.html

Public Issues Education Task Force. (2002). Public issues education: Increasing competencies, enabling communities. Reno, NV: USDA Innovations Fund, Farm Foundation & Regional Rural Development Centers. [Online]. Available at: http://www.publicissueseducation.net

Schumacher, S. D., & Lloyd, M. (1997). Educating with controversial issues. Journal of Extension [On-line] 35(1) Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997february/tt2.html

Leadership Training for Transforming the Community: A Participatory Approach

Nii O. Tackie
Associate Professor and Rural Economic and Community Development Specialist
G.W. Carver Agric. Expt. Station and Cooperative Extension Program
ntackie@tuskegee.edu

Henry J. Findlay
Professor and Director of Development
Continuing Education Program
Findlayh@tuskegee.edu

Ntam Baharanyi
Professor and Extension Economist
G.W. Carver Agric. Expt. Station and Cooperative Extension Program
Baharany@tuskegee.edu

Atheal Pierce
Program and Staff Development Specialist
Cooperative Extension Program
apierce@tuskegee.edu

Tuskegee University
Tuskegee, Alabama

Introduction

Research suggests that community leaders can be helped to organize and develop their communities. People must be involved in the decision-making process, strategy setting, procedure development, and problem solving, (The Walk-The-Talk Company, 2003). However, very often, people are elected, appointed, or promoted to leadership positions without any formal leadership training. Moving into leadership positions demands special skills such as working with others; serving as a coach, mentor, motivator, and/or role model; being able to make tough decisions; and understanding how organizational politics work to achieve organizational effectiveness.

To this end, it is important for leaders to develop skills in planning, organizing, communicating, leading, monitoring, and working with others. Community leaders should make an effort to lift up people in order to have successful communities. According to Maxwell (2001) in The 21 Most Powerful Minutes in a Leader's Day, "Every leader is either a lifter or a limiter of people. If you limit people, you limit not only them but also yourself. But if you lift them up, there's no telling how far they--or you--can go" (p. 193).

In a study dealing with the assessment of mobilization and leadership challenges, Affolter and Findlay (2002) concluded that most rural communities are unable to tackle major socio-economic problems unless they have the leadership skills to do so. They also emphasized that community leaders or their representatives need to acquire certain basic skills that help them to convene the community, facilitate meetings, develop strategic plans, and approach outside institutions to solicit support.

Also, the authors concluded that training is needed on resolving conflict within the communities and on jurisprudence and citizen rights. These skills are necessary to transform particularly the social and economic dimensions of the community. Robinson (2000) emphasized that transforming leadership is about recognizing the interconnections and interrelationships among just about everything in the community. It is about creating synergies between people, process, and technology. It is about influence versus control.

According to Burns (1978), "transforming leadership is a process in which one or more people engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality" (p. 20). He explained that transforming leaders engage in collective purpose linked to social change, with the ultimate objective of achieving goals that enhance the well being of human existence. Rural communities, particularly those in the Black Belt Counties of Alabama, need transforming leaders with the skills and competence to advance their communities.

The term "Black Belt" was originally used to refer to the rich black southern soil. Today, the term refers to counties that have higher than average percentage of Blacks. The Black Belt stretches across 11 states [Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee] (Wimberley, Morris, & Bachtel, 1994).

In Alabama, the counties are mainly in the South Central section of the state and have persistently abysmal socioeconomic characteristics such as high unemployment rates, low personal incomes, high poverty rates, low educational attainment levels, low business development, and poor health facilities. These counties are the culprits in pulling down the average statistics for the State of Alabama (Governor's Task Force on Economic Development, 2001).

Realizing the importance of developing the community, the Cooperative Extension and Continuing Education Program at Tuskegee University has developed and implemented a leadership for economic development training program for communities. This leadership training is designed to:

1. Encourage rural residents to develop leadership skills as an initial step toward the development of their communities,

2. Demonstrate positive community impact and at the same time extend knowledge to other members of the community,

3. Improve and enhance their personal skills, and

4. Promote volunteerism.

Methodology

Twelve workshops were held on leadership skills development for the Barbour County Improvement Association (BCIA) members and other individuals in Clayton, Barbour County, a rural and Black Belt county of Alabama. This county has a significant number of underserved and hard-to-reach residents. The workshops were held over an 8-month period October 2001 to May 2002. Several topics were covered by a cadre of instructors primarily from Tuskegee University, but also from Auburn University and the Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs. The topics included leadership styles, leadership and ethics, leadership for organizational effectiveness, building trust and teamwork, strategic planning, grantsmanship, zoning and land use, and developing 501c organizations.

Leaders among the participants approached Tuskegee University and requested training sessions in leadership. The participants assisted in determining the content of the training, based on perceived needs of their community. This we refer to as the "participatory approach." What is unique about this effort is that these participants were being trained to reach out to the underserved and hard-to-reach audiences in the rural areas. The trainees were not appointed or elected officials, but they were underserved persons who decided that they needed some requisite leadership skills in order to be more effective in carrying out community-based projects. Forty- four individuals took part in the training sessions.

In order to determine if the knowledge gained by the participants was being used and to what extent, 40 participants were interviewed in November 2002, using a questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to seek demographic and general information on the effects of the training. Four participants were not interviewed because of scheduling difficulties.

Findings

Table 1 shows the demographic information. Fifty percent of the participants interviewed were 54 years or below, and 40.0% were 65 years or older. Forty percent had high school or technical/vocational education, and 50.0% had a college education.

Table 2 reflects assessment of the leadership skills development workshops. When asked reasons for participating in the workshops, 10.0% indicated that they were seeking positive change in the community and 70.0% indicated they wanted to learn how to be effective leaders. In regards to overall rating of the workshops, 60.0% said they were very good or excellent. When participants were asked if the workshops met their expectations, 80.0% rated meeting expectations as very good or excellent.

Sixty percent said they had used the information they received at the workshops, and 40.0% said they had not used the information they received at the workshops. Of those who indicated they had used the information from the workshops, 50.0% said they now work well with people and are more involved with their organization, at church and home, and 10.0% said they now write to agencies for information.

Of those who said they had not used the information, 10.0% each indicated that monthly organization meetings had almost stopped; they were involved in too many other activities; the opportunity had not presented itself; and they had been indisposed or sick. Twenty percent each indicated that all aspects of the workshops were beneficial: information on sources of grants and how to located them were most beneficial; sharing information with others was most beneficial to them; and information on leadership styles was most beneficial to them.

When participants were asked to name one thing they were doing differently as a result of the workshop, 20.0% said they were working more with people, and 60.0% said they communicate better. When workshop attendants were asked to provide suggestions for future workshops, 50.0% said they would like for workshops to continue, 10.0% said they would like more information on business management, and 10.0% said they want more information on public speaking.

Conclusions and Implications

More participants were middle-aged to elderly than in their twenties or thirties. Most of them had high school or college education. There were more females than males involved in the training, which reflects a national trend where an increased number of women are aspiring for leadership positions. Effective leadership was the key reason for participating in the training for most participants. Also, the results revealed that 80.0% of participants felt that the workshops were well received, and 100.0% rated the information they received as good and above. These findings indicated that the participants considered the information useful in leadership and organization management.

Furthermore, the findings showed that participants are developing a better understanding of the importance of leadership and are realizing that good leadership is about influence, confluence, and synergy. Since Extension educators are leaders in the community, the findings have implications for program development and implementation; involving clientele in planning is a worthwhile thing to do.

Through these training sessions, it is anticipated that participants will continue to use the skills learned, such as grant writing, conflict management, strategic planning, and visioning, to assist in the development of their communities. A unique aspect about this outreach effort is that the actor-participants in the community realized a need and approached an institution of higher learning to help address this need--a participatory approach.

This training method, using a participatory approach, becomes even more critical as institutions of higher education become more entrenched in the concept of an "engaged university," which is based on partnerships and commitment and sharing of knowledge, expertise, and critical resources to facilitate the solution to community problems. This concept goes beyond the conventional outreach protocols, where a university generally emphasizes a one-way communication through its university expertise. The study has implications for the Cooperative Extension Service in the Alabama Black Belt Counties. Extension educators should find this approach useful for efficient program development and implementation.

References

Affolter, F. W., & Findlay, H. J. (2002). Assessment of mobilization and leadership challenges in Azerbaijani IDP and refugee camps. Journal of Convergence, XXXV(4), 55-67.

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.

Findlay, H. J. (1993). Philosophy and principles of today's vocational education. In C. Anderson & L. C. Rampp (Eds.) Vocational education in the 1990's: A sourcebook for strategies, methods and materials (pp. 21-33). Ann Arbor, MI: Prakken.

Governor's Task Force. (2001). Draft report of the governor's task force on the development of economically distressed counties.

Maxwell, J. C. (2001). The 21 most powerful minutes in a leader's day: Revitalize your spirit and empower your leadership. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Robinson, M. (2000). Transformational leadership defined. Retrieved November 24, 2003 from http://www.ethoschannel.com/personalgrowth/new/1-msr_ transformational.html

The Walk-The-Talk-Company. (2003). The leadership secrets of Santa Claus: How to get big things done in your workshop all year long. Dallas: The Walk-The-Talk Company.

Wimberley, R. C., Morris, L. V. & Bachtel, D. C. (1994). The southern rural black belt and policy initiatives. In N. Baharanyi, R. Zabawa, W. Hill & A. Parks (Eds.) Rural development and a changing USDA (pp.55-62). Tuskegee, AL: Tuskegee University.

Making a Case for Engaging Adolescents in Program Decision-Making

Jonathan R. Olson
Research Associate, Prevention Research Center
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
jro10@psu.edu

H. Wallace Goddard
Extension Family Life Specialist
University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension
Little Rock, Arkansas
wgoddard@uaex.edu

Catherine A. Solheim
Associate Dean, College of Human Ecology
University of Minnesota
St. Paul, Minnesota
csolheim@umn.edu

Lisa Sandt
Director of Planning and Economic Development
Lee-Russell Council of Governments
Opelika, Alabama
lsandt@adss.state.al.us

Over the past several decades, issues such as teenage pregnancy, adolescent substance abuse, and juvenile delinquency have been the focus of school and community-based prevention efforts at national, state, and local levels (Fraser, 1997; Greenberg, 2004; Hawkins, Catalano, & Arthur, 2002; Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland, & Cunningham, 1998; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Rowland, & Cunningham, 2002). Despite some notable successes associated with these initiatives (Greenberg, 2004; Hawkins et al., 2002), research indicates that many programs have not had long-term positive effects on their targeted outcomes. Although many programs demonstrate short-term effects on risk factors, and some show positive effects on behavioral outcomes, these effects typically are small to moderate and often diminish over time (Greenberg, 2004; Hawkins et al., 1992; Henggeler et al., 1998; 2002).

As such, despite the presence of numerous prevention initiatives in their schools and communities, many adolescents continue to face a variety of serious risks to both their physical and psychological well-being (Fraser, 1997; Hawkins et al., 2002; Petersen, Richmond, & Leffert, 1993; Takanishi, 1993). Given this situation, it is important for researchers, decision makers, and educators to identify ways in which current programs can be improved and new, more effective strategies can be developed.

One way of improving current prevention initiatives is to involve the target population in the identification of critical needs and the development of high-quality school and community-based programs. As Rappaport (1981) argued more the two decades ago, a fundamental problem with many prevention programs is that they are based on an assumption that individuals at risk are dependent persons who need "to be helped, socialized, trained (and) given skills" (p. 11). He suggests that such programs use a process that relies on professional "experts" who identify the needs of their clients and provide them with answers to their problems.

The process described by Rappaport views the participants in prevention programs as passive recipients of services and does little to encourage their active participation in identifying or addressing their own needs. He argues that current programs can be improved and would be more successful if members of the target audience become involved in addressing their own needs, are empowered to take control of their own lives, and encouraged to build upon the competencies they already possess.

Several applied scholars have noted the merits of involving people in the discovery process. When individuals become involved in identifying their own needs and collecting relevant data, they are much more likely to actually use the results (Greene, 1987; 1988; Patton, 1997; Small, 1995). It is likely that such a participatory approach to developing prevention initiatives for adolescents would provide similar positive effects.

In recent years, participatory approaches have begun to appear in youth programming as a part of the community youth development movement, which seeks to empower youth and build upon their inherent strengths (Benson, 1997; Zeldin, 2004). Programs that involve youth in planning and development hold promise because research indicates that adolescents have valuable information upon which effective prevention strategies can be based. Adolescents have been found to have strong opinions about issues that are important to them (Roscoe, 1985). Furthermore, studies have shown that adults and adolescents often have differing perceptions about behavioral and psychological problems that affect youth (Achenbach, McConaughy, & Howell, 1987; Kashani, Orvaschel, Burk, & Reid, 1985; Verhulst & van der Ende, 1992). Thus, it seems important to consider adolescent perceptions, rather than relying exclusively on adults' understanding of issues, when developing prevention programs.

Study Goals

The study discussed here had several specific goals. First, we sought to determine adolescents' perceptions of social problems that affect their lives. In accordance with the principles of Rappaport's (1981) empowerment model, we believe that these data can help educators and community decision makers incorporate adolescent perceptions into successful prevention initiatives.

Second, because the perceptions of adults within a community often help define the political agenda (Arnold, 1990; Ross & Staines, 1972; Rossi & Freeman, 1993), we sought to determine the degree to which adolescent and adult reports of social problems diverge. We hypothesized that these discrepancies would be larger for internalizing behaviors and smaller for behaviors with direct, observable consequences.

Third, we gathered data on adolescents' reports of actual behaviors to compare them to both adult and adolescent perceptions.

Finally we sought to determine the extent to which adolescents believe that their views are important in their local community's policymaking process and if they would like to become more involved in local decision-making.

Method

A sample of 670 adolescents (45% male, 55% female) from two high schools in one rural southern town completed a survey in which they rated their perceptions of the seriousness of commonly observed youth problems, including teenage pregnancy, drug abuse, alcohol abuse, gang violence, crime/delinquency, and suicide. "Seriousness" reflects a subjective assessment that could refer to the extent of the problem and/or the impact of the problem within the community. Response categories ranged from 1 for "not serious" to 4 for "extremely serious."

In addition, respondents indicated the extent to which they felt their opinions were highly respected in the community, the extent to which their opinions were considered when policy decisions were made in their communities, and whether or not they would like to be more involved in community decisions. Response categories for these questions ranged from 1 for "strongly disagree" to 5 for "strongly agree."

Because data were collected during school time at the invitation of school officials, virtually 100% of students were surveyed. The school system notified parents of the survey and allowed them to examine the instrument and withdraw their child from participation. No parents prevented their child's participation.

In the second stage of data collection, a similar survey was administered to a sample of 183 adults (24% male, 76% female) from the same community. The adult sample was taken from civic clubs, churches, and community meetings. While the adult sample was not representative of all adults in the community, it did capture opinion leaders and civically involved adults. The adults were asked to answer the same questions asked of the adolescents, with the exception of the questions about community development. All items were developed by the Community Resource Development section of the state Cooperative Extension staff based on common youth issues and concerns among adults.

In the third stage of data collection, 702 adolescents from the same high schools sampled in stage 1 were asked to report the frequency in which they actually engaged in various problem behaviors. The survey items were patterned after those used in the Teen Assessment Project (Rogers & Small, 1992; Small, 1995). All data were collected during the 1994-1995 school year.

Results

Adolescents and adults in this sample perceived a number of problems within their community. Results of t-test analyses indicated that adolescents were more likely than adults to be concerned about gang violence (t=5.57, p<.001), crime and delinquency, (t=3.11, p<.003), and suicide (t=12.87, p<.001). However, adults were more likely to be concerned about adolescent alcohol abuse (t=-3.14, p<.003). There were no statistically significant differences in perceived seriousness of teenage pregnancy and drug abuse. (See Table 1 for mean scores.)

Analyses of adolescents' self-reported problem behaviors indicate that the majority of adolescents in this sample had sexual intercourse (66.8%), and only 46.2% of this group reported always using a condom. In addition, 68.1% of the adolescents reported drinking alcohol, 36% considered suicide at some point in their lives, and almost a quarter of the adolescents engaged in at least one criminal or delinquent act within the past year. A relatively small number of adolescents reported using various illicit drugs (3.0% cocaine, 16.1% marijuana), and only 6.9% stated that they belonged to a gang (Table 2).

It is noteworthy that these percentages vary from those reported in several of the national youth behavior datasets such as Add Health, Monitoring the Future, and the Youth at Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS). For example, the 1995 Add Health data indicate that only 49.3% of high school students have had sexual intercourse (compared to 66.8% in this sample), although the rates of delinquent behaviors were relatively comparable (Blum & Rinehart, n.d.). Data from the 1994 and 1995 waves of the Monitoring the Future survey indicate higher levels of alcohol and drug use than the current data (Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman, 2003).

Finally, more recent data from the YRBSS indicate that only 19% of students seriously considered suicide, although this statistic is not directly comparable to the current finding in that YRBSS respondents were asked to only report on suicidal thoughts occurring within the preceding 12 months (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2002). Together, these discrepancies underscore the importance of considering local data because rates of these behaviors vary widely across geographical locations.

A comparison of adult and adolescent perceptual data with adolescents' self-reported behavioral data reveals that although both adult and adolescent concerns seemed to match behavioral reports of certain problems, there were discrepancies for others. For example, while the mean scores indicate that adults were not very concerned about adolescent suicidal ideation, a rather large percentage of youth indicated that they have seriously considered suicide at some point in their lives (36%). Furthermore, both adults and adolescents tended to rate drug abuse as a serious concern, but the behavioral reports indicate that illicit drug use is much less prevalent than many of the other problematic outcomes.

Only 26% of the adolescents surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that their opinions were highly respected in the community, and only 27% agreed or strongly agreed that their opinions were considered in the policymaking process. However, 51% of the youth agreed or strongly agreed that they were interested in becoming more involved in community decision-making.

Discussion

The results of the study discussed here indicate that a majority of adolescents in this sample do not feel connected to the decision-making process in their communities. However, respondents reported that they would like to become more involved. The comparison of youth and adult perceptions suggests that adolescents and adults included in this sample have different impressions about the types of problems that youth face. If these findings generalize beyond the current sample, they have important implications for policy and program development. Specifically, by considering the perceptions of adolescents, educators and community decision-makers may gain important insights into problems youth face. Such information potentially could be used to form the foundation of effective prevention programs.

Together, these findings underscore the importance of collecting data from multiple informants before making program decisions. Although adults in this study seemed particularly accurate in their perceptions of adolescent behaviors with observable consequences (such as alcohol use), they tended to underestimate the internal, psychological problem of suicidal ideation. By including adolescents in the decision-making process, it is possible that appropriate attention would be given to problems that would otherwise go unnoticed by adults. Such increased participation by adolescents seems feasible in light of the finding that many respondents indicated an interest in becoming more involved in community decisions.

It is important to note, however, that there are some discrepancies between reports of seriousness and behavioral reports for both adults and adolescents. For example, both groups felt that drug abuse was one of the most serious issues facing youth, although the behavioral data suggest that other issues, such as alcohol use and suicidal ideation, actually were much more prevalent in the communities participating in this study. Thus, while adults and adolescents can contribute their insights, it is important that objective data obtained from local communities also are considered.

Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, because the purpose of this study was to examine attitudes and behaviors at the local level, the findings are not based on a nationally representative sample. Furthermore, we had no way of determining if the characteristics of those who refused to participate differed from those who completed the surveys. As such, caution should be used before generalizing the results beyond this sample.

Second, these data were gathered via self-report. As with all self-reported data, there is the possibility that responses were inaccurate and/or biased. This is particularly true for the illegal behaviors reported on the youth behavioral survey.

Finally, the survey gathered information on only a small number of behaviors and social problems. This study would have benefited from examining a broader array of outcomes. Specifically, we believe that it would be valuable to examine additional internalizing outcomes given the large discrepancies between youth and adult reports of the seriousness of the one such outcome we did include (suicidal ideation).

In addition, this study would have been more balanced had it included a variety of positive outcomes in addition to the negative behaviors we examined. An examination of differences in adolescent and adult reports of youth strengths would have helped program developers interested in developing strengths-based prevention strategies.

Implications

Despite the above-mentioned limitations, the results of the study have several important implications for both research and program development. Specifically, these findings underscore the importance of gathering data from multiple sources. Adults and adolescents have differing perceptions of current adolescent problems. Furthermore, these perceptions do not necessarily correspond to measures of actual adolescent behaviors. As such, both researchers and program developers may benefit from considering both perceptual and behavioral data gathered from multiple adolescent and adult informants. Furthermore, since local trends in adolescent behaviors can vary from those at the national level (as was the case in the current study), these behavioral data ideally should be collected within local communities.

The current findings also suggest that many adolescents are interested in becoming more involved in community decision-making. This finding is encouraging for two reasons. First, it suggests that many youth may be willing to share their unique perceptions of social issues and problems that they face. As mentioned above, this may help improve the relevance and ultimately the quality of current prevention initiatives.

Second, adolescents' interest in becoming more involved can help promote the participatory approach to prevention outlined by Rappaport (1981). As Rappaport and a variety of scholars interested in community youth development strategies have suggested (e.g., Camino & Zeldin, 2002; Zeldin, 2004), including youth as partners in the prevention process can encourage them to enjoy the process, feel empowered by the process, and stay involved in the process. It seems reasonable to hypothesize that such outcomes will help promote the ultimate goal of most prevention initiatives, which is to support the healthy development of young people.

References

Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., & Howell, C. T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 213-232.

Arnold, D. (1990). The logic of congressional action. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Benson, P. L. (1997). All kids are our kids: What communities must do to raise caring and responsible children and adolescents. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Blum, R. W., & Rinehart, P. M. (n.d.). Reducing the risk: Connections that make a difference in the lives of youth. Bethesda, MD: Burness Communications.

Camino, L., & Zeldin, S. (2002). From periphery to center: Pathways for youth civic engagement in the day-to-day life of communities. Applied Developmental Science. 6, 213-220.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (June, 2002). Surveillance Summaries. (MMWR 2002:51 No. SS-4). Atlanta, GA: Author.

Fraser, M. W. (1997). Risk and resilience in childhood. Washington, DC: NASW Press.

Greenberg, M. T. (2004). Current and future challenges in school-based prevention: The researcher perspective. Prevention Science, 5, 5-13.

Greene, J. C. (1987). Stakeholder participation in evaluation design: Is it worth the effort? Evaluation and Program Planning, 10, 379-394.

Greene, J. C. (1988). Stakeholder participation and utilization in program evaluation. Evaluation Review, 12, 91-116.

Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Arthur, M. W. (2002). Promoting science-based prevention in communities. Addictive Behaviors, 27, 951-976.

Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64-105.

Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Borduin, C. M., Rowland, M. D., & Cunningham, P. B. (1998). Multisystemic treatment of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. New York: The Guilford Press.

Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Rowland, M. D., & Cunningham, P. B. (2002). Serious emotional disturbance in children and adolescents: Multisystemic therapy. New York: The Guilford Press.

Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (2003). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2002. Volume I: Secondary school students (NIH Publication No. 03-5375). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 520 pp.

Kashani, J. H., Orvaschel, H., Burk, J. P., & Reid, J. C. (1985). Informant variance: The issue of parent-child disagreement. Journal of American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 437-441.

Patton, M. (1997). Utilization-focused evaluation (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Petersen, A. C., Richmond, J. G., & Leffert, N. (1993). Social change among youth. The United States experience. Journal of Adolescent Health, 14, 632-637.

Rappaport, J. (1981). In praise of paradox: A social policy of empowerment over prevention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 1-25.

Rogers, K. G., & Small, S. A. (1992). Teen Assessment Project dissemination manual. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Center for Action.

Roscoe, B. (1985). Social issues as social problems: Adolescents' perceptions. Adolescence, 20, 377-383.

Ross, R., & Staines, G. L. (1972). The politics of analyzing social problems. Social Problems, 20, 18-40.

Rossi, P. H., & Freeman, H. E. (1993). Evaluation: A systematic approach (5^th ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Small, S. A. (1995). Action-oriented research: Models and methods. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 941-955.

Takanishi, R. (1993). The opportunities of adolescence: Research, interventions, and policy. American Psychologist, 48, 85-87.

Verhulst, F. C., & van der Ende, J. (1992). Agreement between parents' reports and adolescents' self-reports of problem behaviors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 33, 1011-1023.

Zeldin, S. (2004). Youth as agents of adult and community development: Mapping the processes and outcomes of youth engaged in organizational governance. Applied Developmental Science, 8, 75-90.

Personal and Life Skill Development Through Participation in the 4-H Japanese Exchange Program

Mary E. Arnold
4-H Youth Development Specialist
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon
Mary.Arnold@oregonstate.edu

Introduction

The 4-H Japanese Exchange Program has been an important part of many state 4-H programs for over 30 years. The program traditionally includes two components, a program for 4-H youth traveling to Japan and a host family program where Japanese and/or Korean students stay with 4-H families in the United States. Each component of the program provides unique opportunities for life skill and personal development, as well as intercultural awareness. Despite the program's long history, research on the impact of the 4-H Japanese Exchange, and similar international homestay programs, on youth development remains limited (Sakamoto, 2003).

Studies conducted on the impact of youth participation in international homestay programs indicate that youth develop important life and personal skills through program participation. For example, Sakamoto (2003) reports language development, cross cultural understanding, cultural sensitivity, a global perspective, and increased tolerance as outcomes of international homestay programs. Stitsworth (1988) found that U. S. youth participating in the 4-H Japanese exchange were more flexible, independent, sociable, and responsible. Likewise, Crealock (1993) found that language development, cross-cultural understanding, and personal development were some of the main outcomes for Japanese youth participating in a Canadian homestay program. The development of these skills is consistent with the program goals for the 4-H program, which focus on the development of life and personal skills.

Hendricks (1996) presents a comprehensive model of the life skills developed through 4-H. Each "H" in the 4-H model (Head, Heart, Hands, and Health) provides a category for different types of life skill development. For example, life skills such as communication, social skills, accepting differences, and concern for others are skills developed in the "Heart" part of 4-H. The development of problem-solving and decision-making skills is included in the "Head" section. Self-esteem, character, and healthy lifestyle choices are developed in the "Health" part of the program.

Personal development is the broader goal of all positive youth development programs, including 4-H. Beyond specific life skills, effective youth development programs provide support and opportunities for youth to become confident, connected, competent, and caring young people of good character (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003). These outcomes are the result of ongoing developmental opportunities across adolescence, culminating in a youth who is ready for "positive adulthood" (Lerner, 2004). The 4-H Japanese Exchange program provides real intercultural experiences in which personal development can take place.

The intent of the study discussed here was threefold. First, the study looked at the impact of the program on life skill development of youth participants. Second, the study explored the importance of various program experiences on personal development. Finally, the study compared the difference in life skill and personal development between outbound and host youth.

Methods and Procedures

Subjects

Participants for the study were drawn from the 70 youth from across the United States who traveled to Japan in the summer of 2003 (outbound group) and a random sample of 577 youth, stratified by state, who served as hosts to a Japanese or Korean student, also in the summer of 2003 (host group). Thirty of the outbound youth, 21 girls and 9 boys, ages 13-18, completed both the pre- and post-tests (43% of the original sample of 70). The outbound youth came from 13 states. Pre- and post-tests were returned from 185 host youth, 110 girls and 75 boys, ages 10-18 (32% of the original sample). The host youth represented 28 states and Alberta, Canada.

Instruments

Pre- and post-tests instruments to measure life skill and personal development were developed for use in this study. Three 4-H youth development specialists independently chose life skills on which the outcomes for the program are based from the Targeting Life Skills Model (Hendricks, 1996). Following independent selection, the skills were narrowed down to a set of 12 life skills that all three specialists agreed upon. Youth were asked to rate how much participating in the program helped them develop each life skill. Ratings were made on a scale of 1-5, with "1" indicating the program "did not help at all" and "5" indicating the program was extremely helpful to the development of the skill. Internal reliability of the life skills scales for both the outbound and the host groups was determined using Cronbach's Alpha (.95 and .94, respectively).

Three youth development specialists familiar with the program identified program experiences that could affect the personal development of program participants. Initial ideas were refined by the researcher, and a final list of 17 experiences was agreed upon. The lists had 13 items in common and 4 items that reflected the travel and living situations that were different for each group. Participants were asked to rate how experiences related to the program contributed to their personal development by rating each experience on a 1-5 scale. A rating of "1" indicated the experience "didn't contribute at all," and a rating of "5" indicated the experience contributed "a lot!" Internal reliability of the program experience items for both the outbound and the host groups was determined using Cronbach's Alpha (.89 and .90 respectively).

Procedures

The pre-test was mailed to the participants' homes approximately 1 month before the outbound group left for Japan and to the host group 1 month before the Japanese or Korean students arrived in the United States. A reminder post card was sent to those who had not returned the survey within 2 weeks. The post-test survey was sent immediately following the outbound participant's return home to those who completed the pre-test. Likewise, a post-test survey was sent immediately after the Japanese or Korean student had returned home to host youth who had completed the pre-test. Reminder post cards were sent to those who had not returned the post-test within 2 weeks.

Results

Both the outbound and host groups reported that participation in the program contributed to the development of important life skills, with mean ratings ranging from 3.70 to 4.43 (Table 1).