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August 2004
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Contents
Editor's PageAugust 2004 JOEAs is usual in JOE, there are many worthwhile articles in this month's issue. Topics range from outreach to Latino audiences, to profiling economic capacity, to factors contributing to the success of small farmers, to working with the beef cattle industry. There's something for just about all of us. But it's the Tools of the Trade articles I want to highlight here. It's a rich and interesting bunch. The first article, "Good Intentions, Muddled Methods: Focus on Focus Groups," explains what focus groups are good for--and what they aren't--and gives the URLs for the first two of a series of briefs to clarify some focus group issues. The second, "Tips for Designing Publications for Underrepresented Audiences," offers just what its title suggests. The other four are the kinds of articles that couldn't have been written 10 years ago, when JOE became an electronic journal. There's an article on an interactive distance education course that relies heavily on the Internet, on how to use the Internet to find "lost" individuals, on a Web site about farm transfer that includes video and interactive quizzes, and about PDAs in Extension programming. PDAs? Who'd have thought it? Why I Reject ArticlesIn my April 2001 "Editor's Page," I explained that, as JOE editor, I review all submissions to determine whether or not they are suitable for publication (in the case of Commentary and Tools of the Trade) or suitable for blind peer review (Feature, Research in Brief, and Ideas at Work). I send many articles back to their authors for revision before accepting them for publication or review. I returned 42% (107) for revision in 2003. I also reject articles. In 2003, I rejected 12% (31) of the articles submitted to JOE. If an article is exclusively about Extension or outreach in other countries, I reject it as unsuitable for JOE and suggest that authors consider submitting their articles to the Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education instead. If an article makes no reference to Extension or outreach or non-formal education, I also reject it. Why? As the JOE Submission Guidelines explain, the primary audience for the Journal of Extension is U.S. Extension professionals. Articles must not only have implications for U.S. Extension, they must discuss or at least allude to them, depending on article category. In 2003, JOE received an all-time high of 256 submissions. This year, we are on track to exceed that number. JOE simply receives too many submissions and JOE reviewers are too taxed to permit me to accept articles for publication or review because they may have implications for U.S. Extension that JOE readers can infer. I have both the luxury and the responsibility to be selective. Laura Hoelscher, Editor
Latino Outreach Programs: Why They Need to Be DifferentBeverly B. Hobbs IntroductionIncreasingly, Extension programs across the country are working to meet the needs and interests of Latino Americans. The rapid growth of the Latino population since 1990 has caused many counties that previously had little or no Latino representation to become home to significant numbers of Latino residents. Often Latinos represent a new audience for county Extension programs and one that is not readily integrated into existing programs. To successfully engage Latino audiences, particularly first- and second-generation Latinos, programs must be culturally responsive; that is, they must reflect the cultural traditions, beliefs, and values of the people (Koss-Chioino & Vargas, 1999). When we do this, Latino participation increases dramatically. But the changes we make often cause concern among our traditional audiences and even some Extension staff. They question the need for these changes and to a certain extent feel threatened by them. Is Extension creating a new identity? What will be the cost to existing programs? For Extension staff, what new skills are needed? As Extension seeks to diversify its audience, it must work to bring traditional audiences along. (Schauber & Castania, 2001). An important step in that process is to help them better understand the cultural characteristics of diverse community participants and how they relate to a nontraditional design and delivery of educational programs. Knowledge of cultural differences will help explain the need for change and will reassure existing audiences that the addition of new approaches does not mean the mission and goals of Extension are changing, only that Extension is becoming more capable of addressing the needs of a diverse population. An Example of ChangeThe experience of the Oregon 4-H program provides a good example of what kinds of program modifications may be made in outreach programs targeted to Latinos. Although outreach 4-H programs share many of the characteristics of the traditional 4-H program (the same goals, delivery modes, member and leader application processes, use of the 4-H symbol and pledge, etc.) there are differences. These differences include the following:
There is sound rationale for each of these practices. Spanish or Bilingual CommunicationAlthough Latinos overwhelmingly believe learning to speak English is key to success in the United States, many Latino adults, and some youth, have limited proficiency in English (Pew Hispanic Center, 2002; Tse, 2001). While youth quickly learn English in school, adults have less opportunity to gain English skills. They often work long hours and have irregular work schedules, and ESL classes either may not be available or only offer basic English instruction (Portes & Rumbaut, 1990). If Latino adults are going to be involved with 4-H as parents and/or as volunteers, it may well be necessary to communicate with them in Spanish, both in oral and written formats. Additionally, it also means that 4-H activities led by monolingual Spanish speakers will be delivered in Spanish. There is another consideration that supports the use of Spanish. Language and culture are closely intertwined (LAB at Brown University, 2002). Even when Latino adults are fluent in English, they appreciate the respect for their culture that is conveyed when Spanish is used. The Spanish language affirms their culture; therefore, programs that support Latino families incorporate the Spanish language as warranted (Family Support America, 2003). Nontraditional Projects and Program DeliveryIn 4-H, youth and their leaders are able to explore any topic that sparks their curiosity and interest. While 4-H project areas found nationwide, such as foods, horticulture, and computer technology, appeal to many Latino youth, Latino members have also expressed an interest in nontraditional projects such as soccer and cultural dance. The latter project areas fall under the 4-H umbrella just as a new project in fishing or softball would. The goal of 4-H is positive youth development through experiential learning, not mastery of particular subject matter. Including projects that affirm the Latino culture help Latino youth develop an understanding and acceptance of their ethnicity and thus contribute to the development of a positive self-concept (Phinney, 1997). It also addresses parentsÁ desires that their children learn about and take pride in their culture. Latino outreach programs may also introduce a family approach to program delivery. More than Euro-Americans, Latinos often participate in activities as a family (National Latino ChildrenÁs Institute, 2003). Thus some 4-H programs may involve youth and adults in the same activities or there may be an adult component that occurs at the same time as the youth program (Bairstow, Berry, & Driscoll, 2002). Predominantly Latino Club MembershipInitially, 4-H clubs that involve Latinos are largely made up of just Latino youth. This may lead some to conclude that there is a separate 4-H program for Latinos. There is not. The emergence of clubs that serve a majority of Latino youth is an expected outcome of outreach. Latino families often have limited understanding of the expectations of the majority culture, including the expectations of the 4-H program, and many have experienced discrimination in largely Euro-American settings (Pew Hispanic Center, 2002). They are uncertain how they will fit in, whether or not they will be accepted. Therefore it is hard to bring families into the existing 4-H framework. They need to be in a supportive, comfortable environment that reflects their culture while they build understanding and skills that will allow them to successfully interact in the greater mainstream program (Cortes, 1999). As confidence and skills develop, youth and families should be encouraged to participate in other parts of the 4-H program that include members from across groups. The ultimate goal is the establishment of a fully inclusive county and state 4-H program. Separate Training for Latino VolunteersThe lack of both fluency in English and a deep understanding of Euro-American culture make it necessary in many cases to provide separate training for Latino volunteers. Other contributing factors may include a lack of understanding of youth development organizations and the role of volunteers and low literacy levels in both English and Spanish. Volunteers may also need more support in completing paperwork. As a result, training for Latino volunteers may need to be conducted in Spanish, may require incorporating more demonstration and oral presentation as teaching methods, needs to be set within the cultural context of participants, and will require more information about the organization and how volunteers contribute. Dedicated Staff SupportGaining the involvement of Latino families in 4-H often takes dedicated staff time. Latino involvement is premised on establishing personal relationships with Latino community members and developing a level of trust, two very time consuming tasks (Hobbs, 2000). Once Latino families are interested in 4-H, it is often necessary for staff to be very involved in program delivery. Before adults will volunteer, they have to see programs in action so they know 4-H is a worthwhile use of their familyÁs time and so they will understand how they can contribute. Staff may deliver programs alone or, as time passes, they may co-teach with volunteers or otherwise provide them with direct support. Staff support is facilitated if staff members are bilingual/bicultural. ConclusionThere are good reasons why Latino outreach programs may look different and be conducted separately. This does not make them less a part of the Extension program. They simply represent an expansion of the ways Extension uses to fulfill its mission. In the case of 4-H, for example, all 4-H members, whether Latino or not, belong to the same county and state 4-H programs and share equally the privilege of participating in 4-H activities or events. As the United States increasingly becomes more multi-cultural, Extension must continue to expand its ability to serve people from culturally diverse groups. Extension staff as well as the audiences they serve must be ready to entertain new perspectives and new ways of doing.
ReferencesBairstow, R., Berry, H., & Driscoll, D. (2002). Tips for teaching non-traditional audiences. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002december/tt1.shtml Cortes, C. (1999, January 1). Building community from communities. NetResults. Retrieved October 10, 2003 from http://www.naspa.org/netresults Family Support America. (n.d.). Principles of family support practice. Retrieved October 10, 2003 from http://www.familysupportamerica.org/content/learning_dir/principles.htm Hobbs, B. (2000). Recruiting and supporting Latino volunteers. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Extension. Pew Hispanic Center/Kaiser Family Foundation. (December 2002). The 2002 national survey of Latinos. Retrieved October 10, 2003 from http://www.kff.org Koss-Chioino, J., & Vargas, L. (1999). Working with Latino youth: Culture, development, and context. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. LAB at Brown University. (n.d.). The diversity kit: An introductory resource for social change in education. Retrieved October 10, 2003 from http://www.lab.brown.edu/tdl/diversitykit National Latino ChildrenÁs Institute. (n.d.). National Latino childrenÁs agenda: Guiding principles. Retrieved October 10, 2003 from http://www.nlci.org/org/About%20agenda.htm Phinney, J., Cantu, C., & Kurtz, D. (1997). Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino, and White adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(2), 165-185. Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. (1990). Immigrant America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Schauber, A. & Castania, K. (2001). Facing issues of diversity: Rebirthing the Extension Service. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001december/comm2.html Tse, L. (2001). Why don't they learn English?: Separating fact from fallacy in the U. S. language debate. New York: Teachers College Press.
From Potluck Suppers to On-line Seminars: The Evolving "Face" of Social InteractionCheryl Burkhart-Kriesel Brenda Caine Social interaction is not new to Extension. One might say that the Cooperative Extension System cut its teeth on its ability to effectively use social interaction as a tool in adult education. As educators, we have historically talked about its importance and often subconsciously integrated it into programming (Torrell, Bruce, & Kvasnicka, 1999; Staats, 1995; Risdon, 1994). As culture evolved, so did the methods used to facilitate social interaction. In Norman Rockwell's day, the potluck supper might have been one of the primary vehicles for social interaction. Although a simple tool, gathering around a meal did provide the opportunity for adult learners to interact, share ideas, and learn from one another. Today, although networking around food is still used, social interaction is now being integrated in many other ways into the learning environment. This article defines briefly social interaction and why it is important to adult learning. Then, it looks at historical educational tools and the latest use of on-line technology to incorporate social interaction into adult education. BackgroundClassically defined, social interaction at the classroom level is "the method by which two or more interdependent individuals influence one another in a group" (Forsythe, 1990). Traditionally, it is thought of in terms of two-way instructor-to-learner and learner-to-learner interaction. It can be successfully woven into a wide variety of learning situations, from the standard face-to-face environment to various multi-media situations in today's distance learning. Moore and Kearsley (1996) have acknowledged that most distance education learners want some kind of interaction with their instructor and fellow learners during an educational event. This may be for purely social reasons or for getting feedback on their ideas and questions. In traditional distance classroom learning environments, email, fax, telephone, and mail all offer methods to connect with the instructor and other learners. Social interaction is important because it can contribute positively to a person's learning. Research indicates that it assists in one's ability to focus towards production (enables accomplishment), innovation (encourages new ideas, explores relationships, and creates change), and maintenance (restores one=s self concept or interpersonal relationships) (Berlo, 1975). In contrast, when social interaction is lacking in a learning environment, it is typically viewed negatively by the learner. Taken to the extreme, it can contribute to the adult's decision to persist or drop out of the learning situation (Kember, 1989). Historical Use in ExtensionIt didn't take long for the first County Extension agents to realize that social interaction was an important component of traditional face-to-face educational programming. Initially, interaction was necessary to counteract the social remoteness of agricultural life, and to some degree it still is important for that same reason. Today as professionals, we casually joke about the use of food as a component to entice people to attend meetings. Perhaps we are doing ourselves a disservice by not looking deeper--what does that social time offer the adult learner? In reality, it provides a venue for social interaction that will enhance the learning process. In 1999, colleagues reminded us of this fact. Never underestimate the need for social interaction. Due to the remoteness of agricultural life and the nature of the business, people look forward to attending Extension meetings for the social aspect as well as the educational materials. Schedule time before or after the program for social interaction. After a few years, this social time becomes tradition and supports attendance at meetings. Many times more Extension work takes place at these social functions than during the program itself (Torrell, Bruce, & Kvasnicka, 1999, 3). Early TeleconferencingAs new program tools became available, new ways to incorporate social interaction were explored. The use of technology opened up a unique set of opportunities and challenges. In the mid-80s, Rogan and Simmons (1984) discussed the generic use of teleconferencing as a method for disseminating information to Extension clientele. They acknowledged the pros and cons of the then new distance delivery systems, discussing three basic types: video-conferencing (television-like communication augmented with sound); computer conferencing (printed communication through keyboard terminals); and audio-conferencing (verbal communication via the telephone with optional capacity for telewriting or telecopying). They clearly recognized that one of the disadvantages of the system was the lack of informal, one-to-one social interaction and the challenge the system had in creating an atmosphere of group rapport. A decade later, teleconferencing via satellite was becoming poplar for selected Extension programs. When carefully crafted, professionals realized the potential positive impact of social interaction, especially for audiences that now could be connected via technology. Teaching via satellite has permitted information transfer to many producers in states and locations previously too distant to reach with traditional programs. Dialogue between audiences of diverse regional and social backgrounds enhances the educational benefit of the program (Staats, 1995, 4). The Use of the InternetToday, as the use of the Internet has grown, so has this technology's ability to function as an adult learning tool for educators. The Internet is reaching out into the realm of social interaction as only computers and the Internet can do. One illustration of this was the rapid development and universal use of a wide variety of graphic emoticons, the best known being : ) for happiness and : ( for sadness, as a way to transmit emotional responses via the written computer word. As Extension professionals, we have not let the role of social interaction via the Internet go unnoticed. The morale benefits that accrue from the collegial interaction via e-mail discussion groups and the close relationship between morale and productivity were acknowledged over 10 years ago in (Trotter & Risdon, 1990). Currently, Nebraska Cooperative Extension is piloting the use of the Internet as a program delivery mode using a relatively new tool--an on-screen platform for real-time sight and sound. A closer look at this tool may provide others with new ideas for future ways to integrate social interaction in adult education opportunities. On-line Seminars as an Outreach ToolTo reach more rural businesses, the University of Nebraska Panhandle Learning Center - Scottsbluff, in partnership with the University of Nebraska Rural Initiative and corporate sponsors, launched an Internet-based business seminar program on September 17, 2003. Called NU Skills®, the highly interactive service allows presenters to share presentations, documents, applications, and Web sites. Attendees log into a virtual seminar room for the visual presentation and dial into a phone conference for the audio portion. NU Skills makes it convenient for rural business people to attend training without traveling and taking time away from the office. Seminars last 1 hour and cover a range of business topics. The premier series, "Running a David Business in a Goliath Economy," covers eight essential keys to help small businesses succeed in a competitive environment. Because it is Internet-based, interested individuals can view upcoming seminars and enroll online at http://nuskills.unl.edu. Costs are kept low, $29 per seminar, to make it affordable for small businesses and individuals. The technology has been available since late 1999. Online meeting services have been used successfully for in-house training, professional association educational programs, technical support, sales demonstrations, and collaborative meetings. Extensive Internet searches show that NU Skills is the first use of this application for public business development seminars. NU Skills also extends the reach of the University of Nebraska Panhandle Learning Center beyond Western Nebraska to anyone anywhere with Internet access. This service allows participants to interact with each other and a presenter from their desks. Interaction is live and can take a number of forms.
Once individuals become familiar with and feel comfortable with this technology, they can maximize the social interaction features that encourage learning. It should also encourage idea sharing and experience-sharing that would benefit the participants in their businesses. The major drawback to this technology is that because attendees participate from their desks, distractions are a danger. Someone entering their offices may distract them, or, should they find the material uninteresting or irrelevant, participants may also opt to check e-mail, browse the Internet, or do other work. Therefore, the presenter must work diligently to keep interaction levels high and adapt content to make presentations compelling. ConclusionSocial interaction is an important part of the learning process. As adult educators, we have consciously and unconsciously incorporated it into our program delivery process. Historically, as new program delivery opportunities have developed, Extension has found ways to incorporate social interaction into the learning situation. Today it may be the use of an on-line seminar. Tomorrow, who knows? Regardless, we can be sure that the "face" of social interaction may change, but the role it will play will remain important in Extension programming.
ReferencesBerlo, D. K. (1975). Information and communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Forsythe, D. R. (1990). Group dynamics. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Kember, D. (1989). A longitudinal-process model of drop-out from distance education. Journal of Higher Education, 60(3), 278-301. Moore, M., & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Risdon, P. (1994). Transferring technology through the Internet channel. Journal of Extension [On-line], 32(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994june/a1.html Rogan, R., & Simmons, G. (1984). Teleconferencing. Journal of Extension [On-line], 22(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1984september/a4.html Staats, L. (1995). Using satellite technology in traditional programs. Journal of Extension [On-line], 33(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995august/iw4.html Torrell, R., Bruce, B., & Kvasnicka, B. (1999). Promoting and organizing agricultural extension meetings. Journal of Extension [On-line], 37(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999february/tt1.html Trotter, P., & Risdon, P.L. (1990). Performance counseling. College and University Personnel Association, 41, 21-24.
Creating Inclusive 4-H Environments for People with DisabilitiesMitzi Stumpf-Downing Karla Henderson Karen Luken Deb Bialeschki The Intentionally Inclusive 4-H Project was a 4-year endeavor to promote inclusive environments in North Carolina. Inclusion was defined as all participants, including people with disabilities, having an opportunity to learn a variety of skills in emotionally and physically safe environments with opportunities for choice. Disability referred to the inability to perform one or more major life activities of self-care, range of motion, manipulation, communication, learning, working, cognitive processing, or maintaining relationships. Disabilities may include a wide range of developmental, psychiatric, and physical problems that may be chronic or acute. The premise of inclusion means creating an environment where all people, regardless of ability, feel they are welcome and can access supports needed for meaningful involvement. Rather than offering special programs only for people with disabilities, the trend today is toward providing supports to increase inclusive opportunities within all programs open to the public. For most individuals, the elimination of physical, communication, and social barriers reduces the need for special programs. Inclusion, however, involves more than just placing people with disabilities into a group or program. It involves social interaction as well as physical integration. Providing support expresses an acceptance of a person and their abilities and enables the individual to participate at his or her level of independence. Inclusion means altering the environment rather than forcing the person with a disability to change (Stumpf, Henderson, Luken, Bialeschki, & Casey, 2002). As an organization financed through federal, state, and local governments, 4-H is mandated to comply with the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The ADA specifies that no one shall be denied opportunities, segregated, or otherwise discriminated against based on their disabilities. More than the legal mandate, however, the philosophy of providing opportunities for all citizens is paramount to the programming and policies administered by the Extension Service. The issue of youth with disabilities and 4-H involvement is not new, but few evaluation efforts have been directed toward intentional inclusion. People with disabilities are an area of limited study in Extension research. In 1994, McBreen explained what Extension staff should know about ADA compliance. In that same year, Tormoehlen and Field (1994) described a Purdue University project that examined the rationale and outcomes of 4-H programs aimed at getting more youth with disabilities involved. Ingram's (1999) survey of Pennsylvania Extension professionals verified that the majority of staff thought people with disabilities should be involved in Extension programs. Because of this scarcity of resources and information about successful practices, a proposal was written and awarded to North Carolina Extension by the North Carolina Council on Developmental Disabilities to undertake a 4-H inclusion project. The purpose of the project was to use a curriculum to develop intentional strategies for making 4-H programs in North Carolina more inclusive. In the first year (1998-99) of the program, curriculum materials titled "Shine Up and Step Out" were developed for use in county 4-H programs. (A copy of the curriculum and the lesson designs is available from the first author.) In the second year (1999-2000), three counties proposed demonstration projects that were completed (see Stumpf et al., 2002). In the next two years, five additional counties received funding for demonstration projects to create inclusive 4-H programs. Through an evaluation conducted twice a year (based on person-to-person and telephone in-depth interviews with county agents and program assistants, and an examination of the new curriculum materials), a qualitative evaluation was conducted to ascertain the value of the project and to provide guidance for all counties in the state, as well as throughout the country, to consider in creating inclusive 4-H environments. The full impact of this experimental program will be evident over the years as more individuals with disabilities become involved with 4-H youth programs. Summary of Inclusion ActivitiesCurriculum MaterialsAll counties in North Carolina had access to the "Shine Up and Step Out" curriculum materials developed in the first year of the project. The 12-lesson curriculum was designed to raise awareness among 9- to 12-year-old youth about people with disabilities and disabling conditions (Stumpf et al., 2002). An emailed survey was sent to all counties in the state to ascertain how the inclusion curriculum had been used. The data indicated that counties that had received grants were the primary users of the material. In these counties the curriculum was given to 4-H clubs, used in after school programs, and used for training volunteers, Teens Reaching Youth (TRY), and public school teachers. All staff who used the curriculum thought the materials were useful. Comments were made about how easy the guide was to use, how easily accessible the materials were, and how youth enjoyed participating in the activities. Staff said the curriculum served as a guideline and provided helpful information for people not familiar with specific disabilities, allowed for a sequential flow of learning, and was especially useful in training teens. The "Shine Up and Step Out" curriculum benefited young people because the lessons offered hands-on activities to illustrate the information taught. The curriculum was also perceived as a source of information that could be useful in lifelong interactions with people with disabilities. Staff said they felt that adults and youth expressed empathy and concern for other people as a result of using the curriculum. The county staff were divided about whether or not they felt the curriculum could be used by itself without other resources. Most of the respondents agreed that the material could be used alone, but felt additional resources leveraged from the community and from the Internet made the program richer. Using materials gained from the Internet, such as materials from specific disability groups, often provided additional information that could not be covered in depth in the 4-H curriculum. Responses were also mixed regarding whether or not additional expertise or training was needed to implement the curriculum. The majority of county agents felt that the more training that one received, the better able they would be to use the curriculum effectively. Many factors, including the uniqueness of each county, seemed to enter into how the curriculum could be used most effectively. Most staff who used the curriculum thought it helped them gain a greater understanding of people with disabilities and helped to decrease some of the barriers and "unknowns" about this population. The guide was also helpful in designing strategies to address barriers to participation in youth programs experienced by people with disabilities. County ApproachesStaff in counties in North Carolina were invited to prepare proposals to focus on how 4-H might intentionally become more inclusive in their counties. Two of the counties involved were urban, four were semi-rural in that they were within an hour's drive of a metropolitan area, and two were rural. The eight counties involved in this project (five for a 2-year period, and three for 1-year) approached inclusion in a variety of ways. All the counties used some of the funding to hire a part-time program assistant to carry out the proposed program. These staff members were instrumental in helping the 4-H agents find supplemental materials, conduct trainings, and extend outreach efforts in the counties. Staff in each of the funded counties developed their own supplemental resources to use in supporting the "Shine Up and Step Out" curriculum. Several staff put together materials compiled from the Internet or from other resources in the community. These materials were then either made available for 4-H staff and volunteers to use or were available in the local library for use by anyone. All 4-H staff in each of the counties put together training opportunities. In some cases, the training was focused on 4-H club leaders and teens. In other cases, it was conducted with after school 4-H program leaders or with public school teachers (both special education teachers and classroom teachers). One county targeted parents with the training materials, and another focused on Americorps leaders and day care centers. Two counties also reported training staff to use the materials at summer camps and other seasonal events. The focus of the initial training was on how to use the "Shine Up and Step Out" curriculum. Counties that used the curriculum in the second year spent additional time marketing the materials for use more broadly in their communities. A key aspect of focusing on inclusion in several counties was in developing partnerships with other service providers, including other disability organizations in the urban counties, or working with local school districts and local government officials. Staff in several counties recognized the importance of inclusion as an ongoing process that had to be addressed in developing Extension partnerships throughout their counties, not just with youth programs. Several counties reported some gains in involving more youth with disabilities becoming involved in 4-H activities, although the numbers were small and the statistics were not easy to collect. Developing inclusive environments seemed to require education, training, teamwork, and time. Staff in the demonstration counties felt that the investment was worth the effort when they saw a raised awareness of and advocacy for inclusion. Conclusions About the Inclusive 4-H ProjectBased on 4 years of data from the project, the following items summarized the primary accomplishments of counties that focused on intentionally inclusive 4-H programs.
Recommendations to Create Inclusive EnvironmentsBased on the evaluation of this 4-H Inclusion Project over 4 years, we offer the following recommendations for developing inclusive environments and opportunities for people with disabilities. These recommendations relate to the curriculum materials, statewide inclusion opportunities, program and policy, community involvement, and ongoing implementation and evaluation. Additional Materials
In summary, the 4-H Inclusion Project was an innovative approach to address the needs of people with and without disabilities in North Carolina. Both youth and adults were targeted. The impact of this program is yet to be fully felt, but the philosophy of inclusion is becoming a permanent tenant of 4-H and Extension programs. This project was an important first step toward the goal of providing every person with an inclusive welcoming environment in which to grow and live. ReferencesIngram, P. D. (1999). Attitudes of Extension professionals toward diversity education in 4-H Programs. Journal of Extension [On-line], 37(1). Available at: www.joe.org/joe/1999february/a3.html McBreen, D. (1994). What Cooperative Extension should know about Americans with Disabilities Act. Journal of Extension [On-line], 32(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994december/a1.html Tormoehlen, R., & Field, W. E. (1994). A perfect fit: Involving youth with disabilities in 4-H. Journal of Extension [On-line], 32(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994june/a4.html Stumpf, M., Henderson, K. A., Luken, K., Bialeschki, M. D., & Casey II, M. (2002). 4-H programs with a focus on including youth with disabilities. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002april/a4.html William, D. K. (1997). The decision for health initiatives--Successful implementation strategies. Journal of Extension [On-line], 35(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997june/iw2.html
Profiling Economic CapacityDavid J. Connell Ellen Wall University of Guelph IntroductionMany rural areas are affected by globalization and restructuring. Generally, stress comes from rapid change in the areas of technology, environmental factors, market dynamics, and government policies and ideologies. Still, economic development remains a local responsibility. Success is more likely if initiated by Extension professionals at the local level than elsewhere and depends largely on local circumstances. By developing an Economic Capacity Profile, one looks at local circumstances from the inside out. An improved understanding of local economic capacity reveals conditions that are relevant for the complex of changes that continue in rural North America. Economic capacity profiles enable Extension professionals to "see" the economic capacity of each site. This information allows comparisons among and between different rural areas where other features (governance, social cohesion, natural resources, etc.) also play an important role in local vitality. The profiles also help rural residents to be aware of the resources and potential available in their local area. Profiles are effective summaries of what can be a complicated set of information. They can be used by Extension professionals to generate questions that will yield useful results for local residents. As a communication tool, profiles are readily understood, with suitable graphics that present complex data in an accessible style. As a learning tool, profiles are hands-on, participatory devices that can increase awareness and encourage collaboration between Extension professionals and residents. The profiles presented in this article are based on research undertaken as part of the New Rural Economy (NRE) Project (http://nre.concordia.ca), examining revitalization across rural Canada. Since 1997, a number of researchers have been gathering data about these sites as part of the NRE activity. Their methods include participant observation, household surveys, and key informant interviews. The remainder of this article provides a description of the details for generating Economic Capacity Profiles, including the methods associated with profiling and the details related to the variables, indicators, and scoring. A profile for a hypothetical site is then presented. Economic Capacity ProfilesThe purpose of creating an economic capacity profile is to characterize features that support local economic development so that outreach strategies and programs can be designed. A review of the economic development literature reveals a wide range of local attributes examined from many perspectives (see, for example, Bryant, 1994; Westcoast Development Group, 1993; Walmsley, 1992). One may discuss, for example, location related to costs of regional supply and distribution, quality of life in relation to decision-making processes of firms, or access to low-cost, high-volume energy supply to meet industry-specific requirements. Throughout the literature, the importance of site-specific attributes is emphasized. Sorting through these attributes is a significant step in developing the Economic Capacity Profile. Site-specific features that support economic development include resources located both within and at a distance from the site. To measure economic capacity it is useful to know, for example, if there is an industrial park within or near the site. Such information can be used in different ways with regard to an economic development strategy. For instance, if an industrial park does not exist in the site, a strategy may be to build one. If a park does exist, the strategy might focus upon marketing the site. Similarly, low wages in a site may be viewed as an indication of weak economic vitality, or they might also be seen as an asset to attract new business. With regard to economic development strategies, indicators therefore may be interpreted either positively or negatively--as an opportunity or challenge--it will depend on the context. To look at local circumstances from the inside out is to focus upon site-specific factors that directly contribute to economic development without explicit regard for external requirements. A profile of economic capacity, therefore, is a strategy-neutral perspective of site-specific attributes that contribute to local economic development, i.e., the attributes are not based on industry- or firm-specific locational criteria. Based on our analysis of the literature, four variables were identified as constituting economic capacity: level of entrepreneurship, human resources, infrastructure, and business environment. These four variables can be assessed through measures of 20 locational attributes (or indicators), discussed more fully in the following sections. The selection of these indicators was based on three factors:
The Economic Capacity Profile has the potential for further refinement and development in response to local circumstances and interests. For example, one might include access to health services as a specific indicator of local infrastructure. Extension professionals may want to use the structure underlying the Profile for a range of variables and indicators of their choosing and thereby customize the Profile to their needs. Level of EntrepreneurshipA key feature of local economic development is the level of entrepreneurship. "Little will happen without local entrepreneurs" (Polèse, 1994). Entrepreneurs are people who can mobilize resources and turn ideas into viable businesses. Entrepreneurship is portrayed as a significant factor of North American historical development (Kent Sexton, & Vesper, 1982) and as a solution to present economic challenges (Nichol, 1999). Entrepreneurship is one way that rural areas will move from a traditional reliance on primary sector industry to small business activity in manufacturing and service that can provide new opportunities for employment (Reimer, 2000). Although just what constitutes entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial characteristics is debated in the literature (Hornaday, 1982), it is possible to isolate certain local characteristics to serve as indicators for the level of entrepreneurship in a given site. Three indicators were selected.
Human ResourcesThe concept of human resources captures an appreciation for the important contribution individuals make to the success of any business enterprise. The quality and availability of employees therefore need to be accounted for in any assessment of economic capacity (Welke & Douglas, 1999). Accessibility to an education system that trains people to meet local economic needs and opportunities is also critical. The education and training system is an important part of social resources since training can change and create opportunities (Bryant, 1994). Human Resources is closely tied to human capital and comprised of four indicators.
Local InfrastructureReliable utilities services, transportation, communications networks, and public services are all necessary elements for economic enterprises to operate. Important factors include water and sewage systems, public buildings (e.g., town hall, primary schools, recreation facilities), proximity to provincial or federal highways, local community paper, and Internet access. High schools are included here as a basic public service, rather than, for example, as an attribute of human resources.
Although some infrastructures contribute directly to economic activity, all attributes "should be seen as fundamentally necessary" for economic capacity (Bryant, 1994). Otherwise, enterprises must bear the added costs of sustaining these services. Business EnvironmentBoth formal and informal aspects of a supportive business environment contribute to economic capacity. Access to capital itself is not a major factor in predicting business success; knowing what to do with capital is important (Polèse, 1994). More concrete features (e.g., the presence of an industrial park and the services provided by economic development agencies) co-exist with the more informal aspects of support that arise from interactions with other businesses. According to Welke & Douglas (1999), support from Extension professionals and other organizations is important to overcome obstacles for economic development by enhancing networking and co-operation among enterprises and contribute to overall flexibility within the economic sector. For many economic reasons, it is important to be closer to other businesses for personal and daily contact. The six indicators chosen aim to reflect both concrete and less formal aspects of Business Environment are:
MethodsThe general aim was to develop objective measures of site-specific economic capacity. The focus was on whether resources were present or not present, as well as how far the resources were from the site if not available within the site. Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4 summarize the variables, indicators, and the methods used for developing scores for each indicator. For comparative purposes, absolute scores for indicators (e.g., unemployment rates, distance from site) were transformed into a score between 1 (low) and 5 (high). Several methods were used. Indicators were measured against either the provincial average to reflect regional differences or against the sample range to reflect relative differences. For example, unemployment rates vary by province. A 9 % unemployment rate might be a good situation for one area and bad for another. Hence, the unemployment rate was first transformed into a ratio using provincial averages and then scored using a scale. The high and low ends of the unemployment scale were based on the range of ratios of all the NRE sites. The NRE sample was accepted as representative of rural areas. The scales for "proximity to site" were based on the range of distances for all NRE sites. The ranges were then divided into a five-point scale. Distances were not the same for all indicators. The different scales used to measure proximity reflect the relative importance of each indicator. For example, it was deemed that it is more important for high schools to be closer to the site than general public services. Similarly, being close to an urban center is more important than being close to an international airport. The different scoring methods are identified in each of the tables below. As a tool for local development, Extension professionals can work with local residents to complete the Economic Capacity Profile. Familiarity with businesses and their activities is sufficient to complete the Profiles in conjunction with census statistics like unemployment rates and education levels.
Creating the ProfileAfter calculating scores for each indicator, the results are used to create an Economic Capacity Profile, such as the one in Figure 1. The Profile is comprised of several charts illustrating different views of the same data. The scores of the site being analyzed are ranked against the scores of the 20 NRE sites. (Note: each bar in the charts represents a score for each NRE site.) The charts shown include: the site's total average score relative to the 20 NRE sites (top chart); the site's scores for each variable relative to the 20 NRE sites (four charts on lower left); the site's scores for each of the 20 indicators (the "All Indicators" chart, middle right); and, the site's average score for each variable (lower left). Collectively, the charts show how indicators relate to variables and how variables relate to each other and the overall economic capacity in the site. The site Profile shown in Figure 1 represents characteristics of many small towns in North America. Overall, the site is doing well, as indicated by the overall ranking (second quartile) relative to the 20 sites. The overall capacity reflects the site's historical position as a rural center with a diversified manufacturing and service base. Restructuring in the "new rural economy" has eroded this base over the past 30 years, but still provides infrastructure to support new economic development. The charts on the lower left side of the Profile show the site rank for each of Entrepreneurship, Human Resources, Infrastructure, and Business Environment. These rankings by variable reveal the site's relative strengths and weaknesses. The "All Indicators" chart is a composite of the 20 indicators. Each "spoke" of the radial graph represents one of the 20 indicators (e.g., SE = level of self-employment). The chart shows that the site has a mix of scores. The higher score for Business Environment reflects the site's concentrated retail activity along "main street" as well as its proximity to an urban center. The site is among the lower scores for human resources, which reflects a relatively high unemployment rate and, to some extent, an increase in the population of retired peoples. Figure 1.
ConclusionRural North America continues to face the challenges and opportunities related to increasing globalization, demographic transformations, an aging infrastructure, and continued resource depletion. Enhanced understanding of local potential for economic development can generate a firm sense of direction, but much of what underlies local economic success remains complex. New insights into effective community economic development are necessary for the regions and communities within rural areas to survive and prosper. The economic capacity profiling described in this article is offered as one tool that can help Extension professionals to develop strategies and programs for sustainable settlements. The composition of the Profiles offers an innovative contribution to the field of Extension. As a tool for development, the Profile arranges data in a single account of local strengths and weaknesses. As a tool for comparative analysis, the Profile synthesizes multiple perspectives. Data are analyzed by overall score, variable scores, and indicator scores. As a facilitation tool, the multi-dimensional approach acts as a mirror highlighting local characteristics with the simultaneous ability to inspect details. A story of local economic capacity unfolds in the process. ReferencesBryant, C. R. (1994). The locational dynamics of community economic development." In Douglas, D. J. Community economic development in Canada: Volume 1. Toronto, ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. Finsterbusch, K., Formichella, C., Huennen, D., & Ramsay, M. S. (1992). An evaluation of a wide range of job creating activities for rural counties. Journal of the Community Development Society 23(1):103-22. Green, G. P. (1994). Is small beautiful? Small business development in rural areas. Journal of the Community Development Society 25(2):155-71. Hornaday, J. A. (1982). Research about living entrepreneurs. In Kent, C. A., Sexton, D.L., & Vesper, K. H. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Kent, C. A., Sexton, D.L., & Vesper, K. H. (Eds.) (1982). Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Nichol, P. (1999). Introduction: Huron County in the new rural economy. In Fuller, T. & Nichol, P., Dynamics of the new rural economy. Guelph, ON: University School of Rural Planning and Development, University of Guelph. Polèse, M. (1994). Community economic development revisited: The preconditions for success. In Galloway, B. & Hudson, J., Community economic development: Perspectives on research and policy. Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. Reimer, B. (2000). IWG self-employment project component II: Statistical summary report. Montreal: University of Concordia. Walmsley, A. (1992). Bright lights, best cities. Report on Business, August 1992, 42-58. Welke, S. M. & Douglas, D. J. (1999). New rural enterprises in Huron County. In Fuller, T. & Nichol, P., Dynamics of the new rural economy. Guelph, ON: University School of Rural Planning and Development, University of Guelph. Westcoast Development Group (1993). Entrepreneurial communities: A handbook for local action. Vernon, BC: Westcoast Development Group.
Cooperative Extension Responding to Family Needs in Time of Drought and Water ShortageKathy R. Bosch IntroductionU.S. Senator Ben Nelson, from Nebraska, named the drought " that has wreaked havoc on crops and livestock in much of Nebraska" as " Drought David" (Omaha World-Herald, 1/15/03). Because future support of Extension relies heavily on issues programming and how critical issues can be addressed effectively (Vitzthum, 1991), it has been essential to address the effects of the drought on farmers, ranchers, rural families, and their communities. This drought has affected a major part of the United States and has been classified as a severe to extreme throughout Nebraska. The purpose of this article is two-fold:
Literature ReviewLiving in rural America is assumed to be positive and wholesome for family life; however, rural areas are increasingly falling behind in wealth, job opportunities, school adequacy, health care, transportation, water and sewage systems, shopping facilities, telecommunications networks, and overall well-being (Wells, 2002). Feeling loved, capable, and self-sufficient is critical to the well-being of individuals and families, whether urban or rural. The feelings of self-sufficiency and independence are also a part of rural tradition and appear to influence the well-being of farmers and ranchers. People in rural communities tend to adhere to patriarchal values where men are often considered major providers and major decision-makers (Saugeres, 2002), although this is changing because the majority of farm women work off the farm. Farm income averaged about 50% of total family income in the 1980's (Lilley, 1988), but off- farm income has increased during the past decade in order to help support farming and ranching endeavors. It is now estimated that 75% of farm/ranch households have at least one partner who works off the farm. Farm women who have off-farm employment usually find low-paid, part-time jobs in the service sector. Rural women may have less education and limited work skills, but their lower wages are primarily due to lower returns on human capital, inferior labor markets, and gender-segregated occupations (Wells, 2002). Although some partners may make minimal off-farm wages, these incomes provide for living expenses and therefore cause a potential imbalance of relationship power. Changes in work and family structure have been occurring gradually during the past two decades. However, it is difficult to change the traditional patriarchal milieu to one where women and men have equal opportunities, women may choose to have careers off-farm, and couple/partner relationships are egalitarian. These cultural, environmental, and business hardships place stress on couple relationships and escalate the potential for conflict and/or partner abuse. When conditions such as harsh weather and low commodity prices cause hardship on farmers and ranchers, individual, couple, and family well-being suffers. According to USDA and the Nebraska Department of Agriculture (2002), farmers and ranchers experienced stress due to multiple hardships although commodity prices increased slightly. During the 1980's, midwestern farmers experienced a tremendous loss of income and property (Jurich & Russell, 1987) and suffered chronic stress and depression. Reframing the problem, trying to be positive when considering different solutions and possible outcomes, was a major coping strategy used by farm couples. Some farmers and ranchers coped with problems by having strong religious beliefs and were reluctant to accept help from professionals, neighbors, or relatives. They were confident in their ability to solve problems on their own (Light, 1990). Educators who have worked with hundreds of farm and ranch families have indicated farmers and ranchers are more willing to seek assistance today than they were back in the 1980's and 1990's, although it is not an easy task to ask for help or access resources (Bosch, Griffin, Meek, & Rossman, 2002). According to Greg Ibauch, Nebraska Department of Agriculture, resources and some farm subsidy monies will be available to help farm and ranch families in Nebraska (2002). Families who are losing their farms may receive little help from their neighbors due to victim blaming, where individuals are blamed for circumstances beyond their control. Farmers and ranchers may also fail to seek help due to farm community values involving pride and independence that influence farm families in crisis to pull back from neighbors (Wright & Rosenblatt, 1987). Cook and Heppner (1997) found problem-solving appraisal and coping strategies to be important variables in the complex coping processes of Midwestern farmers engaged in major career transition. According to this study, intervention programs to aid farmers should be geared toward increasing farmers' sense of mastery, specifically problem-solving skills. They suggested that more research on farmers engaged in major career transition is needed to examine the consequences of farmers' coping skills on resolution of the problem, perseverance, and hopelessness (Cook & Heppner, 1997). Researchers in the 1980's and 1990's found that Nebraska farm/ranch families suffered hardship under economic stress (Johnson, 1990; Ortega, 1994), and more than 40% of farm operators reported very high or high levels of stress (Lilley, 1988). Although farming, by nature, is a stressful occupation, the potential stressors have been elevated because of drought conditions. The high evidence of stress and the consequences of these stressors, such as loss of self-esteem, leading to withdrawal from social and community activity, inhibition of adaptive responses, poor decision-making about financial and family matters, depression, and the breakdown of family relationships, led the Australian government to provide farm families with drought relief programs. These included such programs as a recovery guide, hot line, training to enhance skills of primary producers, farm debt mediation, and rural women's networks to provide information and resource links (Stayner & Barclay, 2002). Although there are apparent similarities in stress responses caused by economic stress and stress caused by drought, more research is needed and is currently underway to help understand the impact of drought on farm and ranch families (Bosch & Griffin, 2004). According to psychologist Mike Rossman (Bosch, Griffin, Meek, & Rossman, 2002), drought conditions are more long-term than a flood or pest that hits one crop or season, making drought more difficult on the overall health and well-being of individuals and families. Drought appears to be a great hardship on farm/ranch families and is causing them to make difficult decisions, such as whether or not to remain in farming. In many cases, the decision to quit farming is being made for them by their lending institutions. However, many individuals and couples remain hopeful that the drought will end in the near future. One Nebraska farmer reported in an interview that the health of his wife, who had cancer, was more important to him than his crop of corn. Another well-established Nebraska farmer interviewed in the fall of 2002 stated that although he and his wife have cried together, they pray things will be OK. He was certain they will survive but is concerned that his son and daughter-in-law, the younger generation of farmers, may not financially survive farming through the drought. In January 2004, this two-generation farm family had a farm sale and were having to quit farming to avoid further loss of assets or bankruptcy. The younger couple will move and find employment in a larger town; the 60-year old father will work for a local farmer. When asked about how the drought is affecting their couple relationship, a Nebraska rancher said, "It's difficult; strained sometimes. I'm more of a communicator than he is, so there'll be times I have to draw it out of him, so it's difficult; it's strained! He's a quiet man and it's sometimes difficult without a drought! We just need to keep open-minded and work at communication" (Bosch et al., 2002). According to Nebraska climatologist Al Dutcher and other specialists who have studied the weather patterns, it is speculated that drought conditions may continue for 1 to 3 years (Dutcher, 2002; Hu, 2003). During 2002 Nebraska suffered with less than average rainfall and was considered to be in severe to extreme drought. The Nebraska Panhandle had 50% less than average rainfall for 2002 with 6" total annual rainfall. Snowfall shortages in the mountains were expected the following winter and underground water levels were decreasing (Berens, Nebraska Office of Rural Health, 2002). Creative and often costly strategies were used to continue farming and ranching during drought, such as to dig more wells, borrow irrigation waters against next year's allotment, change crop type and production systems, and sell livestock because of lack of feed. Because of decreasing water levels in the aquifer system, water shortage will be a reality even if rainfall is average in the coming years (Sibray, 2003). This is likely to be a long-term problem that will affect farmers and ranchers, rural communities, and policy-makers. Cooperative Extension Programming 2002-2003Extension educators constantly struggle with the challenge of delivering programs that are effective, timely, and accessible to specific target audiences. Working with other Extension colleagues, collaborators, and clients was essential in delivering effective programming on this issue that reached audiences with research-based, client-driven educational information. Numerous contacts were made with key people who work with rural issues via teleconferences, personal visits, planning meetings, and interviews. The program, planned by collaborators within state and on multi-state teams with the lead of a Cooperative Extension Family Life Specialist, included the following components. News MediaIn late spring of 2002, the shortage of rainfall was already being experienced by farmers and ranchers. Therefore, with assistance from Cooperative Extension administrators and communication specialists, nutrition, community development, and family life specialists teamed together to write news releases and radio programs distributed throughout Nebraska and Kansas. Interviews and article releases were in many papers such as the Los Angeles Times, Omaha World Herald, and Salina Journal, and on numerous radio stations including an hour-long program with Data Transmission Network and Market Journal. Approximately 40 news articles were submitted to farm magazines widely read by the rural population, primarily written by a Cooperative Extension family life specialist. These news articles were then tailored for local use as needed by county educators for news releases via newspapers and radio. Family issues, specifically how drought affects families, were addressed from a holistic perspective, including physically, financially, emotionally, sexually, and spiritually. Topics included:
Fact SheetsBecause farm and ranch couples were experiencing a great deal of stress, a rural issues council, the Nebraska Rural Response Hotline, and Cooperative Extension staff established a program priority focusing on strengthening couple relationships. Cooperative Extension fact sheets were written on various topics related to rural couples and farming with extended family, including:
ClassesDepending on local needs, Cooperative Extension classes were offered as face-to-face, learn-at-home courses through the mail, or as Internet courses in the privacy of individuals' homes. The implementation of CoupleTalk, a personal relationship course designed to strengthen partner relationship by building skills emphasizing growth and behavioral change, developed by Kansas State University Extension Specialist Charlotte Shoup Olsen, is one example of multi-state programming involving the exchange of course material and co-teaching. Because Cooperative Extension delivers educational programming rather than counseling or therapy, couple relationship education was offered to couples who were not in severe distress and wanted to strengthen skills and develop a support network. Referrals were made to appropriate mental health centers, the Nebraska Center for Conflict Resolution, the Nebraska Rural Response Hotline, and mediation services when deemed necessary. Multi-State "Weathering Tough Times" Satellite Conference and Community Meeti | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
