April 2004
Volume 42 Number 2

Tools of the Trade

Self-Directed Work Teams: The Antidote for "Heroic Suicide"

Nancy K. Franz
Associate Director
University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension
nancy.franz@unh.edu

Environmental pressures, including deeper accountability and uncertain public funding enhance interest in the use of self-directed work teams. These pressures and rapid change make solo work in organizations "heroic suicide." This article examines the rationale for self-directed work teams, characteristics of effective work teams, and successful work team leadership.

Why Self-Directed Work Teams?

Success in today's workplace often derives from teamwork and employee empowerment (Axelrod, 2000; Boyett & Boyett, 1998; Purser & Cabana, 1998). This democratization of work stems from globalization, increased diversity, the development of technology, and unprecedented environmental change (Heckscher & Donnellon, 1994; Hickman, 1998; Renn, 1998). Many organizations, including Cooperative Extension, turn to collaborative work to embrace and capitalize on this change (Boone, 1990; Hutchins, 1992; Patterson, 1998).

Increased organizational effectiveness and personal satisfaction result from self-directed work teams (Forsyth, 1999). Organizationally, teams:

• Produce higher quality solutions,
• Increase customer satisfaction,
• Reduce operating costs,
• Improve quality and productivity,
• Better align workloads,
• Retain and attract top employees,
• Rapidly response to technological change,
• Increase innovation and creativity,
• Support risk taking,
• Create organizational growth through learning,
• Serve as mechanisms for honoring the past, and
• Appreciate and use diversity (Huszczo, 1996; Mackay, 1993; Wellins, Byham, & Wilson, 1991).

For individuals, teams provide:

• Motivation
• Personal growth
• Job satisfaction
• Sense of community
• Fulfilling relationships
• Constructive conflict resolution
• Leadership development
• Empowerment and trust
• Attention to worker values (Brilhart, 1983; Huszczo, 1996; Mackay, 1993; Wellins, Byham, & Dixon, 1994).

One Extension researcher states, "Ultimately, teams make better decisions, are more innovative and productive, and exhibit an increased willingness to take risks" (Nall, 1998).

Self-directed work teams, defined as a group of employees responsible for a "whole" work process, bring a product or service to internal or external users (Wellins, Byham, & Wilson, 1991). Two or more people work together on a specific goal through interrelated activity (Larson & LaFasto, 1989). Team approaches most often succeed when:

• Work crosses disciplines and functions,
• Products and services need quick development,
• The environment changes rapidly,
• Innovation and learning are priorities,
• Task completion requires individual contribution to the whole, and
• The work requires little supervision (Forsyth, 1999)

Given these benefits, work teams without a doubt need to become the norm rather than the exception for Extension work.

Effective Work Teams

According to Hackman (1990), successful work teams fit three criteria. First, task output must be acceptable to team members and stakeholders. Second, success is defined as maintaining or strengthening the capability of team members for future work together. Finally, successful teams meet the needs of team members rather than creating frustration (Forsyth, 1999).

A review of research on work team effectiveness reveals 10 characteristics of successful teams (Axelrod, 2000; Bradford, 1978; Brilhart, 1983; Ciulla, 1998; Cranton, 1998; Fairholm, 1991; Fisher, 1995; Hackman, 1990; Huber, 1997; Huszczo, 1996; Jewell & Reitz, 1981; Larson & LaFasto, 1989; Purser & Cabana, 1998; Wellins et al., 1994; Wellins et al., 1991).

• Clear purpose--Team members understand the group goal and how it fits the overall work. They have clear direction and understand the nature and complexity of their effort. Team members accept the group's purpose and find it meaningful.

• Team member attributes--Talents, attitudes, beliefs, values, and personalities each member brings to the team greatly affect success. Group dynamics fueled by individual differences, status, power, pressure towards uniformity, and willingness to collaborate affect the team's work. Success often depends on individual readiness to work with others.

• Unified commitment--Teams with strong commitment to the goal and each other share values and beliefs about their purpose and personal interactions. A high level of cohesiveness and participation exists.

• Strong relationships--Successful teams build and enhance constructive internal and external relationships in meeting their goals. This requires collaboration across boundaries and interdependence for completing tasks.

• Communication--Open communication, including deep listening, supports civilized disagreement and constructive conflict resolution. Successful teams agree on procedures for decision making and mutually negotiate work boundaries. Effective teams openly share information.

• Trust and confidence--A high level of trust results in enhanced personal and group confidence. These groups operate informally and provide psychological safety for their members. Groups with strong trust and confidence support risk taking.

• Accountability--Results, accountability, and high standards of excellence drive successful teams. Members share responsibility for outcomes, and everyone contributes.

• Leadership--Successful work teams thrive when leaders create environments that nurture creativity, accomplishments, and relationships. These leaders are supportive, principled, and serve as coaches and facilitators. They lead group processes that balance task with relationship building and enhance the group's capacity for change.

• Clear, enticing roles and responsibilities--Members of successful teams understand what needs accomplishing, and they enjoy working together. They realize individual efforts contribute to the larger organization in a meaningful way.

• Physical factors--Successful teams depend on size, material resources, and physical operating environments. The influence of these factors often relates to the nature of the task at hand.

In addition to these internal characteristics of effective work teams, external characteristics such as organizational context, reward systems, competition, and team autonomy within the organizational structure also affect the success of work teams.

Leading Work Teams

As organizations, including Extension, move from a paradigm valuing individual work to focusing on team efforts, the leader no longer simply manages tasks. The role instead requires facilitating processes to create fertile team environments. This demands a different orientation to leadership and different skills and actions. Leadership, rather than residing in one person, is now "accomplished as a team function, with and through teams (Kinlaw, 1991, p. 51)."

Leadership goals in a team context include increased group development and performance (Kinlaw, 1991) and building trust, autonomy, and authority of team members (Cottrill, 1997). This requires leaders to serve as co-learners, resources, models, problem solvers, trouble shooters, and advocates for collaborative learning (Cranton, 1998). Specific leadership qualities in successful teams include being rational and interpersonal problem solvers, showing respect for others, believing in mutuality to accomplish goals, and demonstrating effective facilitation (Kinlaw, 1991).

Leaders facilitating teams primarily:

• Manage communication process,
• Neutrally direct discussion,
• Monitor effective use of group time,
• Stimulate creative and critical thinking, and
• Promote teamwork and cooperation (Brilhart, 1983; Ludwig, 1998).

Enhancing these leadership roles includes:

• Knowing personal strengths and weaknesses,
• Leading situationally,
• Knowing when not to lead situationally,
• Working with diverse skills and styles,
• Planning 80% of the team's value for the first 50% of the effort,
• Sharing power with others,
• Realizing that suspicion and rumors can lead to reality,
• Motivating others through shared beliefs and values,
• Actively managing conflict, and
• Building trust through relationships

Team leadership appears more complex than heroic leadership. However, no one person can effectively handle the difficult problems facing organizations today.

Conclusion

Research shows that organizations like Extension succeed when teams carry out complex work. Extension needs to build successful teams and develop effective team leaders to better address the problems and issues facing people and communities today. Heroes must join together to enhance Extension's effectiveness and sustainability through self-directed work teams.

References

Axelrod, R. (2000). Terms of engagement: Changing the way we change organizations. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.

Boone, E. (1990). Crossing lines. Journal of Extension [On-line], 28(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990fall/tp1.html

Boyett, J., & Boyett, J. (1998). The guru guide: The best of the top management thinkers. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Bradford, L. (1978). Group development. San Diego: University Associates.

Brilhart, J. (1983). Effective group discussion (5th ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: William Brown Co.

Ciulla, J. (Ed.). (1998). Ethics, the heart of leadership. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Cottrill, M. (1997). Give Your Work Teams Time and Training. The Academy of Management Executive, 11(3), 87-89.

Cranton, P. (1998). No one way: Teaching and learning in higher education. Toronto: Wall and Emerson.

Fairholm, G. (1991). Values leadership: Toward a new philosophy of leadership. New York: Praeger.

Fisher, K. (1995). Tips for teams: A ready reference for solving common team problems. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Forsyth, D. (1999). Group dynamics (3rd ed.). New York: Brooks/Cole-Wadsworth.

Hackman, R. (Ed.). (1990). Groups that work (and those that don't): Creating conditions for effective teamwork. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Heckscher, C., & Donnellon, A. (Eds.). (1994). The post bureaucratic organization: New perspectives on organizational change. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Hickman, G. R. (Ed.). (1998). Leading organizations: Perspectives for a new era. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Huber, M. T. (1997). Community college faculty attitudes and trends, 1997 (NCPI 4 03). Stanford, CA: Stanford University.

Huszczo, G. (1996). Tools for team excellence: Getting your team into high gear and keeping it there. Palo Alta, CA: Davies-Black.

Hutchins, G. (1992). Evaluating county clustering. Journal of Extension [On-line], 30(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992spring/a5.html

Jewell, L., & Reitz, J. (1981). Group effectiveness in organizations. Glenview, Il: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Kinlaw, D. (1991). Developing superior work teams: Building quality and the competitive edge. Toronto: Lexington Books.

Larson, C., & LaFasto, F. (1989). TeamWork: What must go right/What can go wrong. London: Sage.

Ludwig, B. (1998). The leader as a facilitator. Paper presented at the Leading Learning Organizations, Charleston, South Carolina.

Mackay, A. (1993). Team up for excellence. New York: Oxford Press.

Nall, M. (1998). Trust and teamwork--An experiential learning activity. Paper presented at the Leading Learning Organizations, Charleston, South Carolina.

Patterson, T. (1998). Commentary II: A new paradigm for Extension administration. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998february/comm1.html

Peterson, R. (2001). Leading teams and organizations. (unpublished document), Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.

Purser, R., & Cabana, S. (1998). The Self managing organization: How leading companies are transforming the work of teams for real impact. New York: The Free Press.

Renn, R. (1998). High-performing self-managed work teams: A comparison of theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 23(4), 816-818.

Wellins, R., Byham, W., & Dixon, G. (1994). Inside teams: How 20 world-class organizations are winning through teamwork. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Wellins, R., Byham, W., & Wilson, J. (1991). Empowered teams: Creating self-directed work groups that improve quality, productivity and participation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

The Do's and Don'ts of Working with Local Communities: Tips for Successful Community-Based Public Meetings

Paul Coreil
Vice Chancellor and Director
pcoreil@agcenter.lsu.edu

Carrie Castille
Extension Associate
ccastille@agcenter.lsu.edu

LSU Agricultural Center
Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service
Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Introduction

Communities must be provided with a forum to express their opinions about public policies. Public meetings provide an excellent format for honest and open local input. Planning is essential to conducting an effective public meeting. An effective public policy education process must be implemented before, during, and after the public meeting.

Before the Public Meeting

• Go into the community early, without a formal, already-established agenda. Let local officials help develop and be a part of a mutually developed agenda.
• Make early contact with key policy-makers and opinion leaders to assure their participation.
• Convene a small group meeting of local leaders in advance of any formal public meeting.
• Meet in their environment, such as a home or local restaurant.
• Seek local/community college or university linkages.
• Anticipate conflict ahead of time.
• Set up meeting at a time, place, and frequency agreeable to local conditions.
• Ask local leaders for length-of-meeting recommendations, including individual presentations. (2-hour meetings and 20-minute presentations recommended.)
• Organize and practice your presentations.
• Keep presentation focused and at a level most members of the community can understand.
• Use an experienced facilitator who is familiar with local conditions.
• Know when to use audio/visual equipment. Sometimes you are more effective simply talking to your audience.
• Bring whatever audio/visual equipment needed to the meeting. Don't rely on unverified equipment.

During the Public Meeting

• Dress professionally for the occasion and appropriately to the local culture.
• Arrive at the meeting early to meet your local hosts, check out the room, and set up equipment and illustrations before attendees arrive.
• Greet, meet, and mix with the local people as they arrive.
• Speak to the audience at ground or floor level if possible; avoid elevated stage or platform.
• Always ask a local official everyone knows and respects to open the meeting, give the welcoming remarks, and make the initial introductions of state and/or federal agency guests.
• Introduce elected officials at the beginning of the meeting as a sign of respect.
• Attempt to make good eye contact with the audience.
• Speak clearly and slowly; however, be enthusiastic.
• Don't lean on or drum the lectern. Don't shuffle or speak monotonously during presentation; try to look relaxed.
• Use local geographically and socially familiar examples in presentations.
• Require all agency representatives to stay at the meeting and take part in the discussions.
• Avoid agency "hall meeting" and talking in the back of the room during the meeting.
• Make a conscious attempt to mix up seating so agency representatives do not sit together.
• If you can't tell a joke, don't try to be funny. Stay away from potentially distasteful jokes, comments, or observations.
• Have a printed outline of key points to be made at the meeting, and distribute it before the meeting begins.
• Use clear slides with a similar layout throughout the presentation(s). Each slide should illustrate a point.
• Don't apologize for lack of information. Simply point out that this is the information you have.
• If a slide cannot be read from the back of the room, don't use it.
• Avoid flow charts; maps, bullets, and checklists are preferred.
• Approach all issues in a positive manner; always take the "high road."
• Smile to make people more comfortable.
• Justify the issue by expounding economic, social, and quality of life benefits within the community that will result from the proposed action; however, be honest about potential benefits and costs.
• Anticipate reactions to certain policy points/issues. Prepare a concise question-and-answer handout for distribution.
• Create and distribute a handout listing your name, address, phone number, fax number, and e-mail address for participant follow-up. If possible, include the same for a trusted local contact working with you on the issue.
• Admit when you don't know something or are not certain.
• Discuss the strengths, weaknesses, and uncertainties about the issues or the proposal.
• Maintain your composure; avoid losing your temper.
• Read the audience; if members become restless or begin talking, cut back and adjust your presentation immediately.
• Make it clear to the audience that the information flow should go both ways; local input on the issue is critical.
• Leave quality time for public comment and questions.
• In some communities, you may want to avoid some "hot button" words such as "activist," "environmentalist," or "preservationist." Replace with more acceptable words such as "conservationist."
• Record issues of concern brought up during the meeting on a flip chart in the front of the room.

After the Public Meeting

• Monitor local newspaper and television newscasts to ascertain community or media reaction.
• Consider detailing quality, field-based office outreach professionals.
• Prepare a written summary of issues of concern, suggestions, and/or questions raised by attendees and recorded at the meeting. Distribute this summary report to all meeting participants, policy-makers (both attending and non-attending), and all other interested parties. Consider placing a copy in a local library or posting on a Web site.
• Encourage agency representatives, local sponsors, and host(s) to get together immediately to process meeting results quickly and compare notes on the next step(s).
• Use effective evaluation instruments to gauge success of outreach initiative within the community (e.g., surveys, polls, mailed questionnaires, etc.).
• Keep going back to the community to earn trust and show willingness to continue listening and learning.
• Always provide answers to questions on a timely basis.

Conclusion

Careful planning and commitment to the above recommendations will vastly improve community outreach initiatives addressing sensitive public policy issues. Planning and implementing a successful community outreach strategy is not easy, but it is essential for effective long-term community buy-in. Some conflict cannot be completely resolved. Even in these cases, however, state and federal agencies should heed the above outreach tips so as to not add to the conflict through poor planning and poor communication.

The Collaborative Community Change Model: Understanding and Evaluating University Extension Professionals' Role in Community Change

Randy Brown
Area Extension Specialist/Associate Professor
University of Nevada, Cooperative Extension
Las Vegas, Nevada
brownr@unce.unr.edu

William Evans
State Specialist/Associate Professor
Human Development and Family Studies
Reno, Nevada
evans@unr.nevada.edu

University of Nevada, Reno

Introduction

A central role of university Extension professionals is to provide research-based programming, technical expertise, and leadership in response to community needs. While some Extension professionals may provide discreet "direct service" programming (e.g., a series of water conservation trainings for community members), many assist by providing leadership or capacity building to a committee, initiative, or organization that is directly or indirectly affecting a community, statewide, or regional issue.

For example, an Extension professional who has a natural resource background may be asked to provide ongoing technical support for a wildlife conservation initiative. This initiative group might generate funds to enhance wildlife conservation areas and/or promote policy change. Another Extension professional might be asked to train members of a pregnancy prevention coalition on how to develop a sound strategic plan. This coalition might then work toward developing a marketing strategy to prevent teenage pregnancy.

University Extension professionals, in response to community needs, engage in various types of activities, which can be roughly categorized as: "direct service" programs, technical support, and capacity building. Each of these types of activities plays an important role in addressing the needs of communities. Nevertheless, many Extension professionals are challenged by how best to evaluate the impact of their technical support or capacity-building activities upon community change.

Collaborative Community Change Model

In response to a need expressed by faculty of the University of Nevada Cooperative Extension (UNCE) system, the authors developed a model that incorporated the complexity of Extension professionals' involvements in community change. The Collaborative Community Change model incorporates factors associated with effective collaborations and the various roles Extension professionals often play to address identified issues and influence community change.

Accordingly, it attempts to identify the various pathways that may influence community change, and helps to elucidate possible roles and activities that Extension faculty often play in trying to foster community change . Thus, the model can be used as a way to understand how to evaluate various capacity-building and community development activities that contribute to the success of individual and community developments.

Figure 1.
Collaborative Community Change Model^*

* Portions adapted from Taylor-Powell, Rossing, & Gerran, (1998). Evaluating Collaboratives: Reaching the Potential. University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension.

Each blue box (Extension Professional [EP]) represents a point in the community change process where an Extension professional might conduct programming. The furthest right blue box represents an Extension professional who designs and/or conducts a discreet program that directly works towards creating community change. For example, an Extension professional may be conducting a nutrition education program that seeks to prevent diabetes.

The middle right blue box represents an EP who serves on a committee who works toward developing a program, policy, or community awareness that can directly affect community change. For example, an EP may be serving on a collaborative committee and contributing to the development of a funding proposal that creates after school programs in a particular neighborhood. The long-term goal of these efforts is to reduce problem behavior among youth in the community.

The first blue box represents an EP who works to strengthen the functional capacity of a collaborative effort. For example, an EP may be conducting a series of trainings on leadership for a collaborative water conservation effort, or an EP may be facilitating meetings for a collaborative initiative on wildlife conservation and be working toward improving the inclusiveness and climate of the initiative group. This group may be working toward the development a wildness management plan that, in turn, will increase habitat and breeding of an endangered species.

Since many Extension systems throughout the United States have adopted the logic model as a program planning and evaluation paradigm, the logic model has been overlaid upon this Collaborative Community Change model to illustrate its application. Figures 2 through 4 include possible outputs and outcomes for various roles Extension professionals play in the community change process.

Figure 2.
Typical Direct Service Program

Figure 3.
Project or program improvement

Figure 4.
Organizational Capacity Building^*

* Portions adapted from Taylor-Powell, Rossing, & Gerran, (1998). Evaluating Collaboratives: Reaching the Potential. University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension.

Using the Model

Once an EP is able to place where his or her work in a particular area fits upon the model, the next step is to begin assessing that work's impact upon the sequence of processes that lead to community change. For example, if an EP is training an AIDS prevention organization with the intent to improve their communication and planning skills, the EP would begin by measuring if this work had indeed increased the quality of the organization's communication and planning. If the EP had a substantial amount of time and effort in this work, he or she might assess whether the organization was better able to generate an AIDS-prevention planning document and/or grant proposal as a result of the EP's work. Last, the EP could conduct an assessment to determine whether these documents had an impact on AIDS prevention at an individual and/or community level.

Clearly, it would not be valid to claim that trainings for a collaborative group resulted in community change, and the work should not be framed as such. Numerous authors have noted, however, that ineffective collaborative groups often cannot accomplish their long-term goals (Bunker & Rubin, 1995; Holman & Devane, 1999). Thus, effective group functioning is vital to a collaborative organization's ability to contribute to the process of community change. The work of improving how a collaborative group functions can be significant and the relative effectiveness, if feasible, should be assessed and documented.

Another limitation of this approach is that there are numerous immeasurable factors that contribute to group functioning and, indeed, community change. Nevertheless, the work that EPs do as a part of collaborative efforts, if significant, should be seen as one contributive factor and measured and documented as an indirect part of the community change process.

The model allows Extension professionals to place themselves in the community change process and view how their various capacity-building activities, if they are successful, contribute to community change. Once a program or individual identifies the appropriate point in the community change model, the model suggests important evaluation indicators. Thus, this model can be extremely useful to Extension and non-Extension professionals who are involved in evaluating programming efforts that "indirectly" lead to community change.

Acknowledgement

The article is a modified version developed from a presentation made at the American Evaluation Association's 2003 annual conference. 

References

Bunker, B., & Rubin, J. (1995). Conflict, cooperation, & justice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Holman P., & Devane, T. (1999). The change handbook: Group methods for shaping the future. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.

Taylor-Powell, E., Rossing, B., & Gerran, J. (1998). Evaluating collaboratives: Reaching the potential. University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension.

At the Intersection of Extension and Litigation: What to Do When Lawyers Call

Nancy C. Balcom
Associate Extension Educator
NOAA, Connecticut Sea Grant College Program
Department of Extension
University of Connecticut
Groton, Connecticut
nancy.balcom@uconn.edu

Third Parties and Discovery

Among the legal definitions of a "third party" is someone who is not directly involved in a lawsuit, but may have pertinent information or expertise that benefits the prosecution, the defense, or perhaps both. Extension professionals often work in program areas that are not without controversy or lawsuits, and upon occasion, may be asked to give expert testimony under oath as third parties. My own experience arose from a situation whereby answers to a resource disaster were being simultaneously sought in universities and federal court, and I was served with a subpoena.

A subpoena is a "command to appear in court to testify as a witness" (Connecticut Judicial Branch, 2003a). In many cases, witnesses are deposed first, meaning that their "testimony is taken under oath, in response to another party's questions, outside of the courtroom" (Connecticut Judicial Branch, 2003a). A verbatim transcript is prepared, and the witness may repeat his or her testimony in court during the trial.

Appended to my subpoena was a request for documents, part of a process known as "discovery." Discovery is "a formal request by one party in a lawsuit to disclose information or facts known by other parties or witnesses" (Connecticut Judicial Branch, 2003a). In civil actions, once it is determined that evidence is needed beyond what can be provided by the prosecution or the defense, then either party can use discovery to obtain additional evidence, provided that it is not "privileged" (Connecticut Judicial Branch, 2003b, p. 160).

Privileged evidence, such as communications between a husband and wife or an attorney and his client, or government secrets, is "protected by law from forced disclosure" (Garner, 1999, p. 273). The unprivileged evidence must be "within the knowledge, possession or power of the party to whom the discovery is addressed" (Connecticut Judicial Branch, 2003b, p. 160). Discovery is permitted "if the materials sought will assist either the prosecution or the defense, and can be provided by the disclosing party much more easily than they could otherwise be obtained" (Connecticut Judicial Branch, 2003b, p. 160).

As third parties, Extension professionals may be required to produce documents, e-mails, reports, correspondence, and articles in their possession. If the lawyers know what they are looking for, discovery can be very specific. If they don't, it can be a veritable "fishing trip," casting a broad net in the hopes of finding something useful.

Your Rights and Their Rules

As employees of a university, Extension professionals are represented by legal counsel. This is an important safeguard for both your interests and those of your university. Your testimony as a third party will be given under the guidance of people comfortable in the legal world who can make the process as painless as possible.

Lawyers are constrained as to the manner in which they deal with third parties. Since 1983, lawyers have adopted the ABA/BNA's Lawyers' Manual on Professional Conduct (Bennett et al., 2002). This manual contains rules that govern the ethical behavior of lawyers throughout the country and undergoes constant scrutiny and revision. Two of these rules are of particular interest to Extension professionals, as they specifically apply to third parties.

Rule 4.2 Communication with Person Represented by Counsel

In representing a client, a lawyer shall not communicate about the subject of the representation with a person the lawyer knows to be represented by another lawyer in the matter, unless the lawyer has the consent of the other lawyer or is authorized to do so by law or court order (Bennett et al., 2002, p. 1:166).

In short, if a lawyer contacts you directly to give testimony or for information that is not already in the public domain, you need to remind him or her that you are represented by counsel and refer him or her to your counsel.

Rule 4.4 Respect for Rights of Third Persons

(a) In representing a client, a lawyer shall not use means that have no substantial purpose other than to embarrass, delay, or burden a third person, or use methods of obtaining evidence that violate the legal rights of such a person (Bennett et al., 2002, p. 1:168).

My subpoena was broad in scope, seeking documents, e-mails, letters, press releases, reports, articles, faxes, and other materials (including copies of unfunded proposals and confidential peer reviews) for a period spanning 7 years. This would have been extremely burdensome. University counsel negotiated a narrowing of the scope of the subpoena and, in particular, kept the confidential reviews and unfunded proposals out of discovery.

"I Don't Remember, I Can't Recall"

Depositions can be intimidating to those unfamiliar with the process. They can also be humbling. Lawyers for both the prosecution and the defense are present. University counsel is present to ensure that ground rules are followed, but does not confer on individual answers. The deposed individual receives a copy of the verbatim transcript to review for accuracy and sign.

Preparation for testimony is important. Refresh your memory of the documents provided under discovery. Familiarize yourself with good witness behavior. The following basics were extremely helpful to me (Assistant Attorney General P. Shapiro, personal communication, July, 9, 2002).

• Listen to the entire question before formulating your answer. Be wary of questions with multiple parts.
• Understand the question. If unclear, ask that the question be repeated/rephrased. Pause and think before you begin your answer.
• Tell the truth. You are under oath to tell what you know to the best of your ability; this does not include hearsay and surmise.
• Don't guess. If you don't know or can't recollect the answer, say so. Guesses or speculations are not the truth.
• Answer only the question that is asked. Keep answers short; preferably "yes" and "no." Don't volunteer information or anticipate where the line of questioning is going.
• Maintain your composure. Be polite and civil. Don't lose your temper or argue. Don't joke.
• If questioned about a document, first review it silently and completely before answering.
• Never say "never" or "always."

These are general instructions. Anyone who testifies as a witness should receive thorough preparatory assistance from counsel.

Summation

Extension professionals may be called upon to give expert third-party testimony. For many, this may be the first experience with lawyers and litigation. As university employees, Extension professionals are represented by legal counsel. A basic understanding of the terminology and process will assist Extension staff in responding appropriately when contacted by lawyers.

Acknowledgments

My thanks to State of Connecticut Assistant Attorney General Paul Shapiro for his expert counsel and guidance, and Attorney Stephanie Showalter of the National Sea Grant Law Center for pointing out the rules of conduct regarding lawyers and third parties, and constructively reviewing this article.

References

Bennett, E. J., Cohen, E. J., Maley, A. E., Swanson, K. A., Rogers, J. C., & Rogers, L. J. (Eds.). (2002). ABA/NBA lawyers' manual on professional conduct (Section 01, Model Standards, 8-28-02). Chicago: American Bar Association and The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc.

Garner, B. A. (Ed. in Chief). (1999). Black's law dictionary, (7th ed.). St. Paul: West Group.

State of Connecticut Judicial Branch. (2003a). Common legal terms [On-line]. Available at: http://www.jud.state.ct.us/legalterms.htm

State of Connecticut Judicial Branch. (2003b). Connecticut practice book (Part 1). Hartford, CT: Commission on Official Legal Publications.

Guidebook for Marketing Cooperative Extension

Sonya Varea-Hammond
County Director
Monterey County
University of California Cooperative Extension
Salinas, California
slvareahammond@ucdavis.edu

Introduction

Cooperative Extension in many states is struggling to survive under budget cuts and changing legislative priorities. The guidebook Marketing Cooperative Extension at the Local Level was written to help Cooperative Extension staff increase, or at the very least maintain, funding and support. The guidebook offers strategies to "market" Cooperative Extension. "Marketing," for the guidebook's purposes, refers to a combination of methods such as public relations, communication, and networking to broadly increase visibility and understanding of the value of Cooperative Extension. The guidebook makes the case that marketing is the responsibility of all staff members, not just the County Director, and provides ideas for volunteer and clientele involvement.

The guidebook resulted from a survey in which 49 County Directors in 13 states responded to this request: "Please email five or less of the most effective practices you use to 'market' Cooperative Extension in your county." Respondents all echoed the importance of marketing to help ensure the survival of Cooperative Extension and reiterated the need to, above all, deliver solid programs.

The key word for this guidebook is "practical." Many strategies are presented to allow for maximum flexibility based on locale, program type, and personal work style preferences. The reader is encouraged to select from the options and schedule them to develop a personalized action plan.

Our Survival Depends on Marketing

The author begins by presenting the rationale for developing a marketing plan. She points out that marketing wasn't as crucial in earlier times because Cooperative Extension was the "only show in town." Those times are then contrasted with today, and the factors that have led to Cooperative Extension's anonymity or low recognition factors are identified.

Back "Then"

The early days are best described as a time when everyone recognized Cooperative Extension, commonly known as "Agricultural Extension" or, simply, "the County Agent." Other than doing a good job, there was little need for additional efforts to publicize Cooperative Extension. The likelihood was high that any member of a Board of Supervisors (County Commissioners) was also a farmer who personally relied on the services of Cooperative Extension.

Obscured by Changing Forces

Those days of easy recognition are gone for Cooperative Extension. Although the United States is no longer an agrarian economy, Cooperative Extension has transformed its programming to serve through each new economic phase and in the many different geographical areas of the U.S., finding new roles to play, as well as adapting the traditional farm, nutrition, and youth programs to fit the changing composition and needs of clientele. Nevertheless, fewer people know about the existence of Cooperative Extension and its value to society.

Changing demographics is the first of two significant challenges to Cooperative Extension's visibility. The second major challenge is the proliferation of information and methods of receiving it. Cooperative Extension competes with numerous businesses and non-profit organizations, all vying for the time and attention of oftentimes the same clientele. The pressure to be more accessible, more useful, quicker, and smarter grows dramatically.

The Rationale for Marketing

The guidebook defines the following reasons for marketing Extension:

• Political--To enhance the sources of funding and support,
• Internal benefits--Creating high performing teams and attracting good staff, and
• Survival--competing for clientele who have other resources at their disposal

A point made by survey respondents was that without good programs, you have nothing to market. The basic principle and starting point for any marketing plan has always been to have a good product. Survey respondents said, "Good programs are the best form of marketing." "The best marketing is excellent programming." "Have relevant programming."

In the new environment, being good at programmatic disciplines is still vital, but not enough. The need for marketing is a reality.

Getting Down to Business

Following the discussion on the need for marketing, the guidebook proceeds with the "how-to's" and specific techniques.

How Information Is Spread

After a brief review of advertising, publicity, public relations, and marketing, the next chapter correlates the findings of Malcolm Gladwell in The Tipping Point to the traditional trio in Cooperative Extension: The Advisors/Agents, the cooperators/clientele, and the County Director. Each has a role in creating beneficial change and spreading the news about the value of Cooperative Extension.

Specific Strategies

Every marketing plan begins with a strategic plan. County Directors first need to define their message and the best methods to communicate it.

Communication tools are discussed, and the point is made that our traditional tools, such as charts and statistics, are less memorable than real life stories that create an emotional link to the listener.

There are tips on creating and maintaining visibility, such as:

• Dealing effectively with the media,
• Using awards as motivators and publicity tools,
• Conducting special events,
• Networking,
• Offering superb customer service,
• Using technology, and
• Budgeting for marketing.

A chapter is devoted to the ways others can have active roles in marketing. Advisors/Agents are key players, but not to be overlooked is the extended network of clientele, political supporters, advisory boards, focus groups, and volunteers.

The guide concludes with a planning matrix.

Copies of the guidebook can be obtained by sending $11.00 to Monterey County Cooperative Extension, 1432 Abbott Street, Salinas, CA 93901.

References

Gladwell, M. (2000). The tipping point. How little things can make a big difference. New York: Little, Brown and Company.

Varea-Hammond, S. (2003). Marketing Cooperative Extension at the local level. Salinas, Ca: University of California Cooperative Extension, Monterey County, California.

Faces Can Tell Us Lots!

Chris T. Boleman
Assistant Professor & Extension Specialist
Texas Cooperative Extension
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
ct-boleman@tamu.edu

Introduction

"Evaluation" and "accountability" are two words that all of us constantly hear in Cooperative Extension. As we continue to measure change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs, best practices, or behavior, there are numerous, even countless, strategies we can develop to effectively measure change. In order to be more effective at measuring change, it is important to ask yourself several questions pertaining to your program. Some of these questions include:

1. What is it I am truly trying to measure?
2. Does it match my objectives?
3. Are these objectives written in a measurable way?
4. Who is my target audience?
5. Does this evaluation strategy coincide with my target audience?

There are many additional questions that could be asked in relation to developing education strategies and plenty of other articles that discuss approaches to responding to these questions.

This article focuses on question number five, "Does this evaluation strategy coincide with my target audience?" As an Extension Specialist in the area of Program Development, I am often asked about strategies to measure attitudes or behaviors in youth audiences. In addition, County Extension Agents have identified legitimate concerns associated with the "pen and pencil" approach with youth. Do young people (6-10 years old) truly know how to reply to Likert scaling systems like "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree" or "I do this never" to "I do this always"?

Background of the Faces

A strategy that has been effective is one that uses different facial expressions. The most common "facial expression scale" is a basic three-point scale shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.
Facial Expression Scale

This scale has been effective at measuring youth attitudes on such topics as exercise, fruit and vegetable consumption, developing character, life skills development, reading, and writing.

It appears to be most effective when used as a pre-test, post-test approach. In other words, youth would be administered a pre-test before the program to get an idea of their attitudes about the subject matter. After the pre-test, these youth participants would go through the educational program. At the end of the program, youth participants would be given a post-test. This post-test would be an exact replica of the pretest.

Doing this, the evaluator is able to compare the attitudes of youth before the program compared to after the program. The change shown between the before and after indicates the change in attitude for the participants as a result of the educational program. It is important to note that you do not want to measure post-only. Measuring a one-shot post provides no comparisons. In other words, we do not know the youth's attitude toward a subject beforehand if it is not asked.

Ways to Administer

There are multiple approaches to administering the pre-test and post-test. No matter what method you use, the key is to have clear, concise directions, so that all participants understand what you are asking them to do. One method is to pass out a sheet of paper with question numbers and the three faces lined-up with each question number. The program evaluator reads the statement out loud to the participants, and they circle the appropriate face that matches their attitude toward the statement read. The evaluator read all the statements one by one, and the participant circles the faces for each statement and turn in the sheet after all the statements have been read.

A second method is for the program evaluator to draw the faces on a chalkboard or poster. Once these are drawn, the program evaluator reads the statement or question to the participants to ask their attitude. Then, he or she asks for a show of hands from the group for each of the three faces. The key to this is documenting accurately by counting the hands that are raised for each face for each statement/question. The disadvantage of this method is that it is not confidential. In other words, participants can be influenced by those around them.

The advantage to these two administrative strategies is that youth do not have to read the phrases. They simply react to the directions and the statements provided by the program evaluator. These methods have also been used with Spanish speaking audiences.

A traditional approach is to administer the "pencil and paper" approach by giving the pre-test and post-test on a sheet of paper, with the statements and faces on the sheet. If this method is selected, it is important that the participants can in fact read at the level at which the survey is written. In other words, if the paper survey is written at a 3rd grade level; do not administer it to 6-year-old kids.

Conclusion

Remember, this is just one evaluation example that can be used to document change. Certainly it is beneficial to those of us in Cooperative Extension who work with young audiences or audiences that do not like to complete a "traditional" survey-type instrument. Moreover, it works best with attitudes because facial expressions certainly do indicate a level of likeness that everyone can understand.

If this survey allows you to answer "Yes" to question 5, then maybe this is a strategy you can implement with your target audiences.

A "Tracking System" to Assure Quality and User Satisfaction

John D. Harrison
USU Extension Specialist
Agriculture Waste Management
ASTE Department
jdh@cc.usu.edu

Aditya H. Toney
Undergraduate Programmer
adityatoney@cc.usu.edu

Utah State University
Logan, Utah

Introduction

Extension, as a professional service provider, is faced with increasing economic and environmental pressure from competition, government, and rapidly changing technology. Many of Extension's practices that traditionally brought success in the past must yield to new paradigms.

Suggested paradigm shifts range from changing or improving Extension programs and processes (Kaplan, Liu, & Radhakrishna, 2003; Webster, 2003; Diem, 2002; Gallagher, 2002; Martin, 2002; Schauber, 2001) to completely recreating Extension (King & Boehlje, October, 2000). Regardless of the shift that ultimately occurs, one profound change is that Extension professionals must adopt a quality paradigm, one consistent with improvement of everything and everyone in the system.

Extension professionals have been instructed and admonished to understand user (client) needs (Koukel & Cummings, 2002; Cooper & Graham, 2001; Muske & Stanforth, 2000; Bazik & Feltes, 1999; Seevers, Graham, Gamon & Conklin, 1997). However, managing user value is one strategic practice that will differentiate successful Extension programs in the 21st century. According to Glenn Mazur, "To efficiently deliver value to customers, it is necessary to listen to the 'voice' of the customer" (1993). Various models exist to manage user value. To some degree, each of these models is characterized by principles beyond conformance; they embody a sophisticated understanding of user needs and market dynamics and facilitate deployment of value methodologies throughout an organization (ASQ, 2001).

Identification and Segmentation of Users

People who use services that are provided by Extension do not want to be treated alike. They have different needs and wants, and their needs and wants are constantly changing. In order for Extension to provide a strategic focus and respond more effectively to groups of either current or prospective users, Extension should identify and segment users (ASQ, 2001).

One of the more effective ways to identify users is through a user database. Database searches locate past users of a service and can help to identify previous users of a similar or related service. Additionally, to organize a database into a comprehensive system to ensure quality and customer satisfaction, a "Tracking System" should be employed.

System Overview

The Agriculture Environmental Management and Information System (AEMIS) at Utah State University is an enterprise information system that will provide efficient and accurate access for agriculturists and farm producers to the latest information about manure management methods and tools for the livestock and poultry industry (Harrison, Kanade, & Toney, in press).

A log-in system is present that will allow users to have access to the information. Every user is given a username and password to log into this system. The username given to the user is unique to each user, and all information pertaining to the user is stored against that username. The information may not just be the user profile but also how the user has been traveling and doing search using the search engine. When an authorized user logs in to the system, the user-event information table notes the behavior of a user. For example, the system will record what keywords the user types while using the search engine. In addition, the statistics will also reveal which particular information was accessed for most number of times by the users.

Figure 1 shows the Statistics Query Page, where you can select the initial date and the end date between which you want to get the statistical information about the hits on the Web pages from the drop-down list. A keyword found is considered as a "hit." One can select the minimum number of hits in one particular lesson. There are two ways a report can appear: (a) hits by every "cooperator" or the user, or (b) hits by every lesson. If the former is selected, you can select the user whose hits you want to study in the next field. The drop-down list will provide the names of all the users currently registered in the system.

Figure 1.
Statistics Query Page

The result table is appended to the original query table as shown in Figure 2. With every topic number, the name of that topic, the number of hits in that topic from that user is displayed.

On selecting the "Display barcharts for each lesson" option from the Statistics Query page, we do not need to select the user name from the list because we would be studying the hits in every lesson.

Figure 2.
Statistics Report Page to "Display keywords hit by cooperator"

Figure 3 shows the total number of hits from all the users for every chapter with one or more than one hits recorded. Thus, lesson 1 from module A has 5 hits recorded in total. This number includes the sum of all the hits from the chapters in the lesson. The break down of the hits in the different chapters in the lesson 1 from module A can be seen graphically if you choose the "yes" option in front of each topics.

A break down for every content in the lesson is shown above. A graph (Figure 3) is plotted with "Number of Hits" on the Y axis and "Contents and Lessons" on the X axis. Thus, it is apparent from the graph that the content "Know the Rules" has gotten the most number of hits in that particular lesson.

Figure 3.
Statistics Report Page Showing Barcharts for Each Lesson Selected

Summary

Over a longer period of time, if a certain topic is identified to be more searched than others, it can be the first topic to be researched, and more information on that topic can be stored in our database. One particular user may be following a particular trend that can be identified by studying the concentration of searches limited to a particular field, like, for example, Manure Management. Learning more about a specific farm, this user can be targeted with specialized information about Manure Management that may be found most useful towards making better decisions.

To access AEMIS, go to the Utah Agriculture Environmental Management System Web site (http://aems.aste.usu.edu) and sign up as a guest. Log-in and access information will then be provided.

References

American Society for Quality. (2001) ASQ's foundations in quality learning series. Certified quality manager; module 4: Customer-focused organizations.

Bazik, M., & Feltes, D. (1999). Defining your customer profile--An essential tool. Journal of Extension [On-line], 37(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999december/a4.html

Cooper, A. W., & Graham, D. L. (2001). Competencies needed to be successful county agents and county supervisors. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001february/rb3.html

Diem, K. (2002). Using research methods to evaluate your Extension program. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002december/a1.shtml

Gallagher, T. J. (2002). Employee participation in decision making in extension: A ladder of participation to reduce cynicism. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002october/comm2.shtml

Harrison, J. D., Kanade, S. S., & Toney, A. H. (2004). Agriculture environmental management information system:  An online decision support tool. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004february/tt4.shtml

Kaplan, M., Liu, S. T., & Radhakrishna, R. (2003). Intergenerational programming in Extension: Needs assessment as planning tool. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003august/a5.shtml

King, David A., & Boehlje, Michael D. (2000). Extension: On the brink of extinction or distinction? Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000october/comm1.html

Koukel, S. D., & Cummings, M. N. (2002). New Mexico Cooperative Extension Service home economists' perceived technical knowledge and estimated client needs. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002october/a5.shtml

Martin, M. V. (2002). The roles of Extension in agriculture economics departments. Journal of Extension [On-line], 40(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002october/comm1.shtml

Mazur, G. H. (1993). From voice of customer to task deployment. QFD Institute [On-line]. Available at: http://www.mazur.net/works/svctaskqfd.pdf

Muske, G., & Stanforth, N. (2000). The educational needs of small business owners: A look into the future. Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000december/a4.html

Schauber, A. C. (2001). Effecting Extension organizational change toward cultural diversity: A conceptual framework. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(3). Available at:  http://www.joe.org/joe/2001june/a1.html

Seevers, B., Graham, D., Gamon, J., & Conklin, N. (1997). Education through Cooperative Extension. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers.

Webster, J. (2003). Bibliographies as an Extension outreach tool: An old method in a new age. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003june/a7.shtml

Triumph Over Tragedy, Second Edition: A Curriculum for Extension Professionals Responding to Disasters and Terrorism

Brenda A. Wiens
Research and Education Specialist
bwiens@hp.ufl.edu

Garret D. Evans
Associate Professor and Director
gdevans@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Jennie C. I. Tsao
Research Assistant Professor
jtsao@hp.ufl.edu

Heidi J. Liss
Assistant Scientist
hliss@hp.ufl.edu

National Rural Behavioral Health Center
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida

Introduction

Following a natural or human-made disaster, communities experience significant stressors, including economic loss, loss of life, and psychological reactions such as grief, anger, and worry. Extension professionals are in a unique position to help specific community segments (e.g., agriculture, schools) prepare for these reactions following a critical event, as well as support those community segments following a disaster.

Rural communities may be particularly vulnerable due to fewer resources to devote to disasters, especially in the case of disasters requiring specialized equipment and training (e.g., HAZMAT). Issues of entrenched poverty, economies largely dependent on "open-field" operations (e.g., farming, ranching, mining), geographic and social isolation, stigma for help-seeking, cultural folkways, and few qualified mental health providers make community-wide psychological recovery particularly problematic following disasters.

Hurricane Andrew (1992) illustrates the scope of physical and psychological damage disasters can inflict. This powerful storm left in its wake over $25 billion in damages (Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2003), an estimated 180,000 people homeless (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1993), and an estimated 33% of surveyed residents reporting high levels of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (Ironson et al., 1997).

Human-inflicted disasters may result in even higher psychological impacts, as evidenced by the Oklahoma City bombing and the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Thus, preparedness for disasters and terrorism must include training in the psychological aspects of these events, especially in rural communities that may lack many of the resources found in urban areas.

Disaster Response at the National Rural Behavioral Health Center

The National Rural Behavioral Health Center (NRBHC) was created at the University of Florida in 2001 in order to promote research, education, and Extension designed to improve the status of behavioral health care to rural Americans. Since the mid-1990's, faculty in the NRBHC have assisted communities responding to the mental health effects of disasters, including Hurricane Andrew, the 1997 Red River floods, drought and wildfires in the southeast and far west, and the 2001 World Trade Center attack.

From this work, Extension specialists in the NRBHC developed the curriculum, Triumph Over Tragedy: A Community Response to Managing Post-Disaster Stress (Evans & Sears, 1999) to assist Extension professionals, healthcare professionals, and other disaster response workers in their efforts to provide supportive education and service to communities affected by disasters. NRBHC faculty members have traveled to various states to train health providers, mental health specialists, EMS personnel, policy makers, and teachers using this curriculum.

Development of an "Off-the-Shelf" Resource Manual for Disasters and Terrorism

In response to the success of this initial curriculum and recognizing the need to further expand Extension resources in disaster recovery, NRBHC staff developed the second edition of the curriculum, Triumph Over Tragedy, Second Edition: A Community Response to Managing Trauma in Times of Disaster and Terrorism. This edition now includes information relevant to human-made disasters.

Learning objectives include:

• Preparing and coordinating community responses,
• Controlling psychological contagion and panic,
• Educating community members about the common signs of post-disaster stress,
• Strategies for supporting community members,
• Issues relevant to long-term recovery,
• Improving information management following a disaster, and
• Responding to psychological reactions after a bioterrorist attack

Extension professionals can utilize these materials to train other professionals, as well as lay volunteers, within their communities. A skills-based video is available in conjunction with the first edition of Triumph Over Tragedy that discusses disaster phases in a community, how to recognize warning signs for post-disaster stress, and strategies for having supportive communications with disaster victims. A Web-based videoconference and training materials are also available.

Triumph Over Tragedy is designed for a wide audience:

• Extension professionals
• Mental health professionals
• EMS, fire, and police
• Primary care health providers
• Human resource professionals
• Teachers
• Public health officials
• Political and community leaders

Getting Involved

There are several key areas where Extension can play a vital role. Prior to an event, Extension agents can participate in local emergency planning councils. Agents may also develop Web-based and written educational materials for community members to help citizens prepare for disaster events.

Immediately after a disaster, the curriculum guides agents on strategies for supporting their constituents and providing referrals for further assistance. These materials were also designed to train volunteers and other response workers about the effects of disasters, warning signs for post-disaster stress, how to provide emotional support to victims, and how to teach stress management strategies. In the long-term, agents can collaborate with their communities to provide long-term recovery services, which may include financial counseling, training for teachers, and school, work, and church-based educational programs.

Further Information

For further information on the Triumph Over Tragedy curriculum, please visit our Web site at http://www.nrbhc.org. Follow the links for "Rural Disaster and Trauma" to download materials, find ordering information, and learn more about our work at the NRBHC.

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1993). Comprehensive assessment of health needs two months after Hurricane Andrew: Dade County, Florida, 1992. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 42, 434-437.

Evans, G., & Sears, S. (1999). Triumph over tragedy: A community response to managing post-disaster stress. University of Florida: IFAS Publications.

Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2003). Disasters and emergencies. (Web site section contains links to various statistics). Available at: http://www.fema.org/library/dizandemer.shtm

Ironson, G., Wynings, C., Schneiderman, N., Baum, A., Rodriguez, M., Greenwood, D., et al. (1997). Posttraumatic stress symptoms, intrusive thoughts, loss, and immune function after Hurricane Andrew. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59, 128-141.

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