February 2003
Volume 41 Number 1

Tools of the Trade

Public Issues Education Projects: Meeting the Evaluation Challenges

Nancy Grudens-Schuck
Assistant Professor
Department of Agricultural Education and Studies
Iowa State University
Internet Address: ngs@iastate.edu

Introduction

Extension Public Issues Education (PIE) projects tackle the grittiest, most contentious issues faced by communities and citizens (Patton and Blaine, 2001). Projects may address:

• Economic and environmental impacts of large-scale livestock operations,
• Food security,
• Eroding government support for families and children,
• School violence, or
• Cultural and ethnic conflicts.

Solving difficult problems on a practical level is a goal of PIE projects. Results are also expected to affect public policy at the local, state, or national level or to increase a community's capacity to meet the needs of its citizens in complex social and policy environments. Extension-related PIE projects can be national as well as local, such as the National Issues Forums (Arnone, 1999) or the W. K. Kellogg Foundation/Farm Foundation partnership in the 1980s (Hahn, Greene, & Waterman, 1994).

Challenges

PIE projects are admittedly difficult to evaluate. Challenges associated with evaluating Public Issue Education projects stem from:

• The long-term, broad nature of the goals of such projects.
• Conflicts associated with differences among stakeholders.

Parallel with both of these challenges is the complex, systemic nature of the changes that are needed. However, evaluation is arguably even more important for projects involving public issues than for routine programming. The high profile of public issues, the wide range of emotions associated with them, and the tendency for PIE programs to have diverse partners require that Extension be savvy about administering such programs. One of the ways to be savvy as a program planner is to prepare honest, useful evaluation reports based on high-quality data.

Solutions

There is a good argument for assigning the responsibility for evaluation of PIE projects to independent professional evaluators or to campus-based faculty or staff. They may be more likely than local Extension educators to possess the skills and resources. However, such resources are often unavailable. There are also advantages to controlling the evaluation at the project level (Earl, Carden, & Smutylo, 2001; Rockwell, Jha, Williams, & Thayer, 2000).

Decide What Your Program Is About

Ideas for program activities often precede goal setting. The first step for designing a responsible evaluation for a PIE program may be to decide what the program is really about. The goals of PIE programming can seem all encompassing. It may, in fact, be true that the issue itself is enormous. However, the programming is probably more bounded.

For example, is a program designed to bring farmers and non-farming rural residents together to discuss farmland protection about:

1. Helping non-farmers to understand farmers' issues?
2. Obtaining a diversity of ideas for protecting farmland?
3. Reducing conflict by helping farmers to become less fearful of rural residents? Or
4. Developing more productive ways of discussing difficult issues among farmers and non-farmers?

If the answer is: "all of the above," then there is a failure to prioritize, and evaluation will be difficult.

Select the Best Methods for Your Purpose

There is no single best approach to collecting data. It is common--but not mandatory--for projects to collect "before and after" data on key indicators, called "pre-post" (Rockwell et al., 2000). Data could be collected, for example, about the demonstrated ability (behaviors) of members of groups to work well together before and after dialogue sessions (Taylor-Powell, Rossing, & Geran, 1998). On the other hand, economic data or information about community assets may be important (Flora et al., 1999).

Case study approaches have also been applied successfully to evaluation of PIE projects, even on a large scale (Hahn, Greene, & Waterman, 1994). Case study approaches combine methods, such as interviews, document review, and observation. Comprehensive approaches like outcome mapping use evaluation processes that involve a range of stakeholders in planning the evaluation (Earl, Carden, & Smutylo, 2001). It is also worthwhile to collect other projects' evaluation reports. You can show parts of the reports to clients, funders, or stakeholders. Elicit their reactions. Ask: "Would this type of data communicate the value of our project?" Concrete examples often work better than asking for opinions about abstract terms like "case study."

Determine Outcomes, Specify Indicators

Determine a small number of specific outcomes. Develop indicators that match.

In the earlier example, if No. 1 (helping non-farmers to understand farmers' issues) was the goal, then an outcome-indicator match might be greater knowledge of key farming practices by rural residents on a survey that is sent 2 months after the session. The data could be compared to the same survey completed prior to the first session. This method would be "pre-post."

If No. 2 (obtaining a diversity of ideas for protecting farmland) was the goal, then the outcome-indicator match might be the number of distinct ideas recorded at dialogue sessions compared with ideas in public records or the media using observational data and document review.

If No. 3 (reducing conflict by helping farmers to become less fearful of rural residents) was the goal, farmers who attended sessions could be interviewed about the ways in which fears related to actions of rural residents may have changed as a result of their participation.

Tie It All Together

The final step requires telling how the "small stuff" leads to the "big stuff." This is called the program logic or program theory (see web links associated with Taylor-Powell et al., 1998). Devote a separate paragraph to the program theory--make it stand out. The explanation should focus on cause-and-effect.

Consider goal No. 4 (developing more productive ways of discussing difficult issues among farmers and non-farmers) from the earlier program example. Below is a way to phrase the explanation of how a small program could lead to really big changes. The evaluation data will tell what actually occurred, but there should be no doubt that the program--in theory--had the potential to deliver big. Note text in italics.

"Both acrimonious debate and avoidance make development of good public policy more difficult. A productive civil society thrives when dialogue is deliberative and ongoing, leading to sustainable public policies. The [example program] will provide opportunities for non-farming residents and farmers to develop skills that are a first step toward community-wide democratic dialogue, thereby making a modest but direct contribution to solving the current problem of unproductive decision making. The program is anticipated to be successful because it will model conditions for dialogue that are strongly associated with democratic civil society."

Conclusion

Programs with important, long-range social goals, such as Public Issues Education, can be evaluated if methods are tailored to the special challenges of PIE. As with other types of evaluation, it is important to develop clear outcomes and good indicators. It is perhaps more critical that evaluations of PIE projects explain clearly how program activities will advance complex, abstract goals, such as civil society or democratic deliberation.

There are new resources available to assist with evaluation of these types of programs. "See more" in the References section below.

References

Arnone, E.J. (1999). (Ed.). What citizens can do: A public way to act. Dayton, OH: Kettering Foundation. See more at http://www.kettering.org/

Earl, S., Carden, F., & Smutylo, T. (2001). Outcome mapping: Building learning and reflection into development programs. Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre. Ottawa, Canada. See more at http://www.idrc.ca/evaluation/

Hahn, A. J., Greene, J. C., & Waterman, C. (1994). Educating about public issues: Lessons from eleven innovative public policy education projects. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Cooperative Extension.

Flora, C.B., Kinsley, M., Luther, V., Wall, M., Odell, S., Ratner, S., & Topolsky, J. (1999). Measuring community success and sustainability. (RRD 180). Ames, IA: North Central Regional Center for Rural Development. Available at: http://www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/rdev/pubs/contents/180.htm

Patton, D.B., & Blaine, T. W. (2001). Public Issues Education: Exploring Extension's role. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001august/a2.html

Putnam, R. D. (1995). Bowling alone: America's declining social capital. Journal of Democracy, 6(1). See more at http://www.bowlingalone.com/

Rockwell, S.K., Jha, L.R., Williams, S.N., & Thayer, C.E. (2000, November). Using success markers for programming in extension education. Paper presented at the 2000 Annual Meeting of the American Evaluation Association, Honolulu, Hawaii. Available at: http://danr.ucop.edu/eee-aea/using_success_markers.htm

Taylor-Powell, E., Rossing, B., & Geran, J. (1998). Evaluating collaboratives: Reaching the potential. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison Cooperative Extension. At: http://www1.uwex.edu/ces/pubs/pdf/G3658_8.PDF. See more at http://www.uwex.edu/ces/pdande/evaluation/evaldocs.html

The Plant Management Network: A New Online Source of Applied Plant Science Information

Cynthia L. Ash
Director of Scientific Services
The Plant Management Network
St. Paul, Minnesota
Internet Address: cash@scisoc.org

Kenneth J. Moore
Professor of Crop Science
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
Internet Address: kjmoore@iastate.edu

 Introduction

In the mid-1990's an informal, diverse group of plant scientists discussed the potential for an online journal of applied plant science. This journal would incorporate all the plant science disciplines and cover subjects ranging from cultivar selection to fertilizer trials to plant problem solutions. It would be open to applied plant science research on all commodities. Rosarians, corn and soybean growers and consultants, turf specialists, foresters, and everyone in-between could publish their applied research online and use the digital environment to search for needed information. This information would be peer-reviewed and published in real-time on the Internet, making it immediately available globally.

In June 2000, the interdisciplinary journal, Plant Health Progress, was launched and has today evolved into the Plant Management Network (PMN) <http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/>, serving the broad needs of extension and plant practitioners worldwide (Figure 1).

Figure 1.
Plant Management Network Home Page

What Is the Plant Management Network?

In 2 short years, the online, applied, plant science journal concept has evolved into an Internet resource serving Extension faculty with their land-grant mission while providing valuable applied information for consultants, crop advisors, growers, and industry. Essentially, there are two major categories of content provided by the Network, peer-reviewed journals and an index of plant-related resources, including Extension publications and images.

Currently, there are two journals being published, with a third journal expected to be launched in 2003. The first journal, sponsored by the American Phytopathological Society and titled Plant Health Progress, was launched in June of 2000 to cover all types of plant problems, and it includes five peer-reviewed categories in which to publish:

• Plant Health Research,
• Diagnostic Guides,
• Plant Health Management,
• Plant Health Reviews, and
• Plant Health Briefs (Figure 2).

Detailed descriptions of the style and content of each of these categories is given on the Web site. A section for industry news, perspectives, and editorial comments is standard in each of the PMN journals.

Figure 2.
Plant Health Briefs with Full-Color Pictures

In February 2002, the second PMN journal, Crop Management <http://www.cropmanagement.org/>, was launched with support from the Crop Science Society of America. It also contains several categories in which to publish:

• Crop Management Research,
• Crop Management Reviews,
• Crop Management Guides, and
• Crop Management Briefs.

Both of these and future journals provide a place for Extension staff at the state, regional, and county level to publish their applied research, making it available for all and easily retrievable in the future. This type of information is currently either not published, sometimes published in station bulletins, or presented at winter meetings and then often forgotten. Through PMN, authors, including Extension faculty and staff, can receive peer-reviewed credit for their work while making detailed information readily available through PMN search features.

Benefits for Authors

The benefits of publishing in PMN journals go beyond supporting a place for the collection of peer-reviewed, applied plant science information across disciplines. There are no page charges, and authors are encouraged to use color images and graphics (Figure 3). Information is published quickly and broadly, and authors receive a .pdf file of their article that they can place on their personal Web site as well as send to others interested in their paper.

Figure 3.
Examples of the Online PMN Journals

Articles in both journals are posted within 1-3 weeks of finishing peer-review, and manuscripts are fully citable and archived for ready access. Articles posted in PMN journals are published first in the public area of the site, where they are freely available to all, and then moved into the PMN archives as newer information is published. Subscriber status is necessary to view papers within the archives; however, all articles always have a brief summary with article title, authors, and one or more color images available permanently in the public portion of the site.

Other Features of PMN

All Network journals are indexed in both a public search and a more refined, subscriber-only search tool (Figure 4). Partners have added their pertinent Extension publications to the index, making the Network a ready resource of current, science-based information on numerous topics from raspberries to trees to rice. An image resource of more than 1,500 images was added to PMN in November 2002 and is building. Future resources such as scripted PowerPoint presentations, posters from scientific meetings, and continuing education (CEU's) modules for personal study or professional certification purposes are currently being prototyped.

Figure 4.
PMN Search Tool

Who Pays for the PMN?

The PMN is financially supported by partners, individual subscribers, and library subscriptions. Partners are able to help guide the development of the Network and index any or all of their Extension and other publications within the Network's searchable database. They also have their logo, a 100-word description, and contact information, including links, displayed on the PMN site. Faculty, students, and staff of university partners have subscriber access to the complete PMN site from their personal computers.

Summary

The Plant Management Network is an important online-only resource that strongly supports the plant science Extension community and their programs. It provides a single Internet venue for publishing applied research and finding and sharing plant and agricultural related, science-based information.

PMN Direct Site Links

The Plant Management Network <http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/>

Crop Management <http://www.cropmanagement.org/>

Plant Health Progress <http://www.planthealthprogress.org/>

PMN Partners <http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/partners/profile/>

PMN Partners Program <http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/partners/join.asp>

PMN Subscription Info <http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/about/subscribe/>

PMN Contact <editorialoffice@plantmanagementnetwork.org>

A Web Site for Interpreting Drinking Water Quality Analyses

Mark Walker
Assistant Professor
Environmental and Resource Sciences Department
Internet Address: mwalker@equinox.unr.edu

Robert Moore
Information Specialist
Internet Address: rbmoore@cabnr.unr.edu

College of Agriculture, Biotechnology and Natural Resources
University of Nevada
Reno, Nevada

Introduction

Owners of private domestic wells are a large and growing audience, especially in Nevada. Recent debates about the arsenic standard for public water supplies and well-publicized investigations of what appear to be excessive prevalence of childhood leukemia have raised concern about the potential health effects of naturally occurring and anthropogenic chemicals in private water supplies.

One of the first responses from Extension professionals to such concerns is a recommendation to test water supplies using the services of a drinking water certified laboratory and proper sampling procedures. However, most anthropogenic contaminants of concern that are potentially related to well-publicized health problems are either excessively expensive or require very specialized sampling and sample handling procedures. As a result, most homeowners rely on standard suites of analyses to obtain affordable, albeit limited, information about the chemical quality of their water.

One of the difficulties that we have encountered with such standard suites is in interpretation, especially when health concerns motivate testing. For example, the Routine Domestic Analysis offered by the Nevada State Health Laboratory (Reno, NV) reports results of tests to determine 27 physical and chemical characteristics of water (Table 1). Other laboratories certified for drinking water analysis offer similar types of analytic services, with multiple analyses included for a single price.

The report lists analytic results, with reporting limits defined by analytic limit of detection. Typically, a quality control analyst at the laboratory notes, by hand, results that could be a cause for concern, but does not provide further explanation. Among the results normally reported, six have specified maximum contaminant levels (MCL) that serve as standards for public drinking water supplies. An additional eight have maximum contaminant level guidelines (MCLG), which are not used for regulation. Finally, six other constituents have aesthetic implications that are useful to understand, especially for specific kinds of home uses. The remaining seven analytes reported have important applications for other purposes, such as assessing utility of the water for irrigation purposes.

Web Site Design and Intended Audience

We designed a Web-based tool for use by trained volunteers in Churchill County, Nevada, to provide interpretations of water test results succinctly, accurately, and consistently among the volunteer staff <http://www.ag.unr.edu/ers/water/>. The development of a final report for the homeowner includes three stages (Figure 1): personal information entry (on a welcome page), water test information entry (on a data page), and water test results interpretation (in both hard copy and Web form, with live links for further information).

Figure 1.
Development of Interpretive Reports in Hard Copy and Web Forms. Data Entry Stages Are Indicated as Diamond Shapes.

The Web-based report contains live links to further information that aids in interpretation. These include specific notices about arsenic and nitrate that reflect proposed changes in each. These notices correspond with those printed in Consumer Confidence Reports, which are provided annually to customers of all public water supplies. Other information includes definitions of basic units (such as parts per billion and parts per million) and contacts to obtain further information.

Training and Use

We have trained a group of senior volunteers in Churchill County, who are part of Nevada G.O.L.D. (Guarding Our Local Drinking Water). The G.O.L.D. group promotes water quality protection through education in Churchill County. The volunteers organize public events and often respond to inquiries about the results of water tests. The Web-based template has provided them with a new tool to use as part of interactions with the public. As a primary point of contact for the Extension water program in the community, the Web-based interpretive tool provides the volunteers with a consistent and reliable means of helping private well owners to interpret the results of routine domestic analyses.

Future Applications

As a next step, we will add a component to the Web page that provides information about treatment options, given water chemistry. After homeowners understand the significance of water test results, they are prepared to take action to correct problems. However, the selection of water treatment devices must take into account expected performance, especially related to other chemicals present in water.

For example, some methods used to remove arsenic may be effective in removing a proportion of total arsenic present in water, but this may not be sufficient in terms of meeting water quality standards. We are creating a Web-based companion tool for the interpretive tool described in this article, to offer guidance about the performance of commonly used types of treatment given the chemical and physical characteristics of water reported in the Routine Domestic Analysis.

Tools for Cooperative Extension's Efforts in Historic Preservation

Kenneth R. Tremblay, Jr.
Professor and Housing Specialist
Colorado State University Cooperative Extension
Fort Collins, Colorado
Internet Address: tremblay@cahs.colostate.edu

Introduction

This article describes the tools used by Colorado State University Cooperative Extension in its historic preservation efforts. During the past 8 years, the housing specialist examined and recorded the architecture of St. Elmo, a historic mining town, using National Park Service guidelines. Community members assisted in this process and in grant proposal writing. Two grants were funded to first document the architecture of the town and then to restore a historical building. These efforts contributed to community development, as St. Elmo is actively pursuing tourism.

St. Elmo is located on the continental divide of Colorado. It has a rich mining history, beginning with the discovery of gold and silver in 1875. Mining fueled a boom economy and a peak population of 2,000 in the 1880s (Bailey, 1985). Mining continued through the 1920s, when the railroad left and the town was almost completely vacated. There are currently 30 members of the St. Elmo Property Owners Association.

Methodology

A case study research approach using field observation was used from 1994 to 2002 (McTavish & Loether, 2002). Buildings in St. Elmo were photographed and analyzed based on architectural criteria. Because case studies use data from all possible sources, historical documents and photographs were obtained from the St. Elmo Property Owners Association, the Colorado Historical Society, the Western History Collection of the Denver Public Library, the Buena Vista Museum, and the National Mining Hall of Fame and Museum. Newspapers were examined to establish historical trends.

Informants with long-term ties to the community were identified and interviewed. These informants provided several personal, unpublished documents and photographs. Important buildings were then identified, and decisions made regarding the focus of preservation efforts.

Research revealed that St. Elmo was built using different methods of construction and experienced several types of architectural development that paralleled the phases of mining success and failure (Bamford & Tremblay, 2000). At first there were canvas tents, pine-covered dugouts, and earth-roofed huts. These were followed by unsophisticated cabins built of spruce logs.

As time passed, some of the early log structures were boarded over with siding. Other structures remained log, but false fronts were added to make them look more impressive. A further type of construction came about with the arrival of steam sawmills, which could convert logs into flat boards (Southworth, 1997). The most sophisticated buildings were balloon-framed stores and homes constructed in the mid-1880s. For the most part, the architecture of St. Elmo and camps like it was simple, straightforward, and functional.

Key tools in historic preservation work are the publications by the National Park Service:

• The Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines for Archeology and Historic Preservation,
• Preservation Planning and Guidelines for Preservation Planning,
• Identification and Guidelines for Identification,
• Evaluation and Guidelines for Evaluation,
• Treatment of Historic Properties, and
• Rehabilitation.

They are available from each state's historical society and also from the on-line bookshop at <http://www.nps.gov/>.

Building Identification

An important tool in historic preservation efforts consists of community members, in this case property owners. The building determined by a committee of the St. Elmo Property Owners Association to be in greatest need of restoration was the town hall (Figure 1). The town hall was built in 1881 and 1885 as a multipurpose structure. In the rear of the building is a small jail. A bell tower is the dominant feature of the building, used to signal important events or emergencies.

A twin door with a double-paned window above the transom marks the entrance. The symmetrical front facade features a tall window on either side of the door. The pediment and face of the building are covered with horizontal siding painted white, while the sides of the building are covered with roughcut lumber assembled vertically and untreated. A small porch with a railing of aspen poles juts out toward the street.

Figure 1.
Exterior of the Town Hall, with the Fire Tool Storage Building and Barn on the Left, and the Stark Duplex on the Right

Outcomes

The first outcome of this project was the publication of a book, St. Elmo: Building a Mining Camp on Colorado's Continental Divide (Tremblay & Bamford, 2001). A grant was obtained that allowed for copies of the book to be donated to the community. They are sold to tourists inside the town hall (Figure 2). Besides providing visitors with important information about the town, proceeds from the book were used as the required matching funds for a preservation grant proposal.

Figure 2.
Inside the Town Hall, Which Now Serves as a Museum. The Jail Is in the Background.

As in many small communities, there are no residents with grant writing experience; thus, the housing specialist assisted members of the St. Elmo Property Owners Association in writing the proposal. Funding was obtained in spring 2002, providing the final tool to restore the town hall. Restoration work is now underway.

Conclusion

St. Elmo is emerging as a resort community, with tourists coming to view the historical buildings. The town was designated as a National Historic District in 1979 (Colorado Historic Preservation Office, 1979). However, there exists competition to attract tourists from nearby established Victorian towns and ski resorts. Restoring historical buildings and providing a book for visitors can help in this competition.

Future plans include restoration of additional buildings with help from Cooperative Extension to provide the public an opportunity to observe a historically significant mining town. The tools of National Park Service publications, involvement by community members, a book to produce matching funds, and a grant were crucial in this project.

References

Bailey, S.H. (1985). The charisma of Chalk Creek. Buena Vista, CO: Bailey.

Bamford, L.V., & Tremblay, K.R., Jr. (2000). St. Elmo: The little mining camp that tried. Colorado Heritage (Spring), 2-18.

Colorado Historic Preservation Office. (1979). Register of St. Elmo buildings. Denver, CO: Colorado Historical Society.

McTavish, D.G., & Loether, H.J. (2002). Social research: An evolving process. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Southworth, D. (1997). Colorado mining camps. Denver, CO: Wild Horse Publishing.

Tremblay, K.R., Jr., & Bamford, L.V. (2001). St. Elmo: Building a mining camp on Colorado's continental divide. Loveland, CO: Architecture Research Press.

Integrated Pest Management Poster for Farm Markets

Michelle Infante-Casella
Agricultural Agent
Clayton, New Jersey
Internet Address: minfante@aesop.rutgers.edu

Peter Nitzsche
Agricultural Agent
Morristown, New Jersey
Internet Address: nitzsche@aesop.rutgers.edu

Joseph Ingerson-Mahar
Vegetable IPM Coordinator
Office of Pest Management
New Brunswick, New Jersey
Internet Address: mahar@aesop.rutgers.edu

Kristian Holmstrom
Vegetable IPM Program Associate
Office of Pest Management
New Brunswick, New Jersey
Internet Address: holmstrom@aesop.rutgers.edu

Rutgers Cooperative Extension

Introduction

In 1993, the United States Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Food and Drug Administration worked together to develop and initiate a plan to have IPM practices in use on 75% of the total crop acreage in the United States by the year 2000. Efforts were made to educate the agricultural community to assist with the implementation of this plan. In addition, conservation grants were made available to agricultural producers through the Farm Service Agency to promote the adoption of IPM methods.

Farmers use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices to employ responsible tactics when controlling insect, disease, weed, and other pests in crops. Many farmers realize the economic, food safety, and environmental aspects of practicing IPM methods. Additionally, farmers would like their customers to be aware of the efforts made to reach these goals. The general public needs to be educated on the benefits of IPM. Farmers also need the tools to notify their customers about the strides they make to practice safer pest management practices.

The Idea

Past and current work has focused on providing an IPM service to farmers and teaching the agricultural industry about how to deliver IPM programs. Over the years, farmers have clearly seen the impacts of using IPM related to improved pest control, efficient and economical pesticide use, and the increase in quality of crops. Farmers want to expand the benefits of utilizing IPM from the field to their markets.

Farmers are always looking to improve marketing tactics for their products. Produce from other states and other countries have made the wholesale industry extremely competitive. Additionally, the improved quality and diversity of fresh produce supermarkets offer has hurt retail sales at seasonal farm markets. Therefore, farmers may be able to find a marketing edge by promoting IPM to entice consumers to buy produce fresh from the farm. A marketing tool was needed that would catch they eye of the consumer visiting the farm stand.

In order to develop an IPM marketing tool for farm markets, members of the Rutgers Cooperative Extension Vegetable IPM Working Group applied for and received a $1,000 grant from the Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development. This grant funded the development of a poster and correspondence related to the project.

A brainstorming meetings were held and resulted in the development of a poster titled "What is IPM?" (Figure 1). The group sieved through their collections of photos to choose examples that could best tell the message of IPM practices. The poster was meant to be easy to read; word structure was chosen to be to the point; and colors were strategically placed to catch the attention of farm market visitors.

Figure 1.
The "What Is IPM?" Poster

Description

The general use poster was developed in March of 2000 to provide farmers with a tool to inform their clientele about IPM practices used on the farm. The poster highlights the use of pest resistant varieties, cultivation, pest monitoring, natural controls, and responsible chemical use as common tools of an IPM program. Three bullets at the bottom of the poster point out why consumers should care about IPM on the farm. This section mentions that IPM conserves the environment, produces quality crops, and helps to maintain farm profitability.

The poster was printed in color, was laminated, and measured 2 foot by 3 foot to draw the attention of customers. It was mounted on a corkboard to be easily hung in a prominent space in the farm market. Also included in a holder next to the poster was a fact sheet also titled "What is IPM?" If consumers voluntarily picked up this fact sheet, they also found a pre-posted questionnaire card attached. This method was used to measure pubic response.

Distribution

Due to limited funding for this project ($1,000), 10 farm markets throughout the state of New Jersey were selected to test the poster's impact. Because New Jersey is often divided into three regions of North, Central, and South, an even distribution of posters was established. Three posters were displayed in farm markets in the Northern region, 3 in the Central region, and 4 in the Southern region. Sixty survey cards per poster, for a total of 600, were distributed to the farm markets. Team members from this project visited the farm markets in their region on a regular basis to evaluate the dissemination of the IPM information. Additionally, the team members communicated with the farmers about the effectiveness of the poster.

Assessment

Of the 600 questionnaire cards distributed, the return rate was a 7.8%. Thirty-three people surveyed were aware of IPM before viewing the poster. Ninety-five percent of the customers did not realize that the farm they visited used IPM practices. Ninety-seven percent felt that IPM was a positive practice for farmers. Ninety-eight percent said the poster helped them to better understand IPM. Seventy-five percent replied that they would like to learn more about IPM, and 47% indicated that they would prefer to purchase IPM produce.

Farmers who received the IPM posters and fact sheets were pleased with the success of the materials and felt that the information generated a heightened awareness among their customers. They are unsure about whether or not it increased sales of IPM produce; however, they believe it has created a more loyal and informed customer base.

Since the initial 10 posters were developed and displayed, more farm market operators have become interested in purchasing the posters and fact sheets to use in their sales areas. The poster and fact sheet are general enough to be used in any farm market selling IPM produce. It is now available to other states. Distribution of the poster is being handled by the Rutgers Cooperative Extension Office of Pest Management <http://www.pestmanagement.rutgers.edu/>. To order a poster, email stopek@aesop.rutgers.edu.

Cowboy Obstetrics--A Calving Primer

James N. Hawkins
Custer County Agricultural Extension Agent
University of Idaho Cooperative Extension System
Challis, Idaho
Internet Address: jhawkins@uidaho.edu

William A. Zollinger
Extension Beef Specialist
Oregon State University Cooperative Extension System Corvallis, Oregon
Internet Address: zollingw@ccmail.orst.edu

Shannon K. Williams
Lemhi County Agricultural Extension Agent
University of Idaho Cooperative Extension System
Salmon, Idaho
Internet Address: shannonw@uidaho.edu

Background and Educational Objectives

Dystocia or difficult births continues to plague cattle producers in central Idaho. Replacement heifers account for the majority of the difficult births, but older cows are not immune. Producers are buying low birth weight bulls, and some are developing replacement heifers to achieve 85% of their mature weight before calving (Zollinger & Carr, 2000). These practices can help alleviate dystocia--but will not eliminate it.

The death of the calf at birth costs dollars that are easy to measure. Difficult births that delay the time to birth are "hidden" costs (Doornbos, Bellows, Burfening, & Knapp, 1984). Difficult births produce calves with a lower immune system response (Bulgin, Lune, & Anderson, 2000), making them more susceptible to disease. Sick calves cost dollars in medical expenses and losses in productivity and may even die.

In addition, the cow is slower to return to estrus (up to 14% longer in one study). The chances for uterine infections are higher, conception rate can be reduced by 16% or more (Funston & Geary, 1999), or the cow can be open. Combined or separately, these factors lengthen future calving seasons and lower weaning weights, and "new" genetics can be lost to the herd. Lighter calves and/or less uniformity in the calf crop can lower gross income. These are some of the "hidden" costs that a producer cannot measure readily.

Through a calving school, producers, even experienced calvers, could learn more about recognizing when labor has started, plus how and when to help with the birthing process. As a result, producers could minimize the hidden costs of dystocia and thus improve their bottom line.

Activities

Four calving schools, Cowboy Obstetrics--A Calving Primer, were held in 2000 and one in 2001. These schools were designed to achieve the following goals:

1. Reduce the stress of birth such that a live, viable calf is born, and
2. Demonstrate skills and management principles that enhance the survival of all calves, whether born naturally or with assistance.

The curriculum included a major section on review and training for handling abnormal and/or difficult births, which was originally developed by Bill Zollinger, Oregon State University Beef Cattle Specialist. Other sections covered disease diagnosis and the proper collection of samples for laboratory diagnosis, expected progeny differences, birth weight effects on calving difficulties, and Beef Quality Assurance.

An integrated team of specialists, veterinarians, and county agents taught the program. Sponsors included the local cattle associations, the Idaho Beef Council, and the University of Idaho Cooperative Extension System.

Methods, Results, Evaluation, and Impact

More than 300 people, representing approximately 175 ranches, attended the 1-day schools. Calving expertise ran the gamut from little or no experience to producers who had calved thousands of cows.

To measure knowledge gained at the calving schools, we gave a pre-test before the school got underway. The test was designed to measure the effectiveness of teaching methods, as well as subject matter knowledge. In 2000, producers answered only 35% of the questions correctly; in 2001, producers did somewhat better, answering 46% of the questions correctly. We found that both years, calving experience did not necessarily equate to knowledge about dystocia and dystocia management.

A post-test was given at the conclusion of the calving school. Although the questions were framed differently, the same information was sought as in the pre-test. Producers in both years answered 93% of the post-test questions correctly. Although no pattern could be found to indicate where program delivery might be strengthened, it was concluded that the teaching methods were appropriate and that the message did indeed get across.

Retention and adoption of practices taught were evaluated by conducting phone interviews with producers 9 months after the calving school. Each producer contacted was asked the same five questions. The questions covered what they had learned, new practices adopted, the number of heifers calved, calves saved as the result of the school, and what else they would like to know more about. Each of the 175 ranches represented at the calving school was called three times, with 105 successful contacts made.

Every producer contacted indicated that he or she had learned something "new" at the calving school. In addition, all producers surveyed could articulate at least one "new" thing they had adopted from the school. No attempt was made to determine the level of experience of those contacted. However, an attempt was made to get a feel for the number of cattle producers owned by asking them how many heifers were calved. The range was 1 to 1500 head. The average number of heifers calved was 65. By inference, our school affected approximately 71,100 cows, if the average replacement rate is 16% for the 175 ranches.

The survey data revealed that producers saved an average of 1.6 additional calves per outfit as a direct result of what they learned at the calving schools. The producers in the survey also indicated that the knowledge gained would help them save more calves in the future.

Economic Impact

The economic benefit of the calving schools can be calculated as follows. The average weaning weight for steer calves is 575 lb. and 550 for heifer calves in Custer and Lemhi Counties. Local producers' calves of this weight brought $1.12 per pound for steers and $1.06 for heifers in June on the video auction in both 2000 and 2001. Thus, saving 1.6 calves on each of the 175 ranches participating in the schools potentially generated an additional $171,780 in revenue. Not bad for a 5 days of training.

References

Bulgin, M.S., Lune, M., & Anderson, B.C. (2000). Prevention of baby calf diseases. (CL648-2) Cow/Calf Management Library.

Doornbos, D.E., Bellows, R.A., Burfening, P.J., & Knapp, B.W. (1984). Effects of dam age, prepartum nutrition, and duration of labor on productivity and postpartum reproduction in beef females. J. Anim. Sci. 59:1.

Funston, R., & Geary, T. (1999). Rebreeding the first-calf heifer. (CL413-2) Cow/Calf Management Library.

Zollinger, W.A., & Carr, J. (2000). How to select, grow, and manage replacement heifers. (CL745-1-5). Cow/Calf Management Library.

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