December 2003
Volume 41 Number 6

Research in Brief

Using Multi-Site Methodology to Evaluate 4-H Youth Leadership Retreats

Mary E. Arnold
4-H Youth Development Specialist
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon
Internet Address: mary.arnold@oregonstate.edu

Introduction

Helping youth develop leadership and other life skills is one of the main emphases of the 4-H Youth Development program (Hendricks, 1996). Furthermore, there is evidence supporting the relationship between participation in 4-H and a young person's perceived leadership skill development (Boyd, Herring, & Biers, 1992; U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2001). These skills, which include critical thinking, problem solving, responsibility, public speaking, teamwork, accepting and valuing others, conflict resolution, cooperation, teaching, communication and, of course, leading, are skills that are essential to ensuring the success of young people, both now and in the years to come.

The 4-H Youth Development program believes in providing settings where youth can learn experientially through hands-on interaction with the subject matter. One of the ways in which youth have been invited to develop leadership and other life skills experientially is through youth leadership retreats. These retreats typically take place over 2 or 3 days, in a residential camp-like setting. The design of the retreats allows plenty of opportunity for hands-on learning about leadership skills. In many cases, the retreats are planned and led by older youth who gain real experience in planning, teamwork, responsibility, communicating, and teaching others.

Over the years the 4-H Youth Development program has struggled with the question of how to evaluate the success of its programs. One of the main factors involved in this struggle is that programs vary from county to county and state to state (Meyers, 1980). While individual local programs are often very successful, documenting that success in a rigorous and systemic way can be difficult due in part to the fact that local programs rarely have the number of participants needed to make any generalized statement about the program. One way to address this issue is to conduct multi-site evaluations, which is the process of conducting evaluations of the same program that is taking place at different geographical locations (Straw & Herrell, 2002).

Research Objectives

Local 4-H programs vary tremendously from location to location, but there are many programs that are similar in intent and design. The county fair, judging contests, and youth leadership training are just a few examples. The study discussed here was undertaken both to test the feasibility of conducting a large-scale, multi-site evaluation of a program that has common outcomes from site to site, as well as to gather aggregate program evaluation data to be used as a statewide program evaluation.

Methods and Procedures

In the fall of 2001, county 4-H faculty in Oregon who conduct youth leadership retreats were invited to participate in the multi-site study. As Straw and Herrell (2002) point out, there are several factors that must be considered when designing a multi-site evaluation. Of these factors, there were two key considerations for this study. First, given the variance in the educational program from site to site, how could we ensure that the same outcomes were intended? Second, what sort of coordination would be necessary to ensure that data collection was conducted the same way across sites?

The first factor was addressed through the use of logic modeling during a group training session prior to the evaluation ("Logic Model," 2002). At the training session, county faculty interested in participating in the evaluation were presented with a logic model for youth leadership retreats. The learning (short-term) outcomes were reviewed, discussed, and agreed upon. In this manner all participants left knowing what the outcomes for their retreat were to be and what modifications might be necessary in order to achieve the outcomes. County faculty were also given a worksheet to work through the inputs for their program to help determine the "logic" and plan for obtaining the multi-site outcomes in their local programs.

One benefit of presenting the logic model and short-term outcomes in the training session was that county faculty began to think more critically about the design of their programs. The exercise of completing a logic model in order to ascertain whether their program could meet the outcomes led faculty to see the places where their programs were missing important links between inputs, outputs, and outcomes. As a result, local programs were modified or enhanced in order to ensure that targeted outcomes could be met.

The second factor, consistency in data collection, was also addressed in the group training. A handbook with data-collection and data-entry procedures was presented and carefully reviewed with the group. In addition, because the data collection involved only a survey to be given at the end of the retreat, variance with data collection procedures was somewhat controlled.

Participants

Participants in the evaluation were 283 4-H youth in grades 7-12, from 20 of Oregon's 36 counties, including the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. There were 199 female and 82 male participants (with 2 missing cases). The youth participated in one of five different regional leadership events across the state (Table 1).

Program Outcomes

The following short-term learning outcomes were identified.

As a result of participating in the leadership retreat, youth would report an increase in knowledge and abilities in the following areas:

• Understand the responsibilities of being a leader
• Be prepared to take a leadership role at home, school, or in the community
• Know how to work as a team to achieve goals
• Learn personal responsibility for actions
• Learn how to involve others in shared leadership
• Have an opportunity to practice leadership skills
• Learn that there are important leadership roles to take right now
• Learn that being a leader is an important part of being an adult
• Understand that leadership is a skill that can develop over time
• Think about alternatives before making a decision
• Consider the consequences of making a decision
• Understand that leadership skills lead to success in life
• Feel more prepared for the future
• Feel good about self
• Value the contributions of others
• Understand the value of being friends with those different from one's self

Data Collection and Analysis

A standard survey instrument was designed for use with the retreats. At the end of each retreat, participants were asked to fill out the survey. Data were entered into spreadsheets at the county level and then sent with the hard copies of the surveys to the state 4-H office for analysis.

The survey employed a retrospective pre-test procedure for gathering self-reported levels of knowledge from participants (Pratt, McGuigan, & Katzev, 2000). Participants were asked to complete the survey questions regarding their level of knowledge on a scale of 1-5, both before attending the leadership retreat and after attending the leadership retreat. A paired t-test was used to test the significance of the difference in the group mean scores from before the retreat to after the retreat for each item.

In addition to the learning assessment questions, the survey also contained questions regarding the overall impact of the retreat and the 4-H program on the participant's leadership development.

Results

Mean scores revealed that participants reported a higher score after the retreat than before the retreat for all learning outcomes (Tables 2 & 3).

In addition, 81.63% of participants reported a 4 or 5 on a 1-5 scale, indicating that the leadership training helped develop leadership skills. Similarly, 85.16% of respondents reported a 4 or 5 on a 1-5 scale, indicating that the 4-H experience has helped develop leadership skills.

Conclusions

In all, the results of the multi-site evaluation of 4-H youth leadership retreats indicate that participants are achieving the learning outcomes for the event. This evaluation focused solely on the assessment of learning outcomes and made no attempt to measure long-term impacts directly. There are a few reasons for this.

Reasons for Evaluation Focus

First, the evaluation was designed in line with the program logic model, meaning that medium- and long-term outcomes could not realistically be claimed at the end of a 2-day retreat. This isn't to say that medium- and long-term outcomes aren't possible, but rather, an effort was made to evaluate those things that could be attributed directly to the retreat experience itself.

Second, because so little evaluation has taken place on the youth leadership events in the past, it made sense to begin with the assessment of learning (Arnold, 2001). Once it is established that participants are indeed learning at the retreats, more sophisticated methods and designs can be used to understand better the different aspects of the impact of youth leadership retreats, including long-term impacts.

Finally, because this was a first statewide evaluation, the design and methodology was purposely kept simple in order to test the process and help ensure county participation. The relative simplicity of the evaluation should not discount the important confirmations revealed by the results.

Key Factors

Overall, the use of a multi-site evaluation methodology worked well. There appeared to be several key factors that made the methodology work in this setting. First, the commonality of goals and methods across the programs was key to obtaining results with any validity. Using logic modeling to accomplish this commonality was very useful and, as pointed out before, had beneficial side effects that ultimately helped improve the programs.

The second factor was the buy-in from the county faculty who participated. At the end of the evaluation, each county received a detailed evaluation report about its own leadership event. This information is highly valuable to county programs and thus contributed to the willingness to participate.

Finally, having a training session for all people involved in the evaluation prior to embarking on the project was quite useful. The training session allowed for talking about the philosophy of the evaluation, its goals, and its methods, and allowed time for a detailed question and answer period. Thus, all participants left with a clear understanding of what was to take place.

Implications for Future Research

The results of this multi-site evaluation lead us to believe with some confidence that participants in 4-H leadership retreats are learning about leadership and seeing its relevance and importance both now and in the future in continuing the development of important life skills. The understanding that the short-term outcomes for the programs are being met now invites a more rigorous and sophisticated assessment of the impact of the more nuanced and long-term outcomes of providing youth leadership development.

In addition, the potential for using multi-site evaluation methods in situations where it is appropriate to do so invites us to ponder other ways in which program evaluations might be carried out in situations that are inherently complex.

Acknowledgements

This project was made possible through the efforts of the following 4-H faculty members in Oregon: Janice Cowan, 4-H Faculty, Baker County; Dana Martin, 4-H Faculty, Crook County; Doug Hart, 4-H Faculty, Curry County; Robin Van Winkle, 4-H Faculty, Douglas County; JoAnn Mast, 4-H Faculty, Coos County; David White, 4-H Faculty, Deschutes County; Cindy Osterland, 4-H Faculty, Gilliam County, Elaine Husted, 4-H Faculty, Grant County, Shana Withee, 4-H Faculty, Harney County; Billie Stevens, 4-H Faculty, Hood River County; Anne Manlove, 4-H Faculty, Jackson County; Amy Davis, 4-H Faculty, Jefferson County; Erica Zollman, 4-H Faculty, Klamath County; Bill Broderick, 4-H Faculty, Morrow County; Carole Smith, 4-H Faculty, Union County; Deb Schreiber, 4-H Faculty, Wallowa County; Tonya Aitkin, 4-H Faculty, Wasco County; and Arlene Boileau, 4-H Faculty, Warm Springs Indian Reservation.

Thank you to all the county staff who assisted with data entry and to Blythe Kneedler, graduate research assistant, for her assistance in coordinating this statewide project.

References

Arnold, M. E. (2001). Be "logical" about program evaluation: Begin with learning assessment. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 40(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002june/a4.html

Boyd, B. L., Herring, D. R., & Briers, G. E. (1992). Developing life skills in youth. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 30(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992winter/a4.html

Henricks, P. A. (1996). Targeting life skills model. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Extension Service.

Logic Model. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Extension. Available at: http://www.uwex.edu/ces/pdande/index.html

Meyers, J. M. (1980). Integrity versus pragmatism: Planning the national 4-H evaluation. Education and Urban Society, 13(1) 13-36.

Pratt, C. C., McGuigan, W. M., & Katzev, A. R. (2000). Measuring program outcomes: Using retrospective methodology. The American Journal of Evaluation, 21(3), 341-349.

Straw, R. B., & Herrell, J. M. (2002). A framework for understanding and improving multi-site evaluations. New Directions for Evaluation, 94, 5-15.

U. S. Department of Agriculture. (2001). Prepared and engaged youth: National 4-H Impact assessment Project. Washington, D. C.: Author.

Life Skill Development Through 4-H Clubs: The Perspective of 4-H Alumni

Janet Fox
Associate Professor
4-H Volunteer and Leadership Development
4-H Youth Development
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Internet Address: JFox@agctr.lsu.edu

Debra Schroeder
Extension Educator
Cuming County Extension Office
West Point, Nebraska
Internet Address: dschoeder@unl.edu

Kathleen Lodl
Associate Professor
Extension 4-H Youth Development Specialist
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, Nebraska
Internet Address: klodl@unl.edu

Background

One of the most pressing issues facing youth-serving organizations such as 4-H is how to best support youth in becoming productive, contributing individuals of society. Leffert, Saito, Blyth, and Kroenke (1996) found the experiences young people have during early adolescence provide the foundation on which they develop their personalities and life skills. Early adolescence is a time of rapid change in young people, hence, this is often an excellent opportunity to make a positive impact upon their development.

Because 4-H reaches youth in early adolescence, 4-H has the opportunity to significantly influence the development of young people. The importance of reaching these youth is documented in a study by Ladewig and Thomas (1987) indicating that skills and attitudes formed during 4-H carry into adulthood.

The mission of 4-H is to develop life skills among young people (Cox, 1996). In fact, life skills, the abilities that individuals learn that help them to be successful in living a productive and satisfying life, serve as the foundation for the 4-H program (Boyd, Herring, & Briers, 1992). A number of studies have tried to determine if participation in non-formal educational programs such as 4-H have an impact on youth (Astroth, 1996; Boyd, 1991; Hanna, 1988; Heinsohn & Cantrell, 1986; Ladewig & Thomas, 1987; Sarver, Johnson, & Verma, 2000; Sawer, 1987; Steele & Everson, 1978).

For example, Astroth (1996) found that 4-H effectively develops life skills in 4-H members. His research showed that 4-H Clubs were effective in helping youth develop critical life skills such as decision-making, responsibility, interpersonal skills, a service ethic, and social skills. In addition, 4-H Clubs emphasized developing practical, technical skills. Members often cited the hands-on learning opportunities available through the club experience as vital to their skill development.

Heinsohn and Cantrell (1986) found that 4-H members perceived themselves as having developed "good" levels of leadership, communication, and personal development skills. Boyd (1991) found that 4-H Club members rated their skill development higher on the scales of working with groups, understanding self, communicating, and making decisions. Interestingly, youth who participated in Boyd's study rated themselves lower on the leadership scale.

Within the past several years, major changes have resulted in increasing accountability demands upon all Cooperative Extension programming, including 4-H (Barkman & Machtmes, 2001). Funders at both state and federal levels have charged youth serving agencies to develop methods of evaluating their programs to document positive benefits of program participation. Appropriately, funders want to ensure that the programs they support are making a difference in the lives of the young people served. These changes have made it necessary for youth development professionals to be better prepared to measure, document, and articulate the impact of 4-H programs.

Purpose

With these thoughts in mind, the study described was designed to determine if 4-H alumni perceived themselves as having gained life skills through the 4-H Club experience and, if so, to what degree. The study featured examination of 32 life skills divided into four theme areas:

• Technical skills,
• Communication skills,
• Personal/social skills, and
• Leadership skills.

Methodology

The study used a descriptive, mixed model survey. The survey was developed utilizing data obtained from a focus group of 4-H volunteers, 4-H alumni, and Cooperative Extension staff. Coupled with the focus group data, life skills identified in the Targeting Life Skills Model (Hendricks, 1998) were reviewed.

Respondents shared their perceptions of life skill development as a result of their participation in the 4-H Club program. For the purpose of the study, content validity was established through a review of the instrument by a panel of experts. Chronbach's Alpha Reliability Analysis score of .7966 was reported indicating valid data.

The population for this study was 4-H alumni from 17 southeast Nebraska counties who participated in a 4-H Club from 1982-1988. These 17 counties make up approximately 55% of the state's population. Extension staff provided the names and addresses of 4-H Club alumni. In identifying research participants, Extension staff were asked to select individuals who represented a wide variety of 4-H involvement, years of membership and project interests. The 4-H Club Impact Survey was then sent to these purposefully sampled 264 4-H Club alumni.

Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The qualitative section of the survey included open-ended questions regarding the most important thing learned through the 4-H Club experience as well as a section asking respondents to share an interesting story about their 4-H experience. Qualitative data, gained through open-ended questions, was analyzed using a theme mapping process (Creswell, 2001).

Findings

Usable responses were obtained from 196 respondents, for a return rate of 74%. The 4-H alumni reported participating in 4-H from 3 to 13 years, with an average of 9.2 years. In terms of continued involvement in 4-H, less than one-fourth (22%) of the alumni are currently involved in 4-H in a volunteer capacity. Several alumni who aren't involved in 4-H currently indicated an interest in volunteering for 4-H on the survey.

Respondents rated the influence of their 4-H Club experience on life skill development on a four-point scale: 1 = primary influence, 2 = some influence, 3 = minor influence, and 4 = no influence. The life skills assessed were divided into the broad categories of technical skills, communication skills, personal/social skills, and leadership skills. Results showed that 4-H Club membership did have primary or some influence on the development of all 32 life skills identified in the survey (See Appendix A). For the purpose of this article, those life skills that were primarily influenced by 4-H Club membership are discussed (Table 1).

According to the data, 4-H Club involvement had the most influence on the development of responsibility, with 58.8% of the respondents indicating 4-H Club involvement as the primary influence on the development of this skill. In addition, the majority of 4-H alumni reported 4-H Club membership as the primary influence in: product production skills, the ability to handle competition and gaining the ability to meet new people.

Leadership skills were primarily influenced by 4-H Club engagement for 46.3% of the respondents, while 46.0% reported primarily gaining project skills through the 4-H Club experience. Forty-five percent of the respondents reported 4-H Club membership as a primary influence on the development of sportsmanship and presentation skills. When it came to developing self-confidence and a willingness to try new things, 43.8% of the respondents indicated that 4-H Club membership was the primary influence in the development of these life skills.

The survey included an opportunity for 4-H Club alumni to list other technical, communication, personal, relationship, and leadership skills they developed as a result of their 4-H Club experience. In the four major areas of life skill development, respondents identified other skills not listed. Eighty-five percent of the 4-H Club alumni indicated that they had developed other leadership skills through their 4-H Club experience. In addition, 66.7% of the respondents reported that 4-H Club membership was a primary influence in other technical life skill development and communication skill development. Sixty percent of 4-H Club alumni reported that 4-H was the primary influence on other personal and relationship life skill development.

Technical Skills

In response to the question about what other technical skills 4-H alumni learned through the 4-H Club program, alumni identified a wide variety of technical skills, including those in consumer sciences, animal sciences, science and technology, environmental education, and plant sciences. "Cost comparison," "improving on mistakes," "dividing a project into workable tasks," and "quality of workmanship" were all shared as additional technical skills gained. When asked the most important thing gained from the 4-H Club experience, one 4-H Alumni shared: "I learned to produce quality products and can now use these for medical school."

Communication Skills

When asked what other communication skills they learned through the 4-H Club experience, 4-H alumni identified "asking questions," "ability to meet others outside of the county," and "developing friendships that lasted into and past college." When asked to identify the most important thing learned through the 4-H Club experience, respondents shared:

• "I learned skills for effective communication: presentations and public speaking."
  
  
• "The most important things I learned were how to speak in front of a group and how to put a presentation together."

Personal and Social Skills

4-H alumni shared that they learned "to teach others" through 4-H Club involvement. When asked to identify the most important thing learned through the 4-H Club experience, alumni shared the following statements related to personal and social life skill development:

• "You can learn a lot by meeting new people and being exposed to new experiences."
  
  
• "Team work - everyone in the Club had to work together to get everything done."
  
  
• "Every person has great qualities and skills in which they can share with others."

Leadership Skills

In the leadership area, 4-H alumni indicated they gained "citizenship skills," "the ability to take orders," and "networking skills." When 4-H alumni were asked to identify the most important thing learned through the 4-H Club experience, leadership skills were often cited. One 4-H alumnus shared that "4-H was the building block of my leadership skills."

Overall Impact of the 4-H Club Experience

Several 4-H alumni provided strong testimonials supporting their 4-H Club experience. For example, one 4-H alumnus stated: "I strongly believe I wouldn't be where I'm today without 4-H." Several others commented on how 4-H shaped their philosophy of competition:

• "No matter if you win or lose, you are important and both winning and losing provide fun and learning."
  
  
• "Awards are not won at the fair. They are won at home. This is achieved through hard work, management and responsibilities."
  
  
• "Do your best and be proud of that, whether or not you win."

Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on the study findings, the 4-H Club experience does affect the development of life skills. These findings support research by Heinsohn and Cantrell (1986) and Boyd, Herring, and Briers (1992), which found that 4-H members perceived they had developed specific life skills through the 4-H experience. 4-H is a viable avenue for Cooperative Extension in developing young people to become capable, competent adults. Cooperative Extension staff and volunteers should continue to promote and support participation in 4-H Clubs as a means to develop life skills.

It is somewhat surprising that the majority of 4-H alumni involved in this study are not involved in 4-H today. With the positive influence 4-H had on the lives of many of these 4-H alumni, a golden opportunity for volunteer recruitment exists. Given the multiple states where these alumni now reside, a national 4-H alumni database could serve as a valuable tool to track and recruit volunteers for support of Cooperative Extension 4-H programs.

Future research should be conducted to:

1. Investigate relationships among 4-H Club membership, life skill development, and participation by ethnicity and gender,
   
   
2. Search for other predictors of life skill development, and
   
   
3. Replicate research concerning life skill development with other youth development programs.

Cooperative Extension must continue to document the value that 4-H programs have on life skill development. As impact results are documented, the value of 4-H programs must be reported to funders and decision-makers, volunteers, parents, and potential members. It is through this documentation and reporting that the positive impact of 4-H on young people can be better understood by all.

References

Astroth, K. (1996). Leadership in non-formal youth groups: Does style affect youth outcomes? Journal of Extension [On-line], 34(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1996december/rb2.html

Barkman, S. J., & Machtmes, K. L., (2001) Four-fold: A research model for designing and evaluating the impact of youth development programs. News and Views, 54(4), 1, 4-6.

Boyd, B. L. (1991). Analysis of 4-H participation and leadership life skill development in Texas 4-H club members. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. College Station, TX: Texas A & M University.

Blyth, D. A., & Leffert, N. (1995). Communities as contexts for adolescent development: An empirical analysis. Journal of Adolescent Research, 10(1), 64-87.

Boyd, B. L., Herring, D. R., & Briers, G. E. (1992). Developing life skills in youth. Journal of Extension[On-line], 30(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992winter/a4.html

Cox, K., (1996). Youth leadership development and implications for non-formal educational programming research and literature update. The Ohio State University, February 1996.

Creswell, J. W. (2001). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Hanna. G. S. (1988). Kansas 4-H impact study: 1983-1987. Unpublished report. Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University, Department of Education.

Hendricks, P. (1998). Targeting life skills model. Available at: http://www.extension.iastate.edu/4H/lifeskills/homepage.html

Heinsohn, A. L., & Cantrell, M, J. (1986). Pennsylvania 4-H impact study: An evaluation of teen's life skill development. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.

Ladewig, H., & Thomas, J. (1987). Does 4-H make a difference? College Station, TX: Texas A & M University System.

Leffert, N., Saito, R. N., Blyth, D. A., & Kroenke, C. H. (1996). Making the case: Measuring the impact of youth development programs, Minneapolis, MN: Search Institute.

Sarver, D., Johnson, E., & Verma, S. (2000). A tool to assess the worth of a youth organization. Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000june/rb3.html

Sawer, B. J. (1987). What 4-H members learn in animal science projects. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Department of 4-H and Youth Development.

Steele, S. M., & Everson, N. (1978). What youth gain from 4-H animal projects. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Extension Service.

Appendix A: Life Skills Evaluated

Technical Skills

• Record Keeping
• Project Skills
• Preparing for a Career
• Producing a Product
• Evaluating a Product

Communication Skills

• Public Speaking Skills
• Presentation Skills
• Written Communication Skills

Personal/Social Skills

• Meeting New People
• Building Relationships
• Working with Caring Adults
• Working as a Family
• Handling Conflict
• Appreciate Others' Differences
• Self Confidence
• Respect for Self
• Willing to Try New Things
• Respect for Others and Property
• Sportsmanship
• Resiliency (Ability to bounce back)
• Critical Thinking
• Ability to Handle Competition
• Desire to Be Involved
• Managing Challenges
• Following Rules
• Social Skills

Leadership Skills

• Responsibility
• Leadership
• Organizational Skills
• Ability to Run a Meeting
• Time Management
• Following Through

Practitioners Put Research into Practice Strengthening Community-Based Pregnant and Parenting Teen Programs

Elizabeth J. Gong
Program Representative
San Jose, California
Internet Address: ejgong@ucdavis.edu

Marilyn J. Johns
Youth Development, Nutrition, Family & Consumer Sciences Advisor
Half Moon Bay, California
Internet Address: mjjohns@ucdavis.edu

Fe Moncloa
Youth Development Advisor
San Jose, California
Internet Address: fxmoncloa@ucdavis.edu

University of California Cooperative Extension

Introduction

Staff in three California counties partnered with six community-based teen pregnancy program practitioners to strengthen their capacity to deliver improved programs by incorporating best practices that were identified in the Best Practices in Teen Pregnancy Prevention: Practitioner Handbook (Gong et al., 1999). This article presents the challenges and opportunities practitioners and Cooperative Extension staff encountered in the implementation and incorporation of a new best practice.

Background

The United States teen birth rate remains the highest of any industrialized nation. Although the national overall rate has been declining since its highest point in 1991 (62/1000), it was still 48.7 births per 1000 teen girls in 1999 (National Campaign To Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2001). Nearly four in 10 young women become pregnant at least once before they reach the age of 20. Eight in 10 of these pregnancies are unintended, and 79 % are to unmarried teens. Hispanic teens have the highest teen birth rates.

California continues to have a higher teen birth rate than the national rate. While nationally, a 13% increase in number of teens is expected by 2005, California's population of 13 - 19 year olds is expected to increase dramatically, by 35%. Unless the teen birth rate declines markedly, there will be a significant increase in the number of pregnant and parenting teens (California Department of Health Services, 2000).

This complex and persistent problem of teen pregnancy prompted Cooperative Extension staff in three California counties to focus efforts on linking academic research with teen pregnancy prevention programs to produce better outcomes for teens living in highly urbanized, multi-ethnic counties. Findings from surveys, visits to local teen pregnancy prevention programs, and a literature review led to the team's first effort, the publication of Best Practices in Teen Pregnancy Prevention: Practitioner Handbook (1999), which suggested 10 best practices for practitioners working in teen pregnancy prevention programs.

The Applied Research Project

The goal of the project described here was to evaluate the process of best-practice adoption/implementation--applying research to practice with local teen pregnancy prevention programs.

The objectives of the project were to:

• Document challenges and opportunities that grassroots organizations face in incorporating an additional program component.
  
  
• Assess the role of Cooperative Extension staff in providing technical assistance to programs in the adoption, implementation, and evaluation of a new practice.
  
  
• Document outcomes for practitioners and participants, and determine Extension implications.

Methodology

Requests for proposals for grants to support program innovation were sent to 20 agencies and schools with teen pregnancy prevention programs. Many of the programs had initially completed surveys for the handbook or were contacted through countywide teen pregnancy prevention networks. Potential partners were asked to submit a proposal to adopt one of the 10 best practices listed in the handbook. Proposals were reviewed by the Teen Pregnancy Prevention Team, which consisted of three Youth Development Advisors; one Youth Development Specialist; one Nutrition, Family, and Consumer Sciences Advisor; and the Project Coordinator.

Partnerships were developed with agencies working in teen pregnancy prevention in a variety of ways. Site visits were made to 25 programs in efforts to survey staff and learn more about programs in the area. Upon completion of the handbook, over 100 books were distributed to community agencies and schools. The project coordinator was an active member of community collaboratives and participated in community forums and fairs. All these activities contributed to building relationships with various schools and agencies.

Three schools and one agency were selected to collaborate in the project. Grants were awarded to each program for 6 months to assist in adopting a "best practice." A university special project grant provided limited funding, so grants were set at $900 each. Due to timing and funding constraints, implementation was limited.

Two school age parenting programs at continuation/alternative high schools (Sites A and B) participated in the study (Table 1). Pregnant and parenting students participated in general education and parenting education, focusing on developing positive parenting skills. Both programs offered practical, hands-on experiences in the care and education of infants and toddlers.

Another school age parenting program (Site C) was situated in an adult education campus, providing education and support to pregnant and parenting teen families.

Site D, a community-based agency, provided home visitation to pregnant and parenting teenagers. Home-based support from case managers focused on the importance of family involvement in parenting and child development.

Technical assistance was provided in the adoption and implementation of one "best practice," and in program evaluation. Technical assistance included:

• Providing support material in male involvement, assets building, self-esteem, and conflict-resolution;
  
  
• Providing referrals to State Liaison for the Male Involvement Program and to nutrition educators; and
  
  
• Researching parenting videos appropriate for teens.

Evaluations, surveys, and interviews with staff were completed at the end of the project. Interim site visits were also made to observe the implementation of the best practice.

Results

From the inception of the project to implementation and evaluation, key lessons were learned that inform the field in project replication. Our team was pleased to see that our community partners were willing to add an additional element to their current practices for a nominal grant amount. Each proposal stated lofty goals and objectives that, on close review by the Teen Pregnancy Prevention team, seemed unreachable within the time limit. Partners were flexible and accepted our criticism and feedback. Some partners needed more assistance than others in deciding how to implement the "best practice."

Site B, the alternative/continuation high school, offered a 2-week self-defense course taught by a youth peer as a component of the youth development best practice. The program experienced 100% attendance during the 2 weeks. The course, along with morning refreshments, served as an incentive. The staff states that all youth were motivated to be at the school: "The four mommies in the group . . . were motivated to come and they were motivated to do their assignments."

Once the course ended, attendance continued to be high. A challenge in implementation was that staff felt they were working "double-duty" during this period. Nevertheless, staff felt that it was worth it, and that they would do it again. Next time, staff felt the course should be offered year-round.

One alternative/continuation high school and the Adult Education Program (Sites A & C) adopted the male involvement best practice. At Site A, the program was designed in response to an expressed need by young mothers. They wanted "the boyfriends or the fathers of their babies to work with them as a team in raising their child."

Two female students volunteered to serve as "liaison" between male facilitators (staff from a partnering community-based agency) and the males. The liaison spoke with them on the phone, mailed them announcements, and called them the same day to confirm their participation. Males were invited to two social gatherings, yet the only people who showed up were the female students.

An unexpected outcome of this intervention was: "with the reality of the mother seeing that there wasn't always willingness for the male to participate in what she thought was important, and so . . . I've got to go on and do the best I can." Yet at the same time, the female students' interaction with the male facilitators and with other members of the community gave them a chance to "see that there were some men that were really interested and involved in parenting relationships."

At Site C, male participation was low, yet it was the process of involving the males that strengthened the group of young women. As the staff person states: "we didn't get the dads we wanted, but we built a nice network among the girls, that was nice and unexpected." A staff member observed that, although the intervention did not work as expected, she did learn how to assess what works and what doesn't work. "I was very, very pleased that we were given the chance to see if something would work and a chance to test our creativity, a chance to follow through on the suggestions from our students."

At Site D, the agency adopted the family and other caring adult's involvement best practice into their home visitation program. Staff procured parenting videos and age-appropriate toys and organized a family picnic with the grant. Staff took the toys to young women's homes and used them to interact with the child, the teen parent, and the babies' grandmothers.

The adoption of the best practice made staff aware of the importance of serving as parenting role models for the young mothers. Staff felt that they needed more time to serve as parenting role models and work at involving the families. One staff member stated that "my impression is the more involved we get the entire family, I believe the more you move this parent forward."

Implementation Challenges

Implementation of this project was challenging for our collaborating partners due to the following.

• Scheduling: Once the grant process was finalized through the university, our partners had only 6 months to design, implement, and evaluate this project. The school calendar year was a limiting factor. Overworked staff had difficulty in scheduling planning meetings. Programs that targeted increased involvement of families and males had difficulty scheduling meetings because many men worked during afternoon and evening hours.
  
  
• Teacher/staff workload: In one school, the teacher was in her first year at that particular school. Balancing the workload of regular teaching with this "extra" project was difficult.
  
  
• Change in location: An additional alternative high school, with its own funding source, was ready to adopt the family involvement best practice. A facilitator was hired, and childcare was provided. The project had one meeting, and then it was postponed until the following year, because the entire school moved to a new location.

Implementation challenges experienced by Cooperative Extension included the following.

• Communication with site staff: From inception to completion of the project, making contact with program coordinators and direct service staff was difficult. Many staff did not return our phone calls--probably due to the work overload that they were experiencing. Our repeated phone calls, followed by e-mails and faxes, resulted in off-and-on communication.
  
  
• Completing site visits: Site visits were conducted as part of the evaluation effort. With regard to one site, the project coordinator made multiple phone calls to schedule a visit, but by the time site staff returned phone calls, the sessions had ended.

For our community partners and our team, this was the first time we engaged in a reciprocal collaboration to adopt a new practice. All of our partners concluded that the new best practice made a positive impact on participating youth. Our partners and the Teen Pregnancy Prevention team concur that if we were to do this again, we would like a longer time frame, such as 3 years, and substantially more funds to support the effort. Our community partners have used the adoption of a best practice along with the handbook as a way to leverage additional funds.

Conclusion

Our study examined the process that teen pregnancy prevention programs undergo in the adoption and implementation of a new best practice. Conversations with our partners and the site observations helped us understand the reality that schools and non-profit organizations face on a daily basis and the challenges and opportunities that this approach presents for Cooperative Extension. Results suggest that community partners welcome the opportunity to improve their practice and need support in implementation and evaluation. Findings also highlight the importance of community partners' and Cooperative Extension's flexibility, persistence, and patience to maintain ongoing and open communication.

It is important to note that the results of this applied research study should be viewed in the context of a relatively small sample with limited implementation time. Our focus was on California, specifically the San Francisco Bay Area. Our goal was to document the process of implementation of a new practice, not to document the impact of a best practice on participating pregnant and/or parenting teens. Impact on youth is an important aspect to consider, but it would need to be measured on a project that is long-term (minimum of 3 years) and with a source of greater funding.

References

California Department of Health Services, Primary Care and Family Health, Office of Family Planning and Office of Community Challenge Grants. (2000). Adolescent pregnancy prevention, Leadership 2000 Conference. April 11-13.

Gong, E., Johns, M., Lee, F., Moncloa, F., Russell, S., & West, E. (1999). Best Practices in Teen Pregnancy Prevention: Practitioner Handbook. San Jose, California: University of California Cooperative Extension.

Johns, M.J., Moncloa, F., Gong, E.G. (2000). Teen pregnancy prevention programs: Linking research and practice. Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2000august/a1.html

Kirby, D. (2001). Emerging answers: Research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy. Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2001). Facts and stats. Washington, DC. Available at: http://www.teenpregnancy.org/

Factors Affecting Food Choices of Men in Production Agriculture in Kansas

Tandy S. Rundus
County Extension Family and Consumer Science Agent
Republic County Extension Office
Belleville, Kansas
Internet Address: trundus@oznet.ksu.edu

Betsy Barrett
Associate Professor
Hotel, Restaurant, Institution Management and Dietetics
Manhattan, Kansas
Internet Address: barrett@humec.ksu.edu

Kansas State University

Introduction

Diet affects the health of men in production agriculture, just as it does that of men in other occupations. The National Center for Health Statistics 2001 Rural Chartbook lists heart disease, cancer, and stroke as the leading causes of death in the United States. All these diseases have links to nutrition. The book also notes that there are distinct health challenges confronting the most rural counties with more dispersed and older populations (National Center for Health Statistics [NCHS], 2001).

The health of agricultural producers is vital to maintaining a vibrant agricultural economy. According to the 1997 Census of Agriculture, Kansas had 61,593 farms, most of which were family-owned. K-State Research and Extension is an important source of information for farmers and their families (K-State Research and Extension, 2002). It is therefore important for Cooperative Extension to provide nutritional information targeting the individual operators of these farms so they can lead healthy and productive lives.

Nutrition and health are strongly linked. The American Heart Association identified smoking, elevated cholesterol, physical inactivity, obesity, and diabetes mellitus as the major risk factors of heart disease (American Heart Association [AHA], 2001). One-third of the cancer deaths that occur in the United States annually are due to nutritional factors, including obesity (American Cancer Society [ACS], 2001).

In 2002, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute released the first federal guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity. Overweight was defined as a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 25 to 29.9 kg/m, and obesity as a BMI of Æ 30 kg/m (National Heart Lung and Blood Institute [NHLBI], 2002).

With these known links to diet and disease, Americans should be eating more healthily. However, according to the Eating in America Today II (EAT II) study, American diets do not reflect the recommendations as illustrated in the food pyramid, with a strong base in grains, fruits, and vegetables (USDA, 1992). Of the six food groups in the pyramid, the EAT II study found that only the meat and poultry group was consumed within the dietary guidelines. Fruits, vegetables, and grains are under-consumed. Although foods in the fats/oils/sweets group should be eaten sparingly, consumption exceeded the recommendations (Smith, 1995).

Research has indicated that men have more limited meal preparation skills and nutrition knowledge than women do. Harnack, Story, Martinson, Neumark-Sztainer, and Stang (1998) found that 23% of men were involved in meal planning, 36% in shopping, and 27% in meal preparation. Younger men and men in households in which the female head of household worked full-time were more involved in meal planning and preparation. Redman (1980) studied the impact of women's time allocation on expenditures for meals away from home and purchase of prepared foods. Even though more women were working outside the home, they still retained a majority of the responsibilities for food selection and preparation activities. However, this situation was less pronounced for the noon meal, where women were less likely to influence men's food choices.

Tepper, Choi, and Nayga (1997) examined the effects of restrained eating, nutrition knowledge, beliefs about selected foods, and demographic variables on self-reported food choices of men. Restrained eating was defined as the conscious attempt by an individual to regulate body weight. Dietary restraint was a consistent predictor of food choice in the male population studied. Urban residency, income, age, and nutrition knowledge also were found to influence men's food choice.

The Framingham Heart Study, initiated in 1948 as a longitudinal, population-based study of cardiovascular disease, is one of the most comprehensive studies of men's health. It later broadened its scope to include other chronic diseases. Findings indicated that with, increased nutrition knowledge, dietary habits more closely approximated food pyramid recommendations (Millen et al., 1997).

Most of the research on the health of men in production agriculture has focused on farm stress and injury or on the link between pesticide use and cancer (Kidd, Scharf, & Veazie,1996; Agriculture Health Study, 2002). Limited research was found that investigated the food choices of men in production agriculture.

Purposes

The purposes of the research described here were to obtain baseline food choice data of men in production agriculture and to determine if these food choices were affected by:

• Restrained eating,
• Perceived nutrition knowledge of the participants, and/or
• Off-farm employment of the spouse

Hypotheses were that fruit, vegetable, grain, meat, and fat consumption would not be affected by restrained eating, perceived nutrition knowledge, or spouse working off-farm.

Additional research questions included:

• How does body mass index (BMI) of men in production agriculture compare with the recommended BMI for healthy weight?
  
  
• Where do men in production agriculture eat their noon meal in harvest and non-harvest times?
  
  
• What amount of time do men take for the noon meal during harvest and non-harvest times?
  
  
• What are the sources of nutrition/health information utilized by men in production agriculture?

Results of this research provided insight into eating behaviors and gaps in nutrition knowledge that could be addressed by Cooperative Extension Service educational materials.

Methodology

Participants in this study attended one of the nine Agricultural Profitability Conferences conducted in varying geographic locations in Kansas. Conferences were sponsored jointly by K- State's Agricultural Economics Department and the Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service (K-State Research and Extension). Protocol approved by Kansas State University's Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects was followed.

The brief version of the Block Health Habits and History Questionnaire, (Block Brief) was used to assess food consumption practices (Block, Hartman, & Naughton, 1990). Questionnaires were purchased from the University of California at Berkeley through the Nutrition Quest Web site (University of California at Berkeley [UCB], 2001). The Block Brief included questions about age, gender, height, weight, and food choice. Fourteen questions were added to the Block Brief to obtain information related to the hypotheses and research questions.

The instrument was self-administered to the volunteers during or immediately following the noon meal. The researcher was present to clarify questions and to ensure that participants understood the procedure for completing the instrument. The Block Brief included pictures of certain foods for visual clarification of serving sizes and to aid in estimating food consumption.

Frequency of consumption for individual food items was coded based on the following scale:

• .00 = no response
• .015 = a few times a year
• .03 = once per month
• .08 = 2-3 times per month
• .14 = once per week
• .29 = twice per week
• .50 = 3-4 times per week
• .79 = 5-6 times per week
• 1 = once a day.

This scale was created using a servings-per-day concept (example: five to six times per week was on average 5.5 servings divided by seven days in a week, or .79).

The amount of a food eaten was coded for a standard serving size and varied based on the food consumed. Total consumption of each food was determined by multiplying the frequency of consumption for a food by the factor representing the amount consumed of that same food. Results could then be reported in servings per day. Data were combined into groups: fruit, vegetable, meat, grain, and fat for hypothesis testing (Breslow, Subar, Patterson, & Block, 1997). SPSS 10.0 for Windows was used to analyze data (SPSS, 2000). T-tests and ANOVAs tested the hypotheses.

Results

Demographics

From the 322 seminar attendees, 147 useable surveys were completed, for a 46% response rate. The mean age of study participants was 48 years, and mean weight was 198 pounds. Average BMI of respondents was 27.7, with 70.5% having a BMI Æ 25.

Net annual income was ÿ $40,000 for 60% of participants. This was comparable to the mean household income of $50,000 for the State of Kansas reported in the 2000 Census (United States Census Bureau [USCB], 2001). Fifty-nine percent had obtained either a bachelors or masters degree, compared to 25.8% statewide (USCB, 2002). Approximately half (49.3%) of respondents' spouses were employed off the farm for more than 4 hours per day.

Frequency of Consumption of Food Groups

Fruits (1.28 servings/day) and vegetables (1.80 servings/day) were consumed less than grain, fats, and meat (Table 1). Grains had the highest mean daily consumption (3.5 servings/day), followed by fat (2.1 servings/day). Chicken (.24 servings/day) and fish (.01 servings/day) had the lowest mean daily consumption. Five percent of respondents reported never eating fish. For a copy of the foods included in each group, interested persons may contact the authors.

Frequency of Restrained Eating and Perceived Nutrition Knowledge

Many respondents did not adjust their eating habits based on weight or health concerns. For example, 57.4% of the respondents disagreed with the statement "I frequently do not eat a food because I think it might cause me to gain weight." Forty-four percent disagreed with the statement about restrained eating "I frequently do not eat a food because I think it is bad for my health." The majority (66%) agreed that their nutrition knowledge was appropriate for maintaining a healthy diet. When asked to rate their nutrition knowledge, 41.2% rated it as excellent, and 16% reported their nutrition knowledge as poor.

Eating Behaviors by Time and Location

For the noon meal during harvest, 54.3% ate a sack lunch in the field, and 36.2% took a 10-15 minute break to eat. In winter or during other slower farming periods, 83.9% of participants ate at home, and 41.4% took 20-30 minutes to eat the noon meal.

Analysis of Restrained Eating, Perceived Nutrition Knowledge, and Spouse Working Off- Farm

Results indicated that those respondents who consumed more fruit practiced restrained eating and had a higher perceived nutrition knowledge (Tables 2 and 3). The spouse working off-farm also significantly affected fruit consumption; men ate more fruit when the spouse did not work off-farm (Table 4). No other food group showed any significance with these variables.

Sources of Nutrition/Health Information

Most respondents (48%) obtained nutrition/health information from their spouse. Other sources included doctor (15%) and television (12%). Most farmers (34.5%) wanted to continue obtaining nutrition/health information from their spouses, 16.8% from a doctor, and 10.6% from a dietitian. Only seven respondents (5.7%) reported that they currently received nutrition/health information through K-State Research and Extension programs, and five respondents (4.4%) stated that K-State Research and Extension would be a source in the future.

Discussion and Conclusions

The mean BMI of 27.7 and the fact that 70.5% of participants had a BMI Æ 25 are consistent with national trends and indicate that participants are overweight. The servings per day of foods eaten in our sample reflect the conclusion of Smith (1995) that the American population does not follow food pyramid guidelines. The amount of grains, fruits, and vegetables consumed also were below food pyramid recommendations for the subjects in our study. Meat consumption approximated the suggested 2-3 servings. Fat consumption, at an average 2.1 servings, was higher than the "use sparingly" recommendation of the food pyramid (USDA,1992). These results support findings of the EAT II study that reported men ate fewer servings of most food groups than recommended, except meat and fat (Smith, 1995).

Our study did not support the findings of Tepper, Choi, and Nayga (1997), that dietary restraint was a consistent predictor of food choice in a community-based population of adult men. Most respondents in this study never practiced restrained eating. For those who did, there was a consistent increase in fruit consumption. No other food group was affected by restrained eating.

The study population rated their perceived nutrition knowledge as excellent to average, yet this was not reflected in their actual food choices. Perceived nutrition knowledge was found to affect only fruit consumption. When participants indicated that their nutrition knowledge was appropriate for maintaining a healthy diet, their fruit consumption increased.

Fruit consumption significantly decreased for those whose spouse worked off-farm. Since 50% of spouses worked off the farm, the researcher predicted that the study population would rely on commercial foods for their noon meals. However, the study's results do not support this conclusion. The respondents most often ate their noon meal at home or as a sack lunch where food and calorie consumption could still be controlled by the spouse. The choice of a sack lunch also could be related to time constraints.

Weight status, food choices, the limited practice of restrained eating, and a high perceived nutrition knowledge without corresponding healthy food selection suggest that the study population would benefit from improved food consumption. These individuals could be considered at high risk for heart disease, cancer, and stroke (AHA, 2001; ACS, 2001). The risk could be heightened considering that the population is more rural than urban and more dispersed. They live farther from health care sources and are older (NCHS, 2001).

Implications for Extension and Further Research

• The men in production agriculture who responded to this study are at nutritional risk and don't appear to be concerned about the interaction of diet and health.
  
  
• The health of agricultural producers is vital to maintaining a vibrant agricultural economy.
  
  
• Because Cooperative Extension has a long-term association with men in production agriculture for dissemination of information, this relationship could be exploited to target nutritional information to producers.
  
  
• Gender-specific educational materials could be developed by Extension Family and Consumer Science (FACS) specialists that target the male agricultural producer and his spouse about their grain, fruit, and vegetable consumption (Millen et al, 1997).
  
  
• Agriculture and FACS agents in individual counties could partner to provide educational materials to producers in group settings.
  
  
• Educational materials could be utilized by Agriculture and FACS agents for weekly radio programs and newsletters.
  
  
• Because spouses are the primary choice for nutrition information, FACS agents could provide educational sessions for spouses.
  
  
• State-level specialists should continue to cooperate across Agriculture and FACS to provide nutritional educational materials at statewide Extension events and programs for agricultural producers.
  
  
• Cooperative Extension should be a source for nutrition education materials and encourage their use in the one-on-one settings with doctors, dietitians, or spouses.
  
  
• Cooperative Extension is positioned as an active advocate for the health of agriculture producers in Kansas and potentially nationwide

A limiting factor to this study was the small population. It should be replicated with a larger sample of men in production agriculture. Research could be expanded to include sample populations in other states to increase validity of results. A different research tool might be considered that is shorter in length than the Block Brief, because respondents commented on the challenge of completing a detailed questionnaire. Future research in this area also might include assessment of physical activity and snacking behaviors. Most important, research should be conducted to determine what would motivate this group to change their current behaviors to positively impact their health.

References

Agricultural Health Study. (2002). Agricultural health study facts sheet and study orientation document. Retrieved March 15, 2002 at: http://www.aghealth.org/

American Cancer Society. (2001). Cancer facts and figures 2001. Retrieved September 27,2001 at: http://www.cancer.org/docroot/STT/content/STT_1x_2001_ Facts_and_Figures.pdf.asp

American Heart Association. (2001). Heart and stroke statistical update. Retrieved September 27, 2001 at: http://www.americanheart.org/catalog/scientific-catpage70.html

Block, G., Hartman, A. M., & Naughton, D. (1990). A reduced dietary questionnaire: Development and validation. Epidemiology, 1, 58-64.

Breslow, R. A., Subar, A. F., Patterson, B. H., & Block, G. (1997). Trends in food intake: The 1987 and 1992 national health interview surveys. Nutrition and Cancer, 28, 86-92.

Harnack, L., Story, M., Martinson, B., Neumark-Sztainer, D., & Stang, J. (1998). Guess who's cooking? The role of men in meal planning, shopping and preparation in U.S. families. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 98, 995-1000.

K-State Research and Extension. (2002). Who We Are. Retrieved August 7, 2002 at: http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/root/whoweare.htm

Kidd, P., Scharf, T., & Veazie, M. (1996). Linking stress and injury in the farming environment: A secondary analysis of qualitative data. Health Education Quarterly, 23, 224-237.

Millen, B. E., Quatromoni, P. A., Franz, M. M., Epstein, B. E., Cupples, A., & Copenhafer, D. (1997). Population nutrient intake approaches dietary recommendations: 1991 to 1995 Framingham Nutrition Studies. Journal of the American Dietetics Association, 97, 742-749.

National Center for Health Statistics. (2001). Health, United States, 2001 with Urban and Rural Health Chartbook. Retrieved September 20, 2001 at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2002). Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. Retrieved March 26, 2002 at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/ob_exsum.pdf

Redman, B. J. (1980). The impact of women's time allocation on expenditures for meals away from home and prepared foods. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 234- 237.

Smith, R. (1995). Study about actual eating habits concludes diets are tumbling pyramids. Feedstuffs, 67, 13.

SPSS [Computer Program]. (2000). Chicago, IL: SPSS, Inc.

Tepper, B. J., Choi, Y., & Nayga, R. M., Jr. (1997). Understanding food choice in adult men: Influence of nutrition knowledge, food beliefs and dietary restraint. Food Quality and Preferences, 8, 307-317.

United States Census Bureau. (2001). Census 2000 supplementary survey profile for Kansas: Table 3 Profile of selected economic characteristics. Retrieved October 12, 2001 at: http://www.census.gov/c2ss/www/Pro...0/Tabular/C2SSTable3/04000US20.htm

United States Census Bureau. (2002). Census 2000 supplementary survey profile for Kansas: Table DP-2 Profile of selected social characteristics. Retrieved June 21, 2002 at: http://censtats.census.gov/data/KS/04020.pdf#page=2

United States Department of Agriculture. (2001). 1997 census of agriculture. Retrieved October 2, 2001 at: http://www.usda.gov/nass/

United States Department of Agriculture: Home and garden bulletin #252 (1992, August). The Food Guide Pyramid. Prepared by Human Nutrition Information Service.

University of California at Berkeley. (2001). Nutrition quest. Retrieved September 20, 2001 at: http://www.nutritionquest.com/

County Agent Views About Facilitating Public Education and Discussion of Genetic Engineering Use in Agriculture

J. Lynne Brown
Associate Professor, Department of Food Science
Penn State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Internet Address: f9a@psu.edu

Nancy Ellen Kiernan
Evaluation Specialist, College of Agricultural Sciences
Penn State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Internet Address: nekiernan@psu.edu

Elaine S. Smith
Nutrition Programs Manager
Senior Connections Area Agency on Aging
Richmond, Virginia
Internet Address: essmithrd@hotmail.com

Luanne Hughes
Family and Consumer Science Educator and Assistant Professor
Rutgers Cooperative Extension
Clayton, New Jersey
Internet Address: Hughes@aesop.rutgers.edu

Introduction

Genetic engineering (GE) will have enormous impact on our food system (Reiners & Roth, 1989; Wilkinson, 1997; IFT, 2000b). GE uses laboratory techniques to insert a gene(s) from one organism into another, often with no need for sexual compatibility. Currently, GE soybeans, canola, corn and cotton that are herbicide and/or insect resistant; virus-resistant squash and papaya; and fruit or tomatoes with altered ripening are available (IFT, 2000b). Crops with clearer consumer benefits (altered fatty acid content or vitamin content) are in development (Liu, 1999).

Debate about GE's impact on food, human health, and the environment has been fueled by reports of effects on Monarch butterflies, of pollen drift, and of StarLink-contaminated corn products (Demetrakakes, 2000; IFT, 2000a; Wolfenbarger & Phifer, 2000; Taylor & Tick, 2001). Despite new legal agreements, planting rules and uncertainty about markets (Hamilton, 2001), many farmers grow GE crops.

By 2001, 7