December 2003
Volume 41 Number 6

Features

Community Service Versus Service-Learning: Which Is Best for 4-H?

Jill Stafford
Instructor
Department of Leadership Studies
Fort Hays State University
Hays, Kansas
Internet Address: jstaffor@fhsu.edu

Barry Boyd
Assistant Professor
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
Internet Address: b-boyd@tamu.edu

James R. Lindner
Assistant Professor
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
Internet Address: j-lindner@tamu.edu

Introduction

4-H members contribute thousands of hours of service to their communities each year, resulting in both benefits to others and growth in the 4-H members. In 1999, the National 4-H Council (2000) reported that some 271,146 4-H members participated in service activities to their communities. Activities ranged from mentoring other young people to helping shelters improve their services to the homeless. Participants categorized their activities as volunteerism, service-learning, and community service.

The questions arise, what are the differences among these methods of contributing service, and what are the effects of each? Participants reported learning lessons in teamwork, positive interaction with adults, and how satisfying their communities could be, yet is one method of service more effective than another?

As we move into the 21st century, leadership life skills are becoming a more prominent issue among youth educators. We value youth today and realize that they are our future leaders. Therefore, it is critical that we prepare youth with the leadership skills they will require to be successful members of society.

For young people, the best approach to developing leadership is in real situations, rather than in the classroom. Young people can make real connections between needs and resources, learning and service, and people and leadership. Planned, thoughtful experiences, coupled with reflection, create a rich opportunity for youth to learn leadership skills. Des Marais, Yang, and Farzanehkia (2000) noted that "service-learning is the most powerful approach in youth leadership development."

Service-learning is a method under which students learn through active participation in meaningful, organized community service. Students provide a purposeful service to the community and to society, while engaging in reflection activities that pertain to their learning curricula (Giles, Honnet, & Migliore, 1991). Three elements are necessary to make service-learning effective:

1. Adequate preparation that includes the setting of objectives for knowledge to be gained or skills to be learned by the participants,
2. Performance of meaningful community service; service that improves the community or makes a difference in someone's life, and
3. Analyzing the service experience through guided discussion or reflective writing. Thinking about the service creates a greater understanding of the experience. The reflection component of service-learning separates it from traditional community service.

Traditional volunteerism and community service are differentiated from service-learning by the reciprocal learned amount that occurs between those being served and those serving. This exchange avoids the traditionally paternalistic, one-way approach to service in which one group or person has resources that they share voluntarily with another group or person who is lacking those resources (Kendall & Associates, 1990). The most prominent benefit of service-learning is that students have the opportunity to connect their experiences with real-life situations through the reflective process. Students learn to be knowledgeable citizens who can actively contribute to a community.

Service-learning links experiential learning and service activities to provide a unique learning experience for students. When students have opportunities to learn by preparing, leading, and reflecting upon their service experiences, they ultimately create a reciprocal learning experience between them and the community.

Students are given the opportunities to address social issues in their community and take action to solve them. Students develop problem-solving and communication skills (Stanton, Giles, & Cruz, 1999), but also learn about themselves and others--strengths and weaknesses and qualities of leadership (Schine, 1999). Studies show that there has been a rapid growth of using this model in the past 10 years (Ikeda, 1999). Organizations like 4-H are a perfect fit for service-learning because their programming can be adapted in many ways to fit community and members' needs.

The following are learning outcomes developed by the University of Kentucky 4-H Extension (2000) to which 4-H members are exposed as they participate in thoughtfully organized service experiences:

1. Meet community needs.
2. Coordinated in a collaborative effort between 4-H and other individuals or groups.
3. Provide structured reflection time for young people to think, talk, and write about what they experience.
4. Provide opportunities for young people to apply 4-H project skills and knowledge in real life situations in their own communities.
5. Enhance what is taught by 4-H by extending learning into the community.
6. Help foster a sense of caring for others.

These objectives can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the service-learning as well as to provide some direction for those developing the service programs.

Methodology

The purpose of the study reported here was to determine if the reflection component of service-learning made it more effective than traditional volunteerism or community service, which do not include reflection, in teaching teens leadership life skills. The study examined the effect of service-learning on the development of leadership life skills in youth, using a service-learning model used by the Louisiana Extension Service (1997). A secondary objective was to describe whether differences existed among youths' service experience, their self-perceived leadership life skills, and selected demographics.

The study was conducted in conjunction with 4-H members at Texas 4-H Roundup in June 2001. 4-H Roundup is an annual week-long activity where members, who have previously qualified at the county and district levels, compete at the state level in 38 individual and team contests. Of the approximately 1,000 participants available for the study, approximately 200 were randomly selected for participation in the study to avoid systematic pretreatment differences (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 2002).

The researchers had only sufficient resources and facilities to accommodate approximately 90 research participants, or 30 participants in each measurement group. Hopkins, Hopkins and Glass (1996) state that except in cases of unusually bizarre distributions, samples and sub-samples of n=25 will yield a normal sampling distribution. Sixty-seven out of 200 (34%) randomly selected students participated in the study (N=67). Based on their level of participation in 4-H, the participants were assumed to have had past community service experiences.

The study used a posttest-only experimental design with two treatment groups and one control group. A student questionnaire was developed to reflect youths' perceived leadership life skills upon completion of the service-learning model. Questions used in the instrument were taken from both the Leadership Skills Inventory, developed at Iowa State University by Townsend and Carter (1983), and Dorman (1997). Additional questions were developed by the investigator based on the literature (Isaksen, Dorval & Treffinger, 1994; Juntune, 1999; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998). Demographics were also collected from each participant on the student questionnaire: gender, age, residence, past service experience, and type of previous service experience, direct or indirect.

The student questionnaire contained 33 items, which were further divided into five subscales. Each subscale contained between five and eight items. The following subscales, adapted from Stratford Public Schools exit outcomes, were used to measure leadership life skills:

• Effective Team Skills,
• Being a Self-Directed Learner,
• Being a Contributor to the Community,
• Being a Creative Problem Solver, and
• Personal Leadership Development (National Service-Learning and Assessment Study Group, 1999).

4-H members were randomly assigned to three groups. Randomization assists in achieving comparability in the experimental and control groups (Babbie, 1992). One group served as the control group (n¹=23) that had completed a community service activity within the past 6 months. All participants were asked to verify the type of community service completed and its frequency. This group only completed the student questionnaire.

A second group (n²=22) was asked to recall a service experience they had previously completed and reflect, both written and orally, on that experience. Trained facilitators guided the reflection activity. This was the treatment group that received delayed reflection on their service activity. This group then completed the student questionnaire.

The final group (n³=22) did reflection activities immediately after completing a service project. This group participated in a literacy service project with the local Boys and Girls Club. 4-H members were paired with a child from the Boys and Girls Club. After completing a get-acquainted activity, the members read books with the kids. After completing the service experience, the 4-H members participated in written and oral reflection activities on the service experience. Once again, the reflection was guided by trained facilitators. Following the reflection, the members completed the student questionnaire.

Findings and Conclusions

The objective of the study was to determine if the reflection component of the service-learning model made service-learning more effective than traditional community service in the development of Effective Team Skills, being a Self-Directed Learner, being a Contributor to Community, possessing Creative Problem Solving skills, and Personal Leadership Development. These comparisons are presented in Table 1.

The data showed that service-learning with immediate reflection was more effective than traditional community service without the reflection components, if activities were planned that targeted certain leadership skill areas.

4-H members who completed the service-learning activity with immediate reflection perceived their leadership life skills to be significantly higher in two of the five scales. The service activity with the Boys and Girls Club focused on personal leadership development and being a contributor to the community. The 4-H members helped community youth practice their literacy skills while using leadership skills to communicate and work with these youth. 4-H members who had completed the service-learning activity with immediate reflection after the service had significantly higher self-perceived Personal Leadership and Contributor to Community skills than teens in the control group and the group who reflected on a previous service experience.

It may be concluded that reflection immediately following a service activity has the most significant impact on leadership life skill development, especially in the areas of personal leadership and community contribution.

An implication exists, then, that the reflection component of the service-learning model is crucial in the development of certain leadership life skills. The service activity completed by the participants with the Boys and Girls Club and the reflection discussions that followed were designed to focus on personal leadership and community development. Students shared their thoughts and, in turn, had higher self-perceived scores in the Personal Leadership Development and Contributor to Community categories.

A secondary objective in the study was to describe whether differences existed among youths' service experience, their self-perceived leadership life skills, and selected demographics. Demographics collected from participants were:

• Gender,
• Age,
• residence,
• Past service experience, and
• Type of previous service experience, direct or indirect.

T-tests revealed that gender had a significant influence on the Effective Team Skills subscale. Females perceived themselves as possessing more Effective Team Skills than males (t = -2.31). However, there was no significant difference between gender and the remainder of the leadership life skill subscales.

Types of previous community service experiences were identified as direct help or indirect help. Direct help was described as visiting a nursing home or reading to children. Indirect help was described as collecting canned goods or picking up trash. The data showed that a significant difference was found between the Contributor to Community subscale and type of service completed. This suggests that working directly with other people on a service project gives students a greater sense of community. The value of working with others in a service project is definitely substantial.

Participants living in cities with a population greater than 10,000 had completed significantly more service than those in rural/farm areas and in towns with less than 10,000. The reasons for this finding are unclear, suggesting a new line of research. Is it possible that community service opportunities are easier to access in cities than in rural/farm areas and towns with less than 10,000? Do 4-H leaders in smaller communities receive less training in developing service programs?

Implications for Extension

Service-learning has tremendous implications for Extension agents working with youth, especially at-risk youth. Boyd (2001) found that service-learning was effective in helping at-risk youth learn leadership skills.

Service-learning activities in 4-H and other youth organizations can be designed to teach youth leadership skills. As we develop youth programs, we can design service activities and reflection discussions around certain leadership skills, such as working with others, problem solving, and decision-making, and expect teens' perceptions of those skills to increase. This part of planning educational programs can be difficult. But this research suggests how we, as youth development professionals, target important leadership and life skills with service-learning activities and expect students to increase their knowledge and use of those particular skills.

4-H and other youth development professionals can adopt service-learning as a meaningful learning experience in which youth can learn and enhance leadership skills as well as learn about social and community issues. By adding written and oral reflection to the service experience, youth gain reciprocal learning. They can richly articulate what they have learned, as well as become more aware of issues in the community. Service-learning can help youth see the big picture of why service and civic engagement is important. Written and oral reflection of service activities provides essential documentation for youth development professionals about the impact that well-planned service activities have on both the providers and the recipients of the service.

Service-learning links experiential learning and service activities to provide a unique learning experience for students. By providing students opportunities to learn by preparing, leading, and reflecting upon their service experiences, they ultimately create a reciprocal learning experience between them and the community. Applying this service-learning model to youth activities and curriculum can improve the development of leadership life skills and provide a foundation for life-long learning.

References

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Razavieh, A. (2002). Introduction to research in education. (6th ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Babbie, E. (1992). The practice of social research. (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Boyd, B. L. (2001). Bringing leadership experiences to inner-city youth. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001august/a6.html

Des Marais, J., Yang, Y., & Farzanehkia, F. (2000). Service-learning leadership development for youths. Phi Delta Kappan, 81, (1). 678-680.

Dorman, A.K. (1997). Critical leadership in service learning classrooms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation: University of Colorado at Denver, Denver, CO.

Giles, D., Honnet, E. P., & Migliore, S. (Eds.). (1991). Research agenda for combining service and learning in the 1990's. Raleigh, NC: National Society for Internships and Experiential Education.

Hopkins, K. D., Hopkins, B. R. & Glass, G. V. (1996). Basic statistics for the behavioral sciences. (3^rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Ikeda, E.K. (1999). How does service enhance learning?: Toward an understanding of the process. Unpublished doctoral dissertation: University of California, Los Angeles.

Isaksen, S. G., Dorval, K. B., & Treffinger, D. J. (1994). Creative approaches to problem solving. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Juntune, J. (1999). Creative problem solving workshop. Unpublished manuscript, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX.

Kendall, J. C. & Associates. (1990). Combining service and learning: A resource book for community and public service (Vol. I). Raleigh, N.C.: National Society for Internships and Experiential Education.

Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult learner. (5th ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.

Louisiana State University Cooperative Extension Service. (1997). Applying head, heart, and hands to 4-H community service-learning. Informational packet. Louisiana State University.

National 4-H Council (2000). 4-H youth development: 2000 programs of excellence. Retrieved on June 27, 2002 from http://www.reeusda.gov/4h/excellence/comm_serv_learn.htm

National Service-Learning and Assessment Study Group. (1999, Oct.). Service-learning and assessment: A field guide for teachers. Vermont Department of Education.

Schine, J. (1999). Beyond test scores and standards: Service, understanding, and citizenship. In J. Waterman & C. Ogden (Eds.), Service-learning for youth empowerment and social change. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.

Search Institute. (1994). Trends on youth and service-learning. National Service Learning Initiative.

Stanton, T. K., Giles, D. E., Jr., & Cruz, N. (1999). Service-learning: A movement's pioneers reflect on its origins, practice, and future. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Townsend, C. E., & Carter, R. I. (1983). The relationship of participation in FFA activities and leadership, citizenship, and cooperation. Journal of American Association of Teacher Educators in Agriculture, 24(1), 20-25.

University of Kentucky 4-H Extension. (2000). 4-H Community service-learning. Retrieved on February 20, 2001 from http://www.ca.uky.edu/agcollege/4h/resource/servlern.htm

CAYDO: Connecting the Gaps of Community Youth Assessments

Kenneth R. Jones
Graduate Assistant
Internet Address: krj109@psu.edu

Daniel F. Perkins
Associate Professor
Internet Address: dfp102@psu.edu

The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania

Introduction

Community assessments have long been an active practice of the Cooperative Extension Service (Sofranko & Khan, 1988). Needs assessments, the most popular method, have been used to identify and address local problems through educational programs. However, some researchers have argued that typical needs assessments tend to pose a number of disadvantages, such as cost, inability to articulate needs, inaccurate translation and evaluation of needs by outsiders, and, often, a focus entirely on community deficiencies (Israel & Ilvento, 1995: Sofranko & Khan, 1988; Etling, 1995; Nieto, Schaffner, & Henderson, 1997). Sofranko and Khan (1988) recommended pursuing methods of assessing needs from a plethora of informative sources, one being local citizens.

Moreover, others have acknowledged the importance of strengthening communities by building upon existing assets (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1990; Dorfman, 1998; Roberts, Dedrick & Mitchell, 1998). Today, with limited resources, it is imperative to harness the capacity of individuals and organizations within the community to address community needs. One major resource that often goes unnoticed is young people, who can provide significant contributions if allowed to participate in the community development process.

Indeed, the energy of youth should be incorporated by providing them with real opportunities to contribute in meaningful ways. Involving youth in the community enhances youth decision-making skills while building solid adult-youth partnerships (Kurth-Schai, 1988). Scholars have also documented that, through community involvement, young people can develop skills to become more responsible and capable of addressing civic issues relating to social, economic, and environmental problems (Israel & Ilvento, 1995; Rennekamp, 1993). Furthermore, young people foster their own development through "mattering"--the positive youth-centered engagement in communities (Eccles & Gootman, 2002).

Identifying and connecting local assets through an assessment serves as a catalyst for effective neighborhood revitalization (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1990). Community YouthMapping is one way to collect assessment information that empowers youth within communities (Academy for Educational Development, 2001). However, the purpose of this article is to note significant gaps in Community YouthMapping. The authors address these gaps by presenting a new assessment technique that includes, in part, an adapted youth mapping process. In presenting more comprehensive procedures, the authors do not seek to discredit community youth assessments, but to acknowledge alternatives that may potentially lead to more positive youth development opportunities.

What Is Community YouthMapping?

Community YouthMapping is a form of what researchers have described as participatory evaluation (Nieto, Schaffner, & Henderson, 1997), which aims to solicit practical, useful, and empowering methodologies. The goal of Community YouthMapping is to canvass communities in search of positive resources and opportunities for young people and their families. Community YouthMapping, unlike most needs assessments, engages young people at specific stages of the assessment process. In addition, whereas a traditional needs assessment would focus more on deficits (e.g., crime, vacant buildings), Community YouthMapping targets positive assets (e.g., parks, YMCA's, youth club meeting facilities).

Community YouthMapping, developed by the Academy for Educational Development's (AED) Center for Youth Development and Policy Research (Academy for Educational Development, 2001), allows a community to gather an accurate picture of what local youth need by first seeking the advice of the youth. With Community YouthMapping, young people visit areas of the community and caring adults, who have a vested interest in serving youth and the community, respectively.

Upon collection and analysis of the data, the information is mapped using Geographic Information System (GIS) software. The mapped information provides a powerful resource for youth service providers and others concerned about the well-being of young people. Many communities either do not have such information readily available, or the data will often sit untouched, becoming outdated (Academy for Educational Development, 2001).

The practice of Community YouthMapping has occurred in over 30 sites across the country within the past decade. A number of organizations, such as the National 4-H Council, National Urban League, and United Way, have partnered with AED in carrying out the process.

The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee's Center for Urban Initiatives and Research (1999) reported a Community YouthMapping project that occurred in the city during the summers of 1997 and 1998. Teenagers in 10 Milwaukee neighborhoods conducted block-by-block inventories identifying local youth resources. The participants made recommendations to improve the community and were later invited to share the success of the project with interested parties in Miami, Florida, and Washington, DC. The project has gained critical acclaim and financial support from the public and private sectors.

Extension has also participated in similar youth mapping processes with very productive results. Iowa State University Extension, Polk County (1999) worked with youth to survey over 3,000 businesses and organizations. The findings resulted in a Web site for the public to search and access available resources. A teen community service club was also organized at a local YMCA after the need was identified through youth mapping. The youth participants reported that the most important skills learned from the process was how to communicate with community organizations and to accept responsibility for doing a job.

Pinellas County, Florida Extension (1999) also has a Web site, created by 4-H youth, to post a list of places for their peers to go for recreational activities and volunteer opportunities. Local businesses can also be added to a database by contacting the county Extension office with the services the business or organization provides. Open forums are also held periodically to analyze and interpret data collected.

The first step of Community YouthMapping is to identify a group of individuals or an organization with an interest in coordinating the process. This organization's responsibility should include organizing an advisory group, presenting the youth mapping concept to interested parties, and fundraising, if necessary. The lead organization is not necessarily the convening organization, but rather one with a strong youth-development component (such as Extension). This organization is most suitable to manage and implement the project, in addition to creating a community work group that supervises the mapping activities.

Second, an asset mapping team is recruited to design, plan, and implement the mapping activity. After training, youth conduct the fieldwork of collecting data, listing assets within the community. The mappers, consisting of youth and adult field supervisors, walk throughout the community in search of places to go and things to do, while mapping positive resources. Youth will also conduct surveys (developed by the work group and youth mappers) with local residents to identify opportunities.

The next step involves the analysis of information to determine what resources are available to young people through various venues. Youth participate in the presentation of the findings to local leadership (school districts, legislators, etc.) to increase their awareness on community resources and needs. Participants then evaluate the process to recognize strengths and identify areas for improvement.

Comprehensive Assessment of Youth Development Opportunities

As indicated in the AED process, Community YouthMapping is most often utilized to conduct an assessment of the opportunities for youth in terms of resources (e.g., parks, youth centers). However, by ignoring the negative resources, Community YouthMapping is missing half the picture, that is, negative resources of the neighborhood that have been linked to youth's engagement in risk behaviors.

Perkins and Jones (2002) have developed a more comprehensive assessment, Comprehensive Assessment of Youth Development Opportunities (CAYDO). This assessment model utilizes multiple techniques, including a modified version of youth community mapping. The goal of CAYDO is to conduct a community planning process with the desired outcome of a community mobilization plan to implement the needed positive youth development opportunities (both school-based and community-based) during out-of-school time. Perkins and Jones (2002) proposed strategies that were aimed at achieving results pertinent to the diverse issues facing a wide array of communities.

The major strategies involved in the CAYDO process are:

1. Creating a community taskforce and youth action team (YAT);
2. Utilizing Global Positioning System (GPS) and GIS to conduct a youth mapping assessment of the opportunities for youth in terms of skill development, recreation, and engagement in risk behaviors;
3. Identifying the needs and desires of youth, parents, and youth professionals in terms of enhancing existing positive youth development opportunities and the creation of new ones; and
4. Employing the information gathered from strategies two and three, used in conjunction with Concept Mapping, to develop a community mobilization plan to address the identified needs. Table 1 lists the major between Community YouthMapping and CAYDO.

In the Perkins-Jones CAYDO model, a community taskforce acts as the board of directors. Their major function is to assist the Youth Action Team (YAT) in identifying goals/objectives, interpretation of data, presenting data, and developing the community mobilization plan. The taskforce members composed of representatives from local youth service organizations, school personnel, parents, and youth (at least two YAT members), meet monthly.

An assessment of the opportunities for youth in terms of skill development, recreation, and engagement in risk behaviors is collected through youth mapping the community. The following procedures are utilized:

• YAT members conduct surveys and interviews while mapping all areas of their community to identify positive resources (programs, safe places, social service centers, caring adults).
• Youth map negative resources in the neighborhoods (beer and liquor stores, vacant or abandoned buildings, and street corners used for loitering/drug sales).
• Youth (with the assistance of trained adults) develop, coordinate, implement, and analyze surveys used to interview parents and other young people. (Parental surveys explore parents' needs in terms of structured out-of-school opportunities for youth, in addition to investigating the barriers that prohibit their child's participation in these opportunities. Youth are surveyed to discover what opportunities they would like to see provided.).
• YAT conduct semi-structured interviews of a representative from every youth-service organization identified from the mapping process to assess what that organization provides.

The CAYDO youth mapping methodology is conducted utilizing GPS, GIS, and photography. The youth, traveling in pairs, are given a section of the community to map, walking street-by-street, while identifying positive and negative resources. Then, one youth employs a hand-held GPS tool to enter the exact location of the resource, while the other youth documents the type of resources. Pictures are taken to make community maps more visual and realistic.

Youth transfer the data from GPS into a computer, creating GIS maps that identify geographical gaps in opportunities for youth in terms of skill development and recreation. Additionally, those locations identified as potential risks to youth (e.g., abandoned buildings, street corners used for selling drugs, etc.) are displayed. The pictures are placed on a display that is linked with the maps.

Utilizing the data and the technique of Concept Mapping (Trochim, 1989), the taskforce and YAT work together to develop a community mobilization plan within the positive youth development framework. Concept Mapping is a process that requires the participants to brainstorm a large set of statements relevant to the topic of interest, individually sort these statements into piles of similar ones, and rate each statement on a particular scale.

Concept Mapping helps groups manage complexity without trivializing or losing focus and assists them in reaching objective outcomes (Trochim, 1989). The analyses typically include multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the unstructured sorted data, a hierarchical cluster analysis of the MDS coordinates, and the computation of average ratings for each statement and cluster of statements.

Maps are displayed on a computer monitor or printed to show the individual statements in two-dimensional (x, y) spaces. Those statements (of the participants) that are similar are located nearer to each other, while the more varied responses are spaced or scattered accordingly (Trochim, 1989). The software also produces maps that group the similar statements into clusters. This allows participants to determine which issues (individually and collectively, based on their rating of the brainstormed ideas) are most important to the community.

Members of the YAT and the taskforce present the findings from the GIS maps, pictures, youth-conducted interviews, and the surveys to 10 groups of 10-30 stakeholders who take part in the Concept Mapping process. The data from GPS/GIS and the surveys provide unique information for the stakeholder groups as they work with the YAT to develop a community mobilization plan.

The stakeholder groups address the following question through Concept Mapping: "Given the information from the youth community mapping, youth-conducted interviews, and surveys, what five things should the community do in the next three to five years to enhance the lives of youth?" Stakeholder groups are broken down into three categories: youth (six groups), parents (two groups), and youth-service providers (two groups).

Members of the YAT and the taskforce then use the information from the concept maps to develop and prioritize a community mobilization plan. Members of the YAT and the taskforce present the plan to local leaders at organized seminars and community meetings. They present a database of all the newly discovered assets throughout the community, which, in turn, provides a valuable resource for future community development efforts.

Potential Benefits

The purpose of assessing the community for youth opportunities is to raise awareness of what is available and to improve accessibility by increasing the number of positive youth development programs (Butler & Bowman, 1998). CAYDO provides this type of information in a clear and visual way and also engages youth in the process of community change. Through mapping, the youth have the chance to improve their skills in job readiness, data collection, and communication (AED, 2001). Young people also learn to be proactive citizens through serving their community (Israel & Ilvento, 1995).

CAYDO provides youth and adult participants with the benefit of gaining an understanding of advanced technology (e.g., GPS, GIS), collecting data and using it in community planning, as well as discovering new things about their neighborhood. Using the technology and having to walk through their own communities to collect and analyze data promotes youths' sense of mastery. Because the youth personally conduct the interviews while mapping the area, there is, in most cases, a much higher response rate on completed surveys than on those that are normally mailed (Babbie, 2001; Dillman, 2000). Youth interpreting and then presenting findings to local leaders can boost their confidence, which, in turn, encourages further involvement in the mobilization process.

The use of Concept Mapping also increases the likelihood of a community-owned plan, resulting in a stronger commitment to the plan by the stakeholders. Having local citizens discover ways to build their neighborhood also promotes community pride, encouraging residents to become dedicated to nurturing their living environment. Community building, through coalitions such as adult-youth partnerships, is one of the few interventions that promote collaborations from whole communities (having every individual and organization involved) to create and analyze community change (Wolff, 2001). CAYDO taps the strengths of all local citizens while encouraging activism for the transformation and, ultimately, the preservation of neighborhoods.

CAYDO works best when local stakeholders are identified and willing to commit to making key decisions in carrying out the procedures. Youth participating in developing ideas on the CAYDO and needs assessment methods are encouraged to serve on planning committees (i.e., taskforce). However, this does not occur on a routine basis, often due to overpowering adults (Camino, 2000). There is also a risk of creating an instrument that does not capture all that is to be measured, due to inexperienced researchers (local youth and adults). Another concern, similar to needs assessments in general, is the related costs. However, the benefits and potential for community mobilization far outweigh the limitations.

Conclusion

Extension professionals and other youth service providers should become more aware of alternative methods of assessing communities. If properly administered, CAYDO has the potential to bridge the gap between a community's needs and the actual resources provided. This type of assessment strongly encourages youth and adults to take ownership of their communities by looking internally to search for strategies that increase the positive opportunities for young people, reduce crime, increase job opportunities, and raise awareness. This, in turn, encourages social action.

Researchers have identified that youth participation in civic affairs can augment a community's response to emerging needs (Israel & Ilvento, 1995). Additionally, youth and adults have expressed the ability to more adequately address communication barriers after participating as partners (AED, 2001).

As most human service agencies, such as Extension, have moved to evaluation methods that demonstrate accountability and program impact, Extension agents and other youth workers need to have more instructional opportunities about how to improve their communities. New Extension agents must be properly trained in identifying needs as well as assets, while more experienced Extension agents must embrace innovative ways of providing service to new audiences. CAYDO and Community YouthMapping are both flexible processes that can serve as guides to deciding the overall purpose of a community assessment. Despite the methods chosen, empowering communities should be the ultimate goal, if we desire to witness positive changes.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Joan Thomson for her feedback on an earlier draft of this document. In addition, we wish to acknowledge the support of Penn State University's Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service.

References

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Butler, C. L., & Bowman, J. B. (1998). Assessing the needs of 4-H'ers. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998april/rb1.html

Camino, L. A. (2000). Youth-adult partnerships: Entering new territory in community work and research. Applied Developmental Science, 4(1), 11-20.

Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and internet surveys: The tailored design method (2^nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Dorfman, D. (1998). Mapping community assets workbook. Strengthening community education: The basis for sustainable renewal. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Lab. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED426499)

Eccles, J. S., & Gootman, J. A. (Eds.). (2002). Community programs to promote youth development. Committee on Community-Level Programs for Youth. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Etling, A. (1995). Needs assessment: A handbook. Journal of Extension [On-line], 33(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995february/tt1.html

Iowa State University Extension, Polk County. (1999). Community YouthMapping: Are you mapped? Available at: http://www.polkfun.org/cym/index.html

Israel, G. D., & Ilvento, T. W. (1995). Everybody wins: Involving youth in community needs assessment. Journal of Extension [On-line], 33(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995april/a1.html

Kurth-Schai, R. (1988). The role of youth in society: A reconceptualization. The Educational Forum, 52(2), 113-132.

Kretzmann, J., & McKnight, J. L. (1990). Mapping Community Capacity (Research and Policy Report). Evanston, Il.: Northwestern University, Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research.

Nieto, R. D., Schaffner, D., & Henderson, J. L. (1997). Examining community needs through a capacity assessment. Journal of Extension [On-line], 35(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997june/a1.html

Perkins, D. F., & Jones, K. R. (2002). Comprehensive Assessment of Youth Development Opportunities. Available at: http://agexted.cas.psu.edu/fcs/dp/EdMaterials.html

Pinellas County, Florida Extension. (1999). Community YouthMapping. Available at: http://www.pinellasteeninfo.com/default.htm

Rennekamp, R. (1993). Double standard for youth involvement. Journal of Extension [On-line], 31(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1993fall/f2.html

Roberts, S., Dedrick, A., & Mitchell, G. (1998). Westlawn keys to community. Project Report. Spruce Grove, Alberta, Canada: Community Building Resources. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED423378)

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University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Center for Urban Initiatives and Research. (1999). Youth mapping project.

Wolff, T. (2001). The future of community coalition building. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29(2), 263-268.

Comprehensive Model for Sustaining Community Projects

Jan Carroll
4-H Youth Development Specialist
Colorado State University Cooperative Extension
Fort Collins, Colorado
Internet Address: jan.carroll@colostate.edu

Mary Gross
Director
Morgan County Family Center
Fort Morgan, Colorado
Internet Address: ftmorg1@mindspring.com

Robin Leist
Director
Alamosa Even Start/LaLlave Family Center
Internet Address: rleist@fone.net

Local sustainability is a goal from any project's first day. The excitement and commitment arriving with project funding are always shadowed by knowledge that grants, awards, and contracts are finite. The time funded for action and impact is limited. When projects begin, directors move quickly to locate and secure space, hire and orient staff, recruit clients, and begin service delivery. They contract with evaluators and assure the project's intended outcomes are clear. They acquire clearances for research, set up accounting systems, and calendar reporting dates. And all the time, in spite of all the activity, the grayness lurks.

Sustainability is part survival and part success. Project-developed agencies can survive when soft money runs out and yet never attain the success of a sustainable project. As grant funding runs out and competition for charitable dollars becomes more heated, a nonprofit agency must organize to support its mission. There are options and choices that each organization must address (Weisman, 2000). Most fundraising literature is based on experience (Buchanan, 1994). But looking back is not the way to attain sustainability.

A family literacy effort in two rural communities, A and B, faced the sustainability issue at its first staff retreat. Staff, including the campus-based Principal Investigator, Project Director, and Project Evaluator and community-based Site Directors, Community Site Assistants, and Cooperative Extension Community and Family Educators, drew a comprehensive model to clarify their intent and to guide the projects' efforts toward sustainability and long-term success. One assumption, as confirmed by Wyzbinski, Moore, & Gelzer (1998), was that a "diversified income base represents the most stable fiscal position for any nonprofit organization" (p. 13). They also predicted accurately that a bonus outcome of the planning process would be enhanced teamwork--instilling confidence and demonstrating how the pieces could fit together to meet project goals.

The model designed at the retreat was based on previous experiences of staff members, input from community members who had been involved in design of the funding proposal, and expertise of Cooperative Extension professionals. See Table 1.

Strategy 1: Grant Writing

Recommendations

• Start writing grant applications during the project's first year, if at all possible. "Grant-seeking can and should be a vital part of your overall fund raising program" (Vogel, 2000). Proposals for local dollars and/or in-kind support establish office procedures for grant writing and force articulation of goals, objectives, timelines, and budgets. They demonstrate to the community the project's intention to survive and succeed. Feedback from local funders is typically easy to get and valuable for future efforts, whether or not the grant is awarded.
  
  
• Avoid applying for grants that don't quite fit, just to win them and/or get in the extra money. It is a hazardous behavior. It is tempting to approach sustainability with a "shotgun approach," responding to a Request for Proposals because it is possible rather than because it makes sense. Both sites agree that it is critical to leverage talent and program cores, rather than trying to chase funding or branch out too much.

Example

The chronology of the strategy for sustainability was set when Community Site Directors were invited immediately after the retreat to attend a weeklong grant-writing workshop presented by Colorado State University. This annual workshop on grant writing is sponsored by the College of Applied Human Sciences and offered largely to faculty, staff, and graduate students at the university. The same instructors have taught every workshop since 1989, and for the last 6 years, an Associate Dean for Research in the College of Applied Human Sciences has assisted in the instruction.

Family literacy project staff spent 4 days with these academic professionals, surveying funding opportunities and practicing techniques for successful grant writing. In addition to providing instruction on state and federal funding agencies, national and statewide foundations, regulatory compliance requirements, and Office of Sponsored Programs procedures, the workshop provides time in small group activities for support, practice writing, and feedback.

Results

Project staff used the skills they practiced at the workshop to write grant proposals to be funded by United Way, the state Department of Education, two national foundations, two large statewide foundations, and several local foundations. See Table 2.

Strategy 2: Community Investment

Recommendations

• Involve stakeholders at every step of project design, and don't hesitate to ask for help.
  
  
• Thank participants for their input, and share meeting notes broadly.
  
  
• Use networking techniques to find out what's available, who's donating, when's the deadline, where's the meeting, etc., and to make your needs known.
  
  
• Design an evaluation strategy very early in the project to document impact of service delivery.

Example

At the same time project staff was writing local grants, planning for service delivery was underway at both community sites. Multiple stakeholder groups were involved in designing programming through use of focus groups, organization of a technical advisory committee, and involvement of a steering committee. Representatives from local school districts and community colleges attended the facilitated planning sessions, along with health and human service providers, government officials, and parents. Buy-in and participation of the local Cooperative Extension educator was critical.

Both sites developed a "case statement," or a summary of mission, goals and objectives, and capacity to serve the targeted population (Mixer, 1993). Community participants who "truly understand the needs of the people they serve will understand the critical need for money to serve them," (Weisman, 2000, p. 29). According to Wyzbinski, Moore, and Gelzer (1998), "An organization will usually find that when a thoughtful plan is presented, a donor's confidence in the organization's ability to attract sufficient support for the goals described in proposals is significantly bolstered" (p. 11).

Results

In-kind donations, volunteers, local advice and political support are easier to acquire when community members are engaged and "bought in" to the project. As a secondary outcome, the commitment to stakeholder involvement also contributes to funding success. See Table 3. Donations included:

• Office furniture
• Computers for client use
• Training and materials for programs
• Meeting space
• School supplies and books
• Program delivery space
• Computer software
• Computer lab
• Infant/child car seats.

Strategy 3: Marketing

Recommendations

• Use expertise of professionals or students to help clarify project direction and to design graphic representations.
  
  
• Involve clients in selection of materials.
  
  
• Create a consistent image for your project in the community. Funders and donors will recognize it.
  
  
• Seek fundraising and public relations by partnering with a corporation that has marketing and promotional objectives (Mixer, 1993). Cause-related marketing, involving such a relationship between the nonprofit organization and a corporation was not a component of this comprehensive model.

Example

A Service Learning project was a way to get expertise at little or no cost and to have university participation and visibility at the sites. Client recruitment at both sites was successful because of agency referrals, word of mouth, and relevant programming. Simple marketing efforts, such as fliers and posters, kept attendance at adequate levels. Still, both sites recognized the need for a marketing plan and collateral supporting materials to increase community awareness and interest, and ensure an ongoing client base. The campus-based Office for Service Learning facilitated the match between family literacy project B and a senior-level graphics design class.

The site selected for service learning was remote from campus, so site personnel traveled to campus to present information rather than having class members travel across the state. Students emphasized the value of quality programming to meet community needs in marketability, and encouraged staff to clarify these points:

• What is your image?
• Who is your audience?
• Who are your participants?
• What are your program goals?

Students and staff also explored media availability, advertising options, and community norms before designing materials. Project staff returned to campus later in the semester to receive the students' designs, each of which included a logo, letterhead and business cards, and at least one other piece, such as a T-shirt, book jacket, magnet, calendar, board game, or bookmark. Staff narrowed the field to six designs that were most on target, and agency clients voted to select their favorite among the proposed logos.

Results

The logo that was selected seemed to capture the spirit of the family literacy project with its image of an adult with a child and a book. See Figure 1. It brought into more public awareness the efforts of staff and volunteers, and sharpened the focus of those efforts. The process of creation and selection engendered more local ownership for the project. Currently the logo is displayed on the project site's windows and signs, and on special stationery. Other logos have been used for event promotions.

Figure 1.
Site B Logo

The other location (Site A) selected a logo not used in Site B. See Figure 2. It is now used on the Site A Web site, for staff T-shirts, and on office stationery.

Figure 2.
Site A Logo

It is unknown if or how the students were affected by their service learning activity. Ideally, they will have developed a greater awareness of community needs and concerns through planning, participating, and processing the experience.

Strategy 4: Not-for-Profit Status

Recommendations

• Work with community stakeholders to determine risks and benefits of working under another fiscal agent compared to the risks and benefits of holding a 501(c)(3) designation.
  
  
• Consult accountants and lawyers for professional advice.

Example

In all the sustainability efforts, the question of "to be or not to be" a not-for-profit entity arises. According to the Department of the Treasury Internal Revenue Service (1998), benefits of Section 501(c)(3) status include:

• "Public recognition of tax-exempt status.
• Advance assurance to donors of deductibility of contributions.
• Exemption from certain state taxes.
• Exemption from certain federal excise taxes.
• Nonprofit mailing privileges, etc." (p. 1).

For the nonprofit agency, this allows the opportunity to focus specifically on the purpose of the project, without others' influence because they hold the purse strings. In addition, there are opportunities for others in the community to turn to the agency as a collaborator. The agency is able to:

• Apply for funding without collaborators, and
• Serve as fiscal agent, because the 501(c)(3) status is required by many funding agencies.

Considerations include the following.

• Does taking the step to be a 501(c)(3) agency do nothing much more than create yet another bureaucracy?
  
  
• Does the project have the resources to turn itself into an agency with an organizing document (corporation, unincorporated association, trust, etc.), bylaws, board of directors, bookkeeper, insurance, etc.?
  
  
• Will collaborations actually decrease and, if so, at what cost to the effectiveness of service to clients?

The Application for Recognition of Exemption (Form 1023) requires an agency to have an Employer Identification Number (EIN) and to submit documentation of status along with a user fee payment that must accompany the application (Department of the Treasury Internal Revenue Service, 2001).

Results

One site was opened under the umbrella of an already existing 501(c)(3) in the community. See Table 4. Non-profit status gave the project opportunities to write grants to foundations. They also became a United Way agency, which allowed for additional collaboration and sharing through agency meetings and in-kind donations under their umbrella.

The other site opened as a joint program of the local school district and Colorado State University, funded by a federal grant and a state-administered grant. The federal grant covered management salaries, rent and utilities, while the state funds paid program expenses and salaries for field staff.

Strategy 5: Fee-for-Service

Recommendations

• Solicit suggestions for earned income opportunities and evaluate them against costs. Go forward if the financial gain is clearly in the program's best interest.
  
  
• Keep fees for service in context, neither overcharging limited resource clients nor thoughtlessly giving away services to clients who have resources to pay.
  
  
• Evaluate pros and cons of business ventures and contracting for services, especially in terms of tax implications, staff and volunteer commitment, and donor relationships.

Example

Income can be generated based on local service delivery and measured impacts. Some projects are externally funded based on being free to clients, in which case fee-for-service is obviously not an option. Other projects deliver services to limited-resource audiences for whom a sliding scale is appropriate, in which case fees are inadequate to cover costs of service delivery.

Earned income, as through offering computer literacy courses to paying clients when program clients are not in the computer lab, is another option when staff, equipment, and space are available. Business ventures (earned income) that are supported at the highest administrative level, according to Mixer (1993) can assure the effort, funds, personnel, and facilities required for success when dealing with tax problems, acquisition of necessary experience, financing, and marketing. Clients can participate in earned income strategies, such as selling produce from a community garden or unwanted books from a library.

Another fee-for-service design is contracting for services. In this strategy, the nonprofit organization provides human services under terms of a contract from the government or another agency. There are benefits to the contractor in flexibility, management of costs, and continuity of structure and personnel (Mixer, 1993).

Results

Fee-for-service has not yet been implemented at either site. The concept has not been widely adopted by Cooperative Extension, but is under consideration for some programs. It remains a viable option for both sites.

Strategy 6: Fundraising

Recommendations

• Use volunteers to offset staff time in managing fundraising events and campaigns.
  
  
• Beware of events that are organized for fund raising and then don't make money. There is a tendency to consider them successful because they helped get the word out, made friends in the community, and accomplished marketing goals. A fundraising event is successful if it raises money or has high net revenue potential in future years. A marketing event is evaluated under different criteria.

Example

The community-wide potential for income from activities such as membership campaigns, product sales, phone banks, and special events often makes fundraising the first strategy considered by new agencies. However, the intensive effort required by staff and volunteers seldom, if ever, results in a positive cost/benefit analysis. Still, fundraising activities are active and alive, not static, according to Blank (2000), and they are appealing to staff, volunteers, clients, and many donors.

Results

When the logos were designed and selected, both sites discussed fundraising implications. A limited edition commemorative poster was considered, and various events were proposed vis-·-vis a marketing approach introducing the logo. However, fundraising activities have not yet been conducted at either site.

There are for-profit organizations that sell fundraising services to nonprofits (Mixer, 1993). Their services may include data management, telemarketing, demographic analysis, and/or pledge collection. Obtaining and checking a list of references may increase the confidence of a nonprofit that is considering one of these services.

Summary and Conclusions

Creating a model and reviewing it, at least annually, supports a community-based site in sustaining its service delivery to clients after initial grant funding has been expended. Both family literacy sites in Colorado are now off the federal grant and are sustaining successful programming in their communities. Project A works with an annual budget of $245,000 (plus in-kind resources) and Project B with $209,000 (plus in-kind resources). Both are housed in appropriate and accessible space, are equipped, and fully staffed (Project A has 5.625 FTE, or 6 employees, and Project B has 7 FTE). They have Internet connectivity for individual staff and extensive computer access for clients.

This accomplishment is possible because of the comprehensive model and staff commitment to sustainability. Both can be replicated in other community-based grant-funded programs associated with Cooperative Extension.

References

Blank, M. A. (2000). Special events: Gateways to giving. In Weisman, C. (Ed.). (2000). Secrets of successful fundraising: The best from the non-profit pros. St. Louis, MO: Board Builders.

Buchanan, R. W. (Winter, 1994). Fundraising: From art to science. Nonprofit Management & Leadership. 5(2). 217 - 219.

Department of the Treasury Internal Revenue Service. (Revised September, 1998). Application for recognition of exemption under Section 501 (c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Retrieved August 7, 2002, from http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/k1023.pdf

Department of the Treasury Internal Revenue Service (Revised July, 2001). Tax exempt status for your organization. Retrieved August 7, 2002, from http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p557.pdf

Mixer, J. R. (1993). Principles of professional fundraising. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Vogel, J. (2000). Let's get a grant to do that! In C. Weisman (Ed.). Secrets of successful fundraising: The best from the non-profit pros. St. Louis, MO: Board Builders.

Weisman, C. (Ed.). (2000). Secrets of successful fundraising: The best from the non-profit pros. St. Louis, MO: Board Builders.

Wyzbinski, P., Moore, P. & Gelzer, S. (1998). Beyond a hit list: Income planning for small nonprofit organizations. New Directions in Philanthropic Fundraising. 20. 9 - 24.

Using Social Marketing to Plan a Nutrition Education Program Targeting Teens

Gwenn Snow
Health Program Specialist I
Internet Address: snow@unr.nevada.edu

Jamie Benedict
Associate Professor
Internet Address: benedict@unr.nevada.edu

Department of Nutrition
University of Nevada, Reno
Reno, Nevada

Introduction

National food intake data indicate that many children between the ages of 12 and 19 years consume too few servings of nutrient-dense foods such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and dairy foods. But they consume more servings than recommended of foods high in fats, sodium, and sugars (Kennedy & Goldberg, 1995; Mønoz, Krebs-Smith, Ballard-Barbash, & Cleveland, 1997; US Department of Agriculture, 1999). These dietary patterns place many of these children at risk for inadequate intake of important nutrients; excessive intake of total and saturated fats, sodium, and sugars; and increased risk of chronic disease.

Given the depth of these nutritional concerns, large-scale interventions targeting teens are warranted. However, targeted interventions require extensive knowledge about the intended audience (Sutton, Balch, & Lefebvre, 1995; Sutton, Layden, & Haven, 1996). In a process termed "social marketing," public health practitioners use strategies developed by commercial marketers to better understand the wants and needs of intended recipients of health promotion programs (Andreason, 1995; Kotler & Zaltman, 1971; Lefebvre & Flora, 1988).

Purpose

This article describes how social marketing was used to plan a nutrition education program for teens in Nevada to increase their consumption of nutrient-dense foods, including fruits and vegetables, low-fat dairy foods, and whole grains. The content is specific to nutrition education and Nevada youth, but the concepts are applicable to a broad range of health behaviors and social conditions and have relevance for Extension educators of any discipline.

Social Marketing

Social marketing is a process by which commercial marketing techniques and principals are used to plan, implement, and evaluate programs designed to bring about change in health or social behaviors. In this study, two concepts from social marketing were emphasized: the exchange theory and the Four Ps of marketing, product, price, place, and promotion (4Ps). The exchange theory proposes that true marketing occurs when the provider and consumer voluntarily trade (or exchange) resources (Andreason, 1995; Kotler & Zaltman, 1971; Lefebvre & Flora, 1988). See Figure 1 for brief definitions of and questions related to each of the Four Ps (Siegel & Doner, 1998, p. 216).

Figure 1.
The Social Marketing Mix

Methods

Using standard practices (Krueger, 1994; Vaughn, Schumm, & Sinagub, 1996), focus group interviews were conducted with middle school students to obtain descriptive information related to the following.

1. What benefits do they associate with increased consumption of nutrient-dense foods?
   
   
2. What factors make it difficult for them to consume nutrient-dense foods?
   
   
3. How would they prefer to learn about foods and nutrition?

Volunteers were recruited from students in sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade physical education classes in two low-income middle schools. Seven focus groups, segmented by grade level and gender, were conducted. Thirty-four students (17 girls), ranging in age from 11-14 years (Mean age = 12.38 years, SD = 0.89), took part. Two adults, a moderator and a co-moderator, were present for all discussions.

A team that included Extension nutrition specialists developed a discussion guide (see Figure 2), which the moderator used for all of the discussions.

Figure 2.
Questions for Focus Groups to Learn About Factors Affecting Consumption of Nutrient-Dense Foods/Beverages and Preferences for Learning About Food and Nutrition

Each focus group took place at school, lasted about 55 minutes, and was audiotaped in full. Using typewritten transcripts of the discussions, the data were codified and categorized, according to the process described by Vaughn, Schumm, and Sinagub (1996, p. 105-109).

Summary of Findings and Discussion of Related Research

Questions applying the Four Ps of Marketing, Product, Price, Place, and Promotion, to social programs (Figure 1) were used to summarize these results. When relevant, related research findings are included. Please note: Phrases in quotation marks were taken directly from the transcripts.

Product

Product-related information obtained during the discussions included descriptions of participants' wants/needs, benefits of consuming nutrient-dense foods/beverages, and competitors for the desired behavior change. Wants/needs and perceived benefits of the behavior change fit into the following three categories.

1. Personalized Benefits: Participants often spoke in the first person or described a personal experience when asked for good reasons to eat the targeted foods. The strongest of these were related to taste enjoyment and satisfaction of food cravings/preferences and were most often associated with yogurt, chocolate milk, and fruits. Few participants associated these with vegetables. Participants also indicated that these factors were important to them:
   • Convenience (associated with fruits and yogurt);
   • Familiarity;
   • Abatement of hunger (not associated with a specific group of foods and more prevalent among boys); and
   • Improved performance, both scholastically (associated with whole grains and with breakfast) and physically (associated with dairy foods and whole grains).
2. Generalized Benefits: Participants commonly used vague or impersonal terms to describe benefits (e.g., "it's good for you" "they're healthy"), especially when asked to name good reasons to eat vegetables and whole grains.
3. Physiological Benefits: Occasionally, participants associated specific health benefits or nutrients with a product. The most common and specific of these included the association of dairy foods/beverages with calcium and with strong bones and teeth. Physiological benefits were rarely identified for the other groups of foods.

These findings highlight the importance of taste enjoyment, convenience/ease of preparation, and familiarity in determining food choices among teens and demonstrate how difficult it is for teens to describe the benefits of healthful eating. These results are similar to those reported elsewhere (Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Perry, & Casey, 1999; Croll, Neumark-Sztainer, & Story, 2001).

When asked what made it harder for them to consume nutrient-dense foods/beverages, participants often named other foods/beverages (or competitors) such as sodas, candies, chips, "sweets," and "junk foods." Data from national food consumption surveys support these findings (Harnack, Stang, & Story, 1999; Mønoz, Krebs-Smith, Ballard-Barbash, & Cleveland, 1997).

Price

Participants associated the following costs with the behavior change:

1. Unpleasant taste (associated most often with vegetables; and among girls only, with milk);
   
   
2. Lack of familiarity (associated with whole grain foods, vegetables, and low-fat dairy foods);
   
   
3. Course or dry textures (associated with whole grain foods and vegetables);
   
   
4. Unpleasant appearance (associated with deeply colored vegetables, whole grains, and nonfat milk); and
   
   
5. Inconvenience, often due to the time and effort needed to prepare or cook a food (associated with whole grain foods and vegetables).

Given the paucity of meaningful benefits and the number of costs associated with nutrient-dense foods, it is unlikely that target audience members perceived the cost to be a fair exchange for the benefit associated with the behavior change.

Participants in this study provided specific, practical suggestions for minimizing costs; these strategies were similar to those described by Neumark-Sztainer et al. (1999).

1. Improve taste by adding chocolate to milk; butter or margarine to cooked cereals, vegetables, or breads; sugar or honey to whole grains; and hot sauce or cheese to vegetables.
   
   
2. Alter or disguise the taste of less favored foods by serving these with other foods/beverages (e.g., add vegetables to soups, salads, and/or casseroles; serve cookies or quick breads with milk; have cereal and milk).

Place

Place addresses issues related to access, or where and how target audience members can acquire the product or perform the behavior. Participants' perceptions about place included the belief that their food choices were limited to what others, especially parents and cafeteria workers, purchased, prepared, and served to them. Similarly, Neumark-Sztainer et al. (1999) found that parental food purchasing and preparation behaviors affected food availability and, consequently, food choices among adolescents.

Other perceptions indicated that participants believed that nutrient-dense foods/beverages were rarely (if ever) available where/when they obtained or consumed snacks or meals. Croll et al. (2001) reported that adolescents perceived that "healthy" foods were less available than "unhealthy" foods.

Two strategies for reducing place-related barriers predominated:

1. Change the food purchasing and preparation habits of others, and
   
   
2. Improve personal food preparation skills.

A third suggestion, found here and reported in Neumark-Sztainer et al. (1999), was to limit access to competitors as a means to increase consumption of nutrient-dense foods.

Promotion

To determine the best way to reach the target audience, it was necessary to obtain information about their level of interest in the topic and their communication preferences, including image and tone of messages and delivery channels and methods.

Related to the current demand for the behavior change among members of the target audience, findings reported here and elsewhere indicate that demand for nutrient-dense foods is low among pre-teens/teens (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999; Croll et al., 2001). Participants clearly preferred good-tasting foods/beverages that are visually appealing, familiar to them, readily available, and convenient. More important, they rarely associated these characteristics with nutrient-dense foods.

To gather information about message image and tone, participants were asked to describe their favorite advertisements. They enthusiastically described commercials that included slapstick humor, an element of surprise, gross exaggerations of everyday occurrences, or plays on words and that made adults look foolish.

Potential topics of interest emerged when participants were asked "If you were going to make a nutrition program for other teens, what would it be about?" Mainly, they wanted to know how specific foods and nutrients affected their bodies. Examples included "tell us what good it would do in our bodies" and "show us what happens in the bodies of people who eat junk foods." Some participants expressed an interest in learning about foods from different cultures, and others wanted to know about unfamiliar foods: "if it tastes good." Occasionally a participant said, "just tell us what to eat and what not to eat," but these comments garnered little support from others.

For potential delivery channels, posters, television advertisements, and computers (both games and the Internet) were mentioned the most often, but computer games, music videos, sequential billboards, television cooking shows, and radio contests were mentioned with the most enthusiasm. Unexpectedly, participants specifically referred to the Food Guide Pyramid and Nutrition Facts Panel on food packages (especially cereal boxes).

Other channels were identified when participants were asked to name good sources of nutrition information. Two distinct groups emerged from their responses: 1) people present in their daily lives, including parents (both mothers and fathers), older siblings, and school personnel, especially classroom teachers, and librarians; and 2) people with food or nutrition-related knowledge or experience, such as food manufacturers, cafeteria workers, and health professionals.

As for methods/activities, participants were the most enthusiastic about hands-on activities with foods, including food sampling, practical exercises using nutrition information, and food or nutrition-related experiments. Participants, especially the girls, also described activities that involved other people, such as peer or family education programs, guest speakers in the classroom, and school clubs. Although it was clear that hands-on and interpersonal activities were the preferred methods, some participants indicated they would enjoy learning by direct observation via classroom demonstrations, school assemblies, and plays.

Participants identified a variety of settings and locations they thought were appropriate venues for nutrition education. School was mentioned the most often, and specific locations included cafeterias, libraries, nurses' offices, classrooms, after-school programs, and walking routes to and from school. Also mentioned were community centers such as parks, gyms, swimming pools, public libraries, and Boys and Girls Clubs; retail/commercial outlets such as grocery and convenience stores, malls, and movie theatres; and public agencies, including health centers/clinics.

Developing a Social Marketing Strategy

The next step in the social marketing process is to develop a marketing plan for the stated objective, which in this case was to increase consumption of nutrient-dense foods among teens in Nevada. The following section begins with an overview of the strategic planning process and concludes with a strategy statement.

Product Strategy

Target calcium-containing foods/beverages because of the following product-related factors.

• These foods/beverages were associated with personally relevant benefits (e.g., taste enjoyment and convenience).
  
  
• These foods/beverages and the nutrient calcium were associated with specific physiological benefits.
  
  
• Some calcium-containing foods/beverages could be positioned as substitutions for known competitors (e.g., flavored or frozen yogurt for sweets and calcium-enriched orange juice for sodas).
  
  
• The variety of foods/beverages in the product line increases the likelihood that TA-members can adopt the behavior while honoring personal food preferences.
  
  
• The product line is expanding due to the number and variety of calcium-enriched or fortified foods/beverages entering the marketplace.

Pricing Strategy

• Target foods/beverages in the product line that have few associated costs (e.g., flavored milks, yogurt).
  
  
• Demonstrate how the suggested cost-reduction strategies can be implemented with calcium-containing foods/beverages.

Placement Strategy

• Increase the visibility and availability of these foods/beverages where TA-members commonly eat/drink.
  
  
• For eating occasions when TA-members fix their own meals/snacks, promote simple-to-prepare dishes that include calcium-containing foods/beverages (e.g., pudding, cream soups, pancakes).

Promotional Strategy

Messages

• Communicate that calcium-containing foods/beverages taste good and are convenient.
  
  
• Enhance the relevance of the behavior change to TA-members by contrasting the importance of adequate calcium intake during the adolescent growth spurt with the prevalence of inadequate calcium intake among teens.

Materials/Media

• Use simple text, graphs, pictures, and three-dimensional models to demonstrate the importance of calcium to bone health and what happens in the body to people who do and do not get enough calcium.
  
  
• Teach TA-members to use existing nutrition education materials to monitor their calcium intake and identify calcium-containing foods/beverages (e.g., food labels, specifically the Percent Daily Value for calcium; and USDA's Food Guide Pyramid, specifically the Milk, Yogurt, and Cheese Group).
  
  
• Place print media (e.g., posters, billboards) in schools and surrounding neighborhoods.

Teaching Activities/Methods

• Provide opportunities for TA-members to sample foods in the product line.
  
  
• Provide activities that demonstrate the importance of calcium to bone health.
  
  
• Create a sustainable nutrition education program by using the school as the delivery outlet and school personnel as delivery channels, and include classroom activities and cafeteria promotions.
  
  
• Use homework assignments to involve family members.

Strategy Statement

Increase consumption of low-fat, calcium-containing foods/beverages among middle school students by changing their perceptions of the cost-to-benefit ratio of the behavior. Use popular media and sampling opportunities to enhance their familiarity with the product. Implement a school-based nutrition education program to increase their awareness of the importance of the behavior change, and provide them with the skills needed to perform the behavior. Use school personnel and parents to deliver messages.

Implications for Practice

This article illustrates how social marketing was used to gather and assess information for planning a nutrition education program targeting teens. However, social marketing is a useful tool for changing a broad range of health, social, and environmental behaviors. In addition, the process can be adapted for any target audience, whether these include a community's most needy or the individuals who serve them. This flexibility makes social marketing an ideal tool for Extension educators.

Extension educators, by incorporating social marketing into their needs assessment activities, can avail themselves of a practical means for considering multiple influences on behaviors and for systematically factoring these into the decision-making process. By using social marketing to plan programs, Extension educators can be assured that they are addressing the needs of program recipients and using the best methods for communicating with and/or educating program recipients about the desired behavior change--thereby increasing the likelihood that their programs will be successful.

Acknowledgements

Funding was provided by the USDA, Food and Nutrition Services, Food Stamp Program. This study is based on unpublished thesis research. A portion of this study was presented at the Society for Nutrition Education 1999 Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD.

References

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Harnack, L., Stang, J., & Story, M. (1999). Soft drink consumption among US children and adolescents: Nutritional consequences. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 99(4), 436-441.

Kennedy, E., & Goldberg, J. (1995). What are American children eating? Implications for public policy. Nutrition Reviews, 53, 111-126.

Kotler, P., & Zaltman, G. (1971). Social marketing: An approach to planned social change. Journal of Marketing, 35, 3-12.

Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Lefebvre, R. C., & Flora, J. A. (1988). Social marketing and public health intervention. Health Education Quarterly, 15, 299-315.

Mønoz, K. A., Krebs-Smith, S. M., Ballard-Barbash, R., & Cleveland, L. E.. (1997). Food intakes of US children and adolescents compared with recommendations. Pediatrics, 100, 232-329.

Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., Perry, C., & Casey, M. A. (1999). Factors influencing food choices of adolescents: Findings from focus-group discussions with adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 99(8), 929-937.

Siegel, M., & Doner, L. (1998). Marketing public health: Strategies to promote social change. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, Inc.

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Sutton, S. M., Layden, W., & Haven, J. (1996). Dietary guidance and nutrition promotion: USDA's renewed vision of nutrition education. Family Economics and Nutrition Review, 14-21.

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US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. (1999). Food and nutrient intakes by children 1994-96, 1998. Retrieved December 21, 2000 from http://www.barc.usda.gov/bhnrc/foodsurvey/Products.html

Guidelines for Reaching Out and Counseling Low Income Monolingual Latino Clients

Lucy Delgadillo
Assistant Professor
Utah State University
Logan, UT 84322-2905
Internet Address: lucyd@cc.usu.edu

Due to the potentially large market for products and services they require, the growing segment of the Latino population has captured the attention of Extension specialists. Latinos are now the country's largest minority population, having exceeded the population of African-Americans (37 million vs. 36.2 million) for the first time (U.S. Census Bureau, 2003). This number does not include the illegal Latino immigrants, who are estimated to account for an additional 3.5 million people (Valdes, 2000).

Over the years, Latinos have been generally viewed as a homogeneous group. However, research shows that Latinos are not only different from the general Anglo and non-Anglo population by most demographic and socioeconomic measures, but they also differ among themselves, representing a diverse collection of economic groups, nationalities, acculturation stages, and English-fluency levels (Flores, 2000; Gardyn, 2001; Valdes 2000, Warrix & Bocanegra, 1998).

For instance, immigrants from Mexico, Central America, and illegal aliens are the worst off economically, more likely to speak Spanish at home, and less likely to have a high school diploma (U.S. Census Bureau 2002). On the other hand, Cubans and Hispanics born in the United States have the highest median income, are more likely to be fluent in English, and hold the highest rate of high school graduates (NCLR, 2001; U.S. Census Bureau, 2002).

In light of these findings, two questions emerged at the Family Life Center (a free financial counseling site) at Utah State University. The first question was how to advertise free financial counseling sessions to monolingual Latinos. The second question was how to counsel this particular clientele.

This article focuses on the Family Life Center's efforts to:

1. Identify effective strategies for advertising financial counseling programs to monolingual Latinos and
   
   
2. Provide specific facts and guidance for achieving effective financial counseling for that group.

We assume that monolingual, low income Latinos have different financial and educational needs than higher income, bilingual Latinos. The strategies were developed based on Latino cultural values. Strategies include effective practices used by other Extension specialists, informal interviews with Latino clients who have used the services of the Family Life Center over the last seven years, and one focus group with eight local Latino community leaders (Deshpande, Hoyer & Donthu, 1986; Edmonson, 1997; Felix-Ortiz, Newcomb & Meyers, 1995; Malek, 2002; Saegert, Hoover & Hilger, 1985; Segal & Soso, 1983; Tienda, 1983a; Tienda, 1983b; Valencia, 1985; Watson, 2001; Webster, 1996).

How to Outreach to Monolingual Latinos

The first step in the process of reaching Latinos who have low proficiency in English is to define, as specifically as possible, the Latino audience toward whom educational efforts are aimed. The outreach specialist must respond to at least four questions:

1. Who are they? Considerations include age, gender, income level, marital status, employment history, family size and legal status.
   
   
2. Where can they be found?
   
   
3. What do they do in their leisure time?
   
   
4. How many of them are living in the community?

Answers to these questions can be found in census data, focus groups, surveys, and personal interviews. Focus groups, in particular, have been determined to be the culturally preferred assessment tool to gather data on this group (Malek, 2002; Bairstow, Berry, & Driscoll, 2002).

Traditional Outreach Methods

Radio and television are major forces in marketing educational programs because they reach large segments of the target audience at different times of day in a variety of places. Radio is a proven force in Latino cultures, and those service providers who want to have Latinos as part of their target segment should utilize this medium (Cudaback, Marshall, & Knox, 1994; Romero-Gwynn & Marshall, 1990). The best and most economical way to do this is by writing creative public service announcements and airing those messages on Spanish- and English-language radio and television stations.

Newspapers and magazines can also be useful dissemination channels. Outreach specialists must determine whether the targeted Latinos read specific magazines, local newsletters, or local newspapers. If there is not a Spanish language newspaper or newsletter for this group, the local English newspaper may have a section that addresses this audience. If so, it is recommended to place the information in that section.

Exhibits are good tools to develop community awareness about educational programs, but they are not necessarily effective means to invite Latinos to educational workshops or counseling sessions. Personal invitation letters in official envelopes may not be read by immigrants who are undocumented because of fear of government or immigration authorities (N. Hunt, personal communication, September 5, 2000).

All messages delivered to Latino audiences must be culturally attuned (Segal & Sosa, 1983; Watson, 2001). Insufficient attention to cultural considerations is evident in many translations found in print ads, radio announcements, television spots, and billboards. It is common to find literal or academic translations from English into Spanish in which the words are correct, but the meaning is not. A native Spanish-speaking editor should write, or at least proofread, all informational resources, prints ads, and flyers.

In this effort, the writer-translator should avoid bias or use of words only understood in particular regions. For example, Mexicans would translate "down payment" as "enganche," while Central Americans would translate it as "prima." A better Spanish word for the English word "down payment" would be "pago inicial" (initial payment). To ensure not only grammatical correctness but also cultural sensitivity, it may be useful to have translators from at least two different countries review the manuscript so that wording differences can be reconciled.

Non-Traditional Outreach Methods

In addition to the traditional outreach methods, the following non-traditional approaches have been used.

Locations for Ad and Flyer Placement

For the monolingual Latino who is not exposed to radio and television advertising messages, Latino grocery stores, supermarkets, and restaurants frequented by Hispanics are good localities to place ads and flyers in Spanish. Church buildings also represent potential sites to place flyers because 80% of the Hispanic population attends religious services (Segal & Sosa, 1983). Human service providers and schools near predominantly Latino neighborhoods, as well as companies and industries where a significant number of employees are Latinos, are also network points where this ethnic group may be reached.

Human Resources

Latino community leaders are a valuable resource. A focus group with a few Latino leaders may give Extension specialists and counselors a starting point for developing an advertising plan. Leaders should be informed about programs so they spread the word to those with whom they associate (Hoorman, 2002). Leaders, with their talents and altruism, can provide a voice for the community. Members of the focus group do not need to be elected leaders, but may be informal leaders who are respected people within the Latino community. Such persons may be identified by talking to Latino community members.

Counseling Strategies

Awareness of cultural variations among Latino families of different origins is relevant to the counseling process. Recognizing how Latino family resources are allocated, identifying coping mechanisms for family crisis, and selecting financial goals that are culturally appropriate are just a few issues that must be considered by a successful counselor of monolingual Latinos. The following section provides some basic guidelines to increase effectiveness in counseling.

Beliefs About Family

The Latino family life cannot be viewed in isolation from beliefs and values about family and intergenerational connections (Viramontez Anguiano & Kawamoto, 2003). Counselors who understand cultural constructions of Latino families understand different meanings of the term "family." When dealing with an Anglo client, the words "my family" may refer to his/her nuclear family; however, for a Latino client "my family" may include not only the nuclear family but also the extended family.

Verbal Communication Style

The core of counseling is precisely to be able to communicate in the most effective manner (Pulvino & Lee, 1991). Different cultures have different ways of communicating ideas according to their idiosyncratic traditions and ways of thinking. Speakers of Spanish and English tend to differ in both organization and expression of ideas.

It has been observed by Noble and Lacasa (1991) that Latinos tend to be verbose and to get sidetracked, often elaborating on topics extraneous to the subject at hand, or jumping from business to more personal matters. American-Anglo clients, on the other hand, are more direct and straightforward. Many times this American businesslike approach might seem brusque or even rude to a monolingual Latino client.

Non-Verbal Communication Style

Non-verbal communication may hinder the counseling process. The tone and pace of a normal conversation between Latinos may be considered very loud and fast by an Anglo counselor. Physical proximity, as a form of non-verbal communication, also has different reference patterns. Pulvino and Lee (1991) cite that in the United States, an average distance of 30-36 inches between two individuals is called social space, between 24 and 30 inches is considered personal space, and anything less than 24 inches is called intimate space.

Generally speaking, Latinos sit and stand much closer to one another than Americans do. Moving away from a client who seems too close to you can be considered an affront, especially if that person is talking to the counselor.

Cash Usage and Saving Patterns

Latin America is a cash-oriented society. The pattern is th