August 2003
Volume 41 Number 4

Research in Brief

The Changing Landscape of Central Pennsylvania: Agricultural Industry at a Crossroads

Natalie M. Ferry
Coordinator of Special Program Initiatives
Penn State Cooperative Extension
University Park, Pennsylvania
Internet Address: nmf3@psu.edu

William C. Brock
Executive Director
Central Pennsylvania Workforce Development Corporation
Lewisburg, Pennsylvania
Internet Address: wbrock@cpwdc.org

Introduction

Central Pennsylvania's agriculture community is facing increasing pressures from encroaching urban development and shrinking agricultural support infrastructure. As medium-sized agricultural production operations seek to expand and intensify their production to remain economically viable, pressure from local residents and townships has increased to keep farm production at its current size. Yet residents give voice to the value of green space as a major support to the quality of life in the area. The conflict appears when the methods of agriculture production impinge on the suburban ideal of "rural living."

Penn State Cooperative Extension and the Central Pennsylvania Workforce Development Corporation collaborated on a study of the status of agricultural production in the central region of Pennsylvania, which comprises nine counties. The study was designed to identify issues that both entities could use to develop strategies to help agriculture remain a valuable part of the area's economy and social fabric.

The focus group interview was determined to be the most effective process for obtaining the needed data. In January and February of 2001, 54 individuals engaged in agricultural production, processing or financial lending, provided input in five separate focus groups or interviews.

Methodology

The focus group process was selected as the preferred research method because the study was seeking to uncover the perceived barriers that the area agricultural industry faces to remain profitable. The process is a non-directive means by which participants provide information without being directed to answer specific questions (Krueger, 1994).

Participants of three focus groups were individuals from medium-sized farms, defined as ones in which the operator worked full-time in agriculture production that provided his/her major income source and that had three or fewer full-time employees. Individual participants were selected on the basis of their geographic location and specific to the commodities most prevalent in identified county units. Each group also had an organic producer.

Cooperative Extension agents invited the locally identified individuals who met these criteria to participate. The agricultural operators groups' members were 17% female and 83% male, and their ages ranged from 26 to 56 years. Their reported income ranged from $5,000 to over $50,000 per year. Education ranged from a high school diploma to graduate school experience.

Focus groups also were conducted with Amish farmers and a group of agricultural business representatives. The Amish farmer group was comprised of all full-time medium-sized farmers. The agriculture businesses were large firms, reporting annual gross sales of more then $1,000,000 and employing 100 or more workers. The employees typically have GED or high school diploma, range in age from 18 to 45 years, and most frequently are white, with some minority representation. Financial lenders whose agencies serve the area were individually interviewed by phone.

All of these groupings provided a good cross-representation of the area's agricultural production entities. Each group participated in 2-hour focus groups conducted by the researcher. The group interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim into a written format, and coded. The emerging themes were identified using thematic content analysis and summarized.

Participants were asked questions regarding:

• What assets do production agriculture offer Central Pennsylvania's residents and the local economy?
• How has agriculture changed in Central Pennsylvania in the last ten years?
• What are the greatest barriers currently facing the profitability of area agriculture?
• Who should address identified barriers and what strategies can be used?
• What roles should local workforce and economic development agencies provide in helping medium-sized production agricultural operations remain profitable?
• What is the future of medium-sized agriculture in the area?
• What are the greatest challenges in the future to earning a profitable living from medium-sized agriculture?
• Who will operate your agricultural business or farm in the future?

Findings

Throughout all of the groups, a consistent picture of agriculture in central Pennsylvania emerged. The interrelated nature of the groups' perceptions of the assets and issues related to maintaining agriculture as a profitable business in central Pennsylvania paints a clear picture of the challenges facing the industry and the area. The following findings and conclusions reflect the perceptions of the individuals who participated in the focus groups. The themes that these groups identified provide a means to open dialogue within community groups and agencies to assist in identifying strategies to help keep agriculture a viable component of the area.

The major emerging themes from the focus groups include the following.

Changing Agriculture Production

• Urban expansion has increased farmland value.
• Increasing numbers of non-farm residents reduce farmland and have an impact on farm operations.
• Increasing specialization pressures farmers to expand or remain small, relying on off-farm income.
• Contract production requires more specialization and concentration of farm operations.
• Shrinking business support base increases the stress of farming.
• Farming is becoming less profitable and more demanding.

Labor Shortage Affects on Agricultural Business

• Lack of a consistent and reliable labor supply affects ability to remain in business.
• Migrant labor is viewed as a positive alternative.
• Agriculture employers' pay is equal to or above area's standard wage.
• Most employees lack technical and foundation skills, which hampers profitability.

Changing Community View of Agriculture

• Area residents demonstrate less tolerance of local farming operations.
• Non-farming public views food as a commodity to be purchased at the lowest price.
• Non-farm residents value green open space, but not agricultural production.
• Large farm operations are viewed as a nuisance by some non-farm residents.
• Outmigration of farming youth deprives rural communities of future farmers.

Government and Agriculture

• Agriculture needs to be viewed and supported by government as a business that contributes to the local economy.
• Increasing federal, state, and local regulation is noted.
• Subsidies are an integral part of farm income.
• Workforce and economic development agencies are not addressing agriculture's issues.
• New industry is using prime farmland.
• Local farmers lack the skills and commitment to effectively interact with government entities.

Agriculture's Uncertain Future

• Few local farmers' children expressed a desire to remain in farming.
• Majority of today's farming family's children leave farming for other careers or jobs.
• Medium-sized farming is mostly at risk from future downsizing and bankruptcy.
• Few individuals can enter farming without inheriting land or equipment.
• Uncertainty is driving local farmers to consider other alternatives for their future.

Discussion

The qualitative study confirmed area Cooperative Extension County Agents' perceptions of the changing agricultural community. The findings provided a means to focus future program planning and delivery. The results assisted area workforce and economic development agencies in understanding the business pressures that the agricultural industry currently is experiencing. County Commissioners from the region were updated concerning changes that were taking place in the area that would impact the overall economy and landscape.

Of interest in the study were the responses from participants in the farming county grouping closest to a large expanding urban area. In this area, urbanization of land increased by 62% from 1992 to 1997 (Fulton, Pendall, Nguyen, & Harrison, 2001). These farmers were more likely to be considering sale of their farms. They were not considering major expansion. Their changing agricultural practice seemed to be in response to, or in fear of, the ever-growing non-farm population influx.

The "speculative effect," which refers to farm owners' shortened time horizon, appeared to be operating and supporting the "impermanence syndrome" that was reflected in area farmers making decisions to decline or decrease investment in their farm business (Larson, Findeis, & Smith, 2001). As agricultural land values increased, the farm support base decreased and farmers' children or family expressed no desire to continue in farming as a vocation, these farmers' decisions to remain in farming were being negatively affected.

All of the farm groups expressed a negative perspective about the future of area farming. They generally agreed that their farm operations were becoming less compatible with the increasing suburbanization of their communities. Livestock operations, particularly large scale, were especially vulnerable to community criticism. As the community's negativity increased, the farming community voiced less ability to affect change in that perspective. They surrendered their ability to bring about a change in the non-farm population's perception of agricultural production. "What's the use to try, there are many more of them than us, and they have all of the power."

However, area food processors and manufacturers voiced a positive perspective of their business's future in the area. Their raw materials were coming less from local farmers and more from national and overseas suppliers. Cost of doing business was their major concern as slotting fees, government regulations, insurance costs, and marketing costs increased.

The shortage of agricultural labor was the one issue that all of the groups expressed as the most critical constraint to their ability to remain profitable and expand their business operation. All of the groups expressed high-level frustration with their inability to hire a local workforce that would be reliable and committed. All of the groups expressed that migrant labor appeared a viable alternative that would be willing "to do the work and be reliable." The challenge that all of these groups face is finding strategies to improve the local community's attitudes toward migrant and seasonal worker populations so that they can become an integral part of the local workforce and economy (Rosenbaum, 2002; Gutierrez, 1995).

It is important to recognize that Central Pennsylvania's agricultural producers face a variety of issues that extend into the realm of public policy decision-making. Some of these are farmland taxing structure, farmland preservation conservancy, and farm subsidies. Alone, the agricultural community cannot resolve many of the issues facing it. Finding a way to collaborate with the non-agricultural community is critical to its survival.

Central Pennsylvania's agricultural industry is at a pivotal crossroads. While farming is still a way of life for area medium-sized farmers, the reality is that these farmers face constant economic and social pressures. If their profitability becomes too low and land values continue to increase, all indications are that there will be a marked reduction in agricultural landmass in the future.

Conclusions

Preserving agriculture, both farmland and farmers, in the face of expanding suburbanization is the challenge facing many northeastern states. The Northeast is consuming land at a much greater rate than it is in adding population (Fulton, Pendall, Nguyen, & Harrison, 2001). The land resources transformed to accommodate growing urban sprawl most typically is farmland.

With the growth of suburban-style living comes the conflict over traditional agricultural production practices. As farmers perceive themselves as more isolated and less favorably supported by the remaining community, they frequently develop a shortened time horizon and delay investment in their farming enterprise. Reinforcing their choice to delay investment is the lack of reliable labor and an eroding farm business support system. The one asset that is ever increasing for them is the value of their land. However, increasing land costs limits the availability of the land for farmers to expand.

Medium-sized farmers appear to be at a crossroads of change, pressured by many forces out of their control.

Reference

Fulton, W., Pendall, R., Nguyen, M, & Harrison, A. (2001). Who sprawls most? How growth patterns differ across the U.S. The Brookings Institution, July. Available at: http://www.brookings.edu/dybdocroot/es/urban/publications/fulton.pdf (PDF)

Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Second edition. London: Sage Publication.

Gutierrez, D. G. (1995). Walls and mirrors: Mexican American, Mexican immigrants and the politics of ethnicity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Larson, J. M., Findeis, J. L., & Smith, S. M. (2001). Agricultural adaptation to urbanization in southern Pennsylvania. Agricultural and Resource Economic Review, 30/1, 32-43.

Rosenbaum, R. P. (forthcoming). The economic impact of migrant farm workers on southeast Michigan. In J. Findeis, A. Vandeman, J. Larson & J. Runyan, Eds). The dynamics of hired farm labor: Constraints and community responses. UK: CAB International.

Distance Education of Pennsylvania Pond Owners

Katherine L. Schmidt
Natural Resources Educator
Cornell Cooperative Extension
Sullivan County, New York
Internet Address: kls44@cornell.edu

Bryan R. Swistock
Extension Associate
School of Forest Resources
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Internet Address: brs@psu.edu

William E. Sharpe
Water Quality Coordinator and Professor of Forest Hydrology
School of Forest Resources
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Internet Address: wes@psu.edu

Introduction

Traditional speaker-based live programs given by Extension specialists may be increasingly delivered by satellite in the future. Significant progress has been made in the use of satellite for delivering Extension programs, and a number of studies have developed recommendations about enhancing the quality of such programs (Shrestha & Sutphin, 1995; Shrestha & Sutphin, 1999; Rost, 2000; Ricketts, Hoelscher-Day, Begeman, & Houtkooper, 2001). The satellite method allows Extension to more efficiently and inexpensively reach a large audience at one time. Swistock, Sharpe, and Dickinson (2001) recently evaluated a Penn State drinking water program delivered by satellite and found that it met and often exceeded the same educational objectives as the traditional format.

Educational programs on pond management in Pennsylvania have traditionally been delivered by the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission (PFBC), and Penn State Extension (PSE). In recent years, educational programs and support for pond owners have been lacking within Pennsylvania. A pond management program seemed conducive to satellite delivery due to the large existing audience within the state, the great variety of existing problems with ponds, and the need for multi-agency expertise. The satellite method would also allow experts from different agencies to come together for only one evening, versus a more significant commitment that would be required for a series of regional programs.

Purpose/Objectives

The objective of the program described here was to bring the various agencies and experts back together to deliver a comprehensive speaker-based program on pond management and to become reacquainted with current pond owners. Penn State Extension wanted to:

• Learn more about the current characteristics of pond owners in Pennsylvania in order to deliver better programs in the future.
• Measure whether the program met educational objectives.
• Compare the perspectives of the satellite downlink coordinators (Extension professionals) and attendees towards the satellite method.

Methods/Procedures

The pond management program was delivered in one evening to 1,104 participants across 37 counties in Pennsylvania through the American Distance Education Consortium (ADEC). A county Extension professional served as a downlink coordinator at each downlink site. The 2-hour presentation was divided into four topics:

• Pond construction and design
• Water quality
• Aquatic plant/algae control
• Fisheries management.

Experts from PSE, NRCS, and PFBC presented parts of the program with graphics and short video clips. The program was followed by a half-hour question-and-answer session using toll free phone and fax lines.

Evaluations

Extension downlink coordinators from each of the 37 counties provided addresses for 557 attendees of the program. An evaluation was sent to each of these attendees approximately 4 months after the satellite program aired.

The evaluation included questions to measure the number of concepts learned, actions taken, and cost savings resulting from the program. The evaluation design also measured attendees' perspective of the satellite method and the format of the question-and-answer session. Questions were also included to measure the most important uses of ponds and the types of problems common to Pennsylvania ponds. An open-ended response area was provided for attendees to record their general thoughts and comments about the program.

Reminders or second evaluations were not mailed to non-respondents because of funding limitations. A total of 175 (31%) of the evaluations were returned.

A separate evaluation was also sent to each of the 37 Extension professionals who served as downlink coordinators for the program. This evaluation was designed to measure their opinion of the educational effectiveness and design of the satellite method. Out of the 37 counties that participated in the satellite program, 31 Extension professionals (84%) returned the evaluation.

Results

Pond Uses and Problems

Respondents indicated that ponds are used for a wide variety of activities in Pennsylvania, with aesthetic beauty being the most frequently cited reason for pond ownership (Table 1). Although attendees were asked to only choose the most important use of their pond, about one-third of the respondents selected more than one important use for their pond. Thus, the percentages in Table 1 add up to more than 100 percent. In addition to aesthetic beauty, other important pond uses were fishing and wildlife habitat. Surprisingly few ponds were used solely for swimming, irrigation, or drinking water. Some respondents did not yet own a pond but marked uses that they thought would be important for a future pond. These responses were included in Table 1.

The evaluation also asked respondents to identify any problems they have experienced in the past with their pond. The most common problems were excessive algae or plant growth (52%), nuisance wildlife (34%), pond leaks (26%), water quality problems (9%), and fish kills (8%). The topic areas covered during the satellite program had been targeted toward these common pond problems.

Educational Objectives and Actions

The evaluation included a list of 11 important pond management concepts. Attendees were asked to select the concepts that they were unaware of before the program and subsequently learned by attending the pond management program. The most important management concepts from each of the four program topic areas were listed on the evaluation.

Table 2 lists the percent of respondents that learned at least one important management concept in each of the four program topic areas compared to the percent that identified a problem. Overall, 92% of respondents learned at least one concept, and the mean number of concepts selected was 4.7 out of 11. The water quality concepts had the lowest response level (34%), and the plant and algae control concepts had the highest response rate (55%). The most frequently learned concepts (plant/algae control and pond design) were also the most frequently identified problem areas for ponds. Thus, the program was generally successful in teaching basic pond management educational concepts related to frequently observed problems.

Approximately 42% of the respondents had taken some action to manage their pond after attending the program (Table 2). The most common actions were related to plant/algae control, which is also the category that most respondents identified as a problem and about which they learned new concepts. Of the respondents who had not taken any action, 18% indicated they intended to but had not begun yet, 9% were still unsure of what steps to take, and 15% indicated other reasons.

Opinion of the Program

Both attendee respondents and Extension professionals had favorable opinions of the pond management program. The average rating of the program was 5.6 for respondents and 5.9 from professionals (0=poor, 7=excellent). Eighty-two percent of attendee respondents rated the program good, very good, or excellent. When Extension professionals were asked what they thought of the usefulness of the program for their audience, 84% responded it was just right, 10% said it was too general, and 3% thought it was too specific. 

The most frequent comment made by attendees concerned the desire for more detailed information on specific topics. This was often accompanied by a comment that more time was needed for each session or that the presentations were delivered too quickly. A small number of respondents stated that the information was too technical, which was also noted by a few Extension professionals. Others commented that more time was needed per session and that the program itself was too long.

Opinion of the Satellite Method

A recognized problem with the satellite delivery method is the lack of personal contact and opportunity for questions and answers. The evaluations sent to both Extension professionals and attendees attempted to gage their respective opinions of the 30-minute question-and-answer (Q&A) session (Table 3). While a clear majority of both attendees and Extension professionals believed that the time allowed for questions was just enough, more attendees than professionals believed there was too little time for questions.

A review of the comments made by both Extension professionals and attendee's in the open-ended portion of the evaluation indicated that some attendees wanted more time for questions and more speaking interaction during the program. Separation of the program by topic area would allow more time for Q&A and increase the opportunity for downlink coordinators to encourage audience participation. Another possible modification would be the incorporation of multiple Q&A sessions throughout the program as recommended by Rost (2000).

Several questions on both the attendee and Extension professional evaluations were meant to gage their willingness to host or attend another program delivered by satellite. Attendees were asked whether they would prefer to drive exactly 15 miles to attend a satellite program (representing delivery to all Pennsylvania counties) or drive exactly 50 miles to attend a traditional live-speaker program (representing regional delivery). Sixty-four percent of attendees preferred to attend the satellite program, 13% preferred the regional program, and 23% had no preference.

A similar question posed to the Extension professionals produced nearly identical results. Sixty-five percent preferred a program delivered by satellite to all interested counties, 13% preferred a regional program delivered in person by specialists, and 22% had no preference. Eighty-eight percent of the attendee respondents were "just as likely" to "very likely" to attend another satellite Extension program, while 100% of Extension professionals were "just as likely" or "very likely" to host another satellite downlink.

Eight percent of attendee respondents had a negative comment about the satellite method in the open-ended portion of the evaluation. Comments were considered negative if they were critical of the program structure (length, speed, etc.) or they were critical of the program delivery method (e.g., poor sound, poor picture, small room, etc.). The majority of the negative comments were related to the length of the program or to sound or picture quality at the downlink sites. The proportion of negative comments and those preferring a live program were similar to findings by Swistock et al. (2001). Sound and picture quality were also a concern, especially where the room and/or audience was large. These concerns may be best addressed by limiting the length of satellite programs and offering videotapes to attendees with hearing or vision difficulties.

Discussion

Schneider and Smallidge (2000) surveyed Extension educators in New York to determine the public demand and interest for natural resource management related programs. They found that water resource related topics were a high priority for programming, and aquatic weed management emerged as a new topic area. Some of the reasons they cited for a shift in programming needs related to increasing land base in natural cover types, changing needs of the audience, and a dramatic increase in public awareness of environmental issues.

The make-up of the pond management audience may be a reflection of this shift in programming. Attendees of this pond management program indicated that today's pond owner is mostly interested in the aesthetic and recreational benefits of the pond. Therefore, pond owners are most likely to be interested in aquatic weed control, which is a pervasive problem in ponds. In general, there is an audience available for all pond management topic areas; however, the greatest current demand appears to be for aquatic plant management. This finding parallels the authors' experience with pond assistance requests, which are predominately about aquatic weed control.

Evaluation of the satellite delivery method by both attendees and Extension professionals provided generally favorable results. Nearly all of the attendees indicated that they had learned pond management concepts, and nearly half had taken action to better manage their pond. The majority of both audiences were willing to sacrifice the personal interaction of a live-speaker program for the increased local availability offered by the satellite format (i.e., shorter driving distances). Many of the concerns expressed by attendees about the satellite format could be addressed by limiting the length of satellite programs to 2 hours (or less) or by providing frequent breaks during longer programs. 

Satellite technology will continue to be an important method for delivery of Extension programs. A cost-benefit analysis of the satellite method in Pennsylvania by Swistock et al. (2001) provided favorable results for continued or expanded use of this method in the future. Continued improvement in satellite programming may improve overall acceptability in the future. Useful information about satellite programs was obtained from Extension professionals and attendees, and both should be included when evaluating satellite programs. The relatively low response rate for attendees indicates caution in interpreting their responses.

Acknowledgements

Partial funding for the satellite program was provided by United States Geological Survey through the Pennsylvania Water Resources Research Center, The Penn State Institutes of the Environment, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

References

Ricketts, J., Hoelscher-Day, S., Begeman, G., & Houtkooper, L. (2001). Interactive distance learning effectively provides winning sports nutrition workshops. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(5). Available at: http://joe.org/joe/2001october/a1.html

Rost, B. (2000). Interaction analyzed in traditional and satellite-delivered Extension educational presentations. Journal of Extension, 38(1). Available at: http://joe.org/joe/2000february/rb3.html

Schneider, R. L., & Smallidge P. J. (2000). Assessing Extension educator needs in New York to address natural resource issues for the new millennium. Journal of Extension [On-line], 38(3). Available at: http://joe.org/joe/2000june/a4.html

Shrestha, G. M., & Sutphin, H. D. (1995). Program delivery via satellite in the information age: Extension educators' perspectives on teaching techniques, communication channels, and participation. J. Educational Technology Systems, 24(2) 135-144.

Shrestha, G. M., & Sutphin, H. D. (1999). Relationship between interaction and acceptance in satellite video-conferencing. J. Educational Technology Systems, 28(1) 43-58.

Swistock, B. R., Sharpe, W. E., & Dickinson, J. (2001). Educating rural private water system owners in Pennsylvania using satellite versus traditional programs. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(3). Available at: http://joe.org/joe/2001june/a7.html

Information Sources and Extension Delivery Methods Used by Private Longleaf Pine Landowners

Rama B. Radhakrishna
Associate Professor
Department of Agricultural and Extension Education
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Internet Address: brr100@psu.edu

Larry Nelson
Extension Specialist
Department of Forest Resources
Clemson University,
Clemson, South Carolina
Internet Address: lnelson@clemson.edu

Robert Franklin
Extension Agent
Department of Forest Resources
Clemson University,
Clemson, South Carolina

George Kessler
Extension Specialist
Department of Forest Resources
Clemson University,
Clemson, South Carolina

Introduction

Longleaf pine once dominated southern landscapes from southeast Virginia to east Texas. In colonial times the tree occupied as much as 92 million acres (Frost, 1993). Today, less than 3 million acres remain (Outcalt & Sheffield, 1996). In South Carolina, longleaf pine occurred on as much as 7.6 million acres, a figure that declined to just over 1.7 million acres in 1936 and to only 396,000 acres at present (Cecil Frost, personal communication; U.S. Forest Service, 1989; Outcalt & Sheffield, 1996). The decline in longleaf pine forest resulted from development, overexploitation, and a shift in forestry practices.  Foremost causes for this decline were the conversion of longleaf forests to agriculture and the development of homesteads, villages, and towns (Franklin, 1997).

Ecologists and many non-industrial forestland owners are interested in restoring longleaf pine to a larger portion of its natural range. The tree is well-known as a producer of quality solid-wood products that command premium prices. It is the most insect, disease, and fire resistant of the southern pines. Well-managed, fire-maintained longleaf forests provide the best quality wildlife habitat and scenic values of all the southern pines (Landers, Van Lear, & Boyer, 1995). Most important, longleaf is valuable because it is associated with one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems in the Western Hemisphere.

Because 70% of commercial forest land in the South is owned by private landowners, they have become a primary focus of longleaf pine restoration efforts. Reaching landowners with useful information has become a major challenge for Extension educators.

Several researchers have documented the value of various educational delivery methods in effectively communicating information to farmers and other clientele. Fedele (1985) suggested that information delivery is done by a number of methods. For example, print-based information serves the clientele with specific answers to a myriad of topics. Audio-visual methods such as radio and video tapes often provide information without personally involving Extension educators. Mass media delivery methods such as radio, television, and newspapers are used to advertise events, foresee client needs, and report agriculture business information. These methods are used in a variety of ways and in a number of contexts, depending on the needs of the farmers.

Richardson (2001) classified educational delivery methods into three groups: experiential, reinforcement, and integrative. According to Richardson, to promote effective and efficient learning, a delivery system should include methods wherever possible that provide desired experiential opportunities for the learner, reinforce the learning, and provide opportunity for the learner to integrate new information with existing knowledge and skills. Further, Richardson identified several factors that should be considered in the delivery of educational information:

• Target audience,
• Educational objective,
• Type and content of message being provided,
• Characteristics of the delivery method, and
• The method's utility for providing desired learning support.

A host of researchers and educators have examined the perceptions of farmers and other clientele toward delivery of educational information (Suvedi, Campo, & Lipinski, 1999; Trede & Whitaker, 1998; Caldwell & Richardson, 1995; Laughlin & Schmidt, 1995; Gamon, Bounaga, & Miller, 1992). Consensus from these studies suggests that various media and methods are used by Extension educators to communicate new and emerging technologies to farmers.

Findings also indicated that clientele have differing perceptions toward the delivery of information. For example, beginning farmers in Iowa preferred one-on-one, on-site educational meeting and personal contacts (family and neighbors) for information. In addition, farmers preferred radio, newspapers, and television for information. Farmers of highly erodible soils in Iowa identified face-to-face discussion, newspapers, newsletters, and magazine articles as preferred delivery methods. In recent years, however, the use of the Internet in educational programming has increased.

For Extension educators and communicators, it is particularly important to identify and examine the usefulness of each delivery method. Knowledge about the usefulness of delivery methods will not only help to identify the information needs of farmers but also assist in developing educational resources to effectively communicate with farmers and other clientele.

Purpose and Objectives

The overall purpose of the study reported here was to determine the characteristics of longleaf pine landowners in South Carolina and their preferred use of educational delivery methods. The following objectives were developed to guide the investigation.

1. Describe the demographic profile of longleaf pine landowners in South Carolina.

2. Determine sources landowners use for technical and financial assistance.

3. Identify the preferred educational delivery methods that landowners find most useful in receiving information about longleaf pine.

4. Determine relationships, if any, between usefulness of educational delivery methods and demographic characteristics of landowners.

Methods and Procedures

Population and Sample

A list of forest landowners (names and addresses) with land ownership within the natural range of longleaf pine was developed from: (1) the South Carolina Forest Stewardship newsletter mailing list (Department of Forest Resources, Clemson, SC), (2) a list of South Carolina plantations, (3) South Carolina members of The Longleaf Alliance (School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, AL), and (4) lists of landowners who owned longleaf pine that were enrolled in industry landowner assistance programs. The combined list was checked for duplication and other errors. The final list consisted of 1,170 forest landowners.

A random sample of 397 forest landowners was selected using computer-generated numbers. The sample of 397 is based on a formula provided by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), with a 5% margin of error and a 4% sampling error.

Instrumentation

The survey instrument was a questionnaire designed by the researchers. The survey contained four sections. Section one consisted of questions regarding longleaf pine tract characteristics. Section two inquired about technical and financial assistance information. Section three asked about the preferred format of educational delivery methods. Section four requested landowner demographic information (ownership, age, educational level, occupation, income, etc.). Content and face validity of the survey was established by a six-member panel of experts that included two Extension forestry specialists, one Extension agent, two representatives from the Environmental Defense Fund, and an Extension evaluation specialist.

Data Collection and Analysis

The survey and cover letter explaining the purpose of the study was mailed to members of the sample. After 3 weeks, a total of 121 (30%) landowners had responded. A second mailing, including a revised cover letter and a copy of the survey, was sent to all non-respondents. An additional 134 (34%) questionnaires were returned, for a total data sample of n=255 (64%). The final data sample included 231 useable questionnaires, for a 58% response rate. Twenty-four questionnaires were not useable due to incomplete responses and incorrect addresses.

The data from the 231 responses was coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows. Early and late respondents were compared on key variables as per the procedures suggested by Miller and Smith (1983). No significant differences (p>.05) were found between early and late respondents. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to summarize the data.

Results

Objective 1: Demographic Profile

As shown in Table 1, the majority of respondents (82%) were "individual" landowners, followed by family corporations (8%), partnerships (7%), and other (3%). Over one-half the landowners (54%) were 55 years or older, 27% were between the ages of 45-54, 16% between 35-44, and 3% under 25 years of age. A little over one-third of the landowners (35%) reported bachelor's (college) degree as their highest educational level completed, followed by less than college degree (34%), some college (21%), high school diploma (12%), less than high school (1%), and graduate degrees (31%).

No single occupation dominated the landowners' primary profession (Table 1). A little over one-third (34%) were retirees. Fifteen percent were in farming and natural resources, 11% in engineering, 8% each were physicians/dentists and self-employed, 7% were in real estate/banking, four to five percent each were in management, sales and legal professions, and 2% in other occupations (Table 1). Twenty-two percent reported income less than $55,000; 12% earned between $55,000 to $75,000; 28% earned between $75,000 and $115,000, and 38% over $115,000. A little over one-half of landowners lived on the land they owned (54%), while the remaining 46% lived off-site or were absentee landlords.

Collectively, respondents to this survey owned an average of 581.44 acres of forestland. This ranged from a minimum of 0 acres, up to 10,000 acres. The average acreage of longleaf pine was 83.25, with a range of 0 to 1,500 acres. Of this, 50% of the longleaf was in stands aged 0 to 25 years; 33 % in multi-aged stands; 10% in stands ages 26-50 years; 3.5% in stands greater than 50 years of age; and 3.5% unsure of age.

Objective 2: Technical and Financial Assistance

Seventy-seven percent of the respondents had received technical assistance from several sources (Figure 1). Prominent among the sources were private consulting foresters (50%), followed by state foresters or wildlife biologists (43%), industrial foresters (41%), Extension Service (25%), Natural Resources Conservation Service (24%), Farm Service Agency (20%), and others (5%).

Figure 1.
Received Technical Assistance

In addition, these landowners shopped around and got forestry help and advice from several sources, including private consulting foresters (55%), State Forestry Commission (50%), Extension Service (40%), the Natural Resources Conservation Service and Industrial Foresters (27%), Farm Service Agency (18%), and other (3%) (Table 2).

Sixty-one percent had received financial assistance in the form of cost-share for their land management activities (Figure 2). Those who did not receive financial assistance (39%) indicated several reasons: did not apply (39%); did not qualify (24%); were uncomfortable with government (17%); or not interested (14%) (Table 2).

Figure 2.
Received Financial Assistance

Objective 3: Usefulness of Educational Delivery Method

Landowners were asked to rate the usefulness of educational delivery methods on a scale 5= Very useful, 4= Useful, 3= Uncertain, 2= Not very useful, 1= Not at all useful. In declining order of utility, landowners rated newsletters (mean =4.17) as most useful (Table 3), followed by publications (mean = 4.15), field tours (mean = 3.73), video (mean = 3.45), workshops (mean = 3.40), evening meetings (mean = 3.38), short courses (mean = 3.30), formal classes (mean = 3.00), and the Internet (mean = 2.82).

Objective 4: Relationships

The fourth objective of the study was to examine relationships between usefulness of educational delivery methods and demographic characteristics of landowners. Of the four demographic variables examined in this study (age, educational level, occupation, and land ownership), only three variables were significantly related to three of the nine educational delivery methods. Age of landowners was negatively related to two educational delivery methods. . .video (r=-26, p <.05) and the Internet (r=-.34, p <.001). Further, significant relationships also existed between occupation of landowners and usefulness of three delivery methods: formal classes (r=.17, p <.05), video (r=.15, p <.05) and the Internet (r=.25, p <.05).

Conclusions and Recommendations

Results of the survey indicate that private forest landowners within the natural range of longleaf pine in South Carolina are typically more than 45 years-old, either work in a recognized profession or are retired, are well educated, have above average income, and have individual ownership of their land. Their reliance on a variety of sources for assistance and advice would indicate that they are willing to listen and are receptive to a range of ideas. This generalized profile might imply positive approachability concerning information on the restoration and management of longleaf pine. However, landowner preferences did occur with respect to educational delivery methods and should be considered in order to maximize program efficiency.

The significant negative correlation between age and high-technology delivery systems suggests that educators should be careful when attempting to reach elderly landowners with video and the Internet. Based on delivery system rankings (Table 3), the large portion (34%) of retired landowners in this sample is likely more comfortable with traditional delivery systems such as newsletters, publications, and field tours. In contrast, positive correlations between occupation and delivery systems show that certain professionally trained landowners may be better served with technology-driven systems and formal classes.

As indicated by Laughlin and Schmidt (1995), Extension professionals need to examine the best possible ways to deliver information within the technological revolution. The findings in this study reinforce the need to modify delivery systems to fit the demographic characteristics of the intended audience and to keep up-to-date surveys in order to determine demographic change. Extension educators should willingly progress by adopting efficient technologies, but they should not abandon more traditional methods until it is warranted by lack of demand.

References

Caldwell, A. E., & Richardson, J. G. (1995). Preferences of a traditional Extension audience for self-directed delivery methods. Journal of Applied Communications, 79(1), 31-40.

Fedele, S. V. (1985). The potential of interactive video for Extension information delivery. ASEA Technical Report 85-5015.

Franklin, R. M. (1997). Stewardship of longleaf pine: A guide for landowners. Longleaf Alliance Report No. 2. The Longleaf Alliance, Solon Dixon Forestry Education Center, Andalusia, AL. 44 p.

Frost, C. C. (1993). Four centuries of changing landscape patterns in the longleaf ecosystem, pp. 17-43. In: Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. No. 18, The Longleaf Pine Ecosystem: ecology, restoration and management, edited by Sharon M. Herman, Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL.

Gamon, J. A., Bounaga, L. & Miller, W. W. (1992). Identifying information sources and educational methods for soil conservation information used by landowners of highly erodible field. Journal of Applied Communications, 76(1), 1-5.

Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610.

Landers, J. L., Van Lear, D. H., & Boyer, W. D. (1995). The longleaf pine forests of the southeast: requiem or renaissance? Journal of Forestry, 93(11): 39-44.

Laughlin, K. M., & Schmidt, J. L. (1995). Maximizing program delivery in Extension: Lessons form leadership for transformation. Journal of Extension [Online], 33(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995august/a4.html

Miller, L. E., & Smith, K. (1983). Handling nonresponse issues. Journal of Extension [On-line], 24(5). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1983september/index.html

Outcalt, K. W., & Sheffield, R. M. (1996). The longleaf pine forest: trends and current conditions. Resource Bulletin SRS-9. USDA Forest Service: Southern Research Center. Ashville, NC. 23 pp.

Richardson, J. G. (2001). Extension education: Process and practice. . . Program delivery methods. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service.

Suvedi, M., Campo, S., & Lipinski, M. K. (1999). Trends in Michigan farmers' information seeking behaviors and perspectives on the delivery of information. Journal of Applied Communications, 83(3), 33-50.

Trede, L. D., & Whitaker, S. (1998). Perceptions of Iowa beginning farmers toward delivery of education. Journal of Applied Communications, 82(4), 22-33.

Improving Urban Tree Care in the Great Plains: Impacts of the Nebraska Tree Care Workshops

Peter Skelton
Graduate Research Assistant
Internet Address: pskelton@unlserve.unl.edu

Scott J. Josiah
State Extension Forester and Assistant Professor

School of Natural Resource Sciences
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, Nebraska

Introduction

Nebraska is known primarily as a prairie state. Because of the severity of the Plains climate and the scarcity of original tree cover, establishing and maintaining a healthy urban "forest" in Nebraska is of considerable importance to the well-being of Nebraskans. With nearly all trees in Nebraska communities having been planted, developing and enhancing community-wide support for urban forests is an important component of a sustainable urban forest in this state and many others (Clark, Matheny, Cross, & Wake, 1997). The Nebraska Forest Service, the University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension, and the Nebraska Statewide Arboretum have conducted Nebraska Tree Care Workshops since 1991. The workshops are designed to enhance tree management capacity in Nebraska communities through research-based education.

The Nebraska Tree Care Workshop (TCW) is a 1-day training event for tree care and landscaping professionals and others interested in arboriculture. Six workshops held throughout the state each spring attract from 300-400 or more participants annually.

The workshops cover a variety of tree-related educational topics, provide hands-on experience, and allow for discussion about emerging problems associated with tree care. The goal of the workshop is to create a cadre of people well trained in tree selection and care who can train others and/or provide improved tree-related services to the public.

Since 1991, 1,579 tree care professionals and others interested in tree care have participated in these workshops. This article reports on an evaluation of impacts of the TCW on community tree care in Nebraska and on individual attitudes and behaviors related to tree care.

Background

Urban and community forests provide many benefits. Most important, the presence of trees in an urban setting influences the physical environment (Harris, 1992). Changes to turbulent transfer rates and wind speed influences air quality and microclimate. Scott, McPherson, and Simpson (1998) found that trees improve air quality by direct absorption of air pollutants. Trees alter microclimate by influencing radiant flux, air temperature, and carbon dioxide (Brandle, Hodges, & Wight, 2000. Urban forests reduce CO₂ emissions in two ways: sequestering CO₂ in woody biomass and reducing electric power production emissions by reducing demand for heating and cooling needs (McPherson, 1998).

Additionally, the presence of trees in an urban setting has important economic benefits. McPherson and Rowntree (1993) and Simpson and McPherson (1996) found that small changes in cooling and heating loads, due to the presence of trees, have significant economic impacts. Other studies have documented the influence of trees on residential property values by estimating the increased market value for homes with trees (Anderson & Cordell, 1988; Ebenreck, 1989). Harris (1992) cites additional benefits from urban forests such as aesthetics, psychological and health benefits, erosion control, and noise reduction.

While documenting the benefits of urban and community forests is useful, information describing the impacts of creating a large cadre of people well trained in tree selection and care is lacking. Such impacts might include:

• Improved knowledge about trees;
• Improved tree care skills;
• Use of workshop information to train others in tree care;
• Increased involvement in community tree and environmental organizations; and
• Changed perceptions about community forests.

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of the study was to document the impacts of the Tree Care Workshop on Nebraska's community tree resources and to solicit feedback from attendees to help make the TCW more relevant to participants' needs. This article focuses on the former. Objectives of the study included determining:

1. Tree care-related status of participants who had attended a workshop between 1996 and 1999;
2. Degree to which respondent knowledge about trees improved;
3. Degree to which respondent tree care skills improved;
4. Respondent use of tree care information to train others in tree care; and
5. Respondent perceptions about the extent to which the management of community tree resources have improved as a result of the workshops.

Methods/Procedures

The research design was a descriptive survey of past Tree Care Workshop participants. The population (non-duplicate names) was formed by combining workshop participant lists from the last 8 years (N=1,579). Combining the lists of past attendees eliminated duplicate names. A sample size of 600 was selected at random from the past participant population, and 193 surveys (32%) were completed and returned.

Respondents from the sample were asked to skip some questions if they had not attended a workshop in the last 4 years. This was done because the researchers felt that recall by respondents attending a recent workshop would be greater and would provide a better indicator of program impacts.

The survey was submitted to external reviewers to assess face and content validity. Reviewers were identified and chosen based on their understanding of Extension programming as well as survey instrument design. The survey was mailed to a randomly selected sample of past participants in November 1999 using the Dillman total design method (Dillman, 1978). Administration of the survey included mailing a cover letter explaining the importance of the research, a copy of the survey, and a stamped return envelope. The mailing procedures included a follow-up reminder postcard sent 10 days after the initial mailing, followed by a second mailing of the survey to non-respondents after 3 weeks.

Quantitative data were reported with frequencies, percentages, means, and median scores depending on the level of measurement suggested by the question. The survey contained 13 original response categories listed on the survey instrument that detailed a respondent's status related to tree care. Analysis of the data indicated that many respondents selected more than one category and that the findings did not differ between similar groups.

We consolidated the findings into five categories of status or occupation related to tree care:

1. Commercial service providers,
2. Information providers,
3. Landowners/homeowners,
4. Both commercial service and information providers, and
5. Other.

"Commercial service providers" include people involved in commercial arborist/tree services, golf course maintenance or management, nursery garden center employees, lawn services, park maintenance or management, and groundskeepers at various institutions. "Information providers" included Master Gardeners, teachers, Extension personnel, and Natural Resource District employees.

Results

Most attendees learned of the workshops through direct mailing of brochures (58%) or through a friend, newsletter, or newspaper (33%). Few (3%) learned of the workshops via email, and none via the Internet. Most attended to improve their tree care knowledge (40%), because of job related needs (26%), or because they had an interest in tree care at work or home (17%).

Who Were the Participants?

The Tree Care Workshop is attended by a diverse group of participants with various occupations and status related to tree care. The tree care status of respondents (Objective 1) was measured by frequency counts. The largest group (37%, n=71) identified themselves as "commercial service providers" (Table 1). The smallest group of respondents (9%, n=18) identified themselves as being "both commercial service and information providers."

Did the Tree Care Workshop Improve Knowledge?

Objectives 2 and 3 (improvement in tree care knowledge and skills) were measured with a four-point Likert-type scale with response categories ranging from "did not improve" (1) to "much improved" (4). The mean perception of the TCW's effectiveness in improving knowledge about trees was 2.9, with the combined group "commercial service and information providers" reporting the greatest increase in knowledge and the "commercial service providers" showing the least (Table 2). Median scores indicate that respondents thought their tree care knowledge was improved as a result of the workshop.

Did the Tree Care Workshop Improve Tree Care Skills?

The mean perception of the TCW's effectiveness in improving tree care skills was 3.0 (Table 3). Using median scores, the respondent group "both commercial service providers and information providers" perceived their tree care skills to have been much improved, while the remaining respondent groups perceived their tree care knowledge to have been improved by attending the workshop.

Did the Participants Train Others in Tree Care?

The degree to which participants trained others in tree care (Objective 4) was measured using frequency counts of the dichotomous response categories "yes" (1) and "no" (2). Table 4 results indicated that 63% (n=120) of the respondents had used information obtained from the TCW to train others, while 37% (n=71) had not used the information to train others. Approximately 83% (n=100) of the respondents trained between one and 10 people, 13% (n=15) trained between 11 and 25, and 4% (n=5) trained more than 25. Publications distributed at the workshops were used on the average of once a month by all respondents and slightly more often by information providers.

Did the Management of Community Tree Resources Improve?

To measure the impacts of the TCW on management of Nebraska's community forest resource (Objective 5), a four-point Likert-type scale with response categories ranging from "no improvement" (1) to "greatly improved" (4) was used. The mean extent to which the TCW was perceived to have improved the management of community tree resources was 2.11 (Table 5). Using median scores, the respondent groups "commercial service providers," "commercial service and information providers, " and "other" perceived the management of their community tree resource to have been improved by attending the workshop; "information providers" perceived some improvement; and "landowners/homeowners" perceived no improvement.

A large majority of respondents (86%) thought that the condition of trees under their care had improved, and 85% reported they planted or recommended a greater diversity of tree species. This latter finding is supported by several recent community forestry assessments conducted in west central Nebraska, where numbers of tree species planted in urban areas have considerably increased over the past 20 years (Allison & Wilson, 2002).

In addition, 24% of respondents reported that their communities had established or changed tree care ordinances, and 51% of respondents indicated they thought their communities had benefited economically. Statewide, respondents indicated that management of community tree resources had "somewhat improved."

Discussion

The results of the study show that the Nebraska Tree Care Workshops have had a considerable impact on improving community tree resources and their management across the state. The workshops have been instrumental in creating a large cadre of people well-trained in tree selection and care, the size and expertise of which has increased with each passing year, and this has had positive statewide impacts on Nebraska's community forests. The Tree Care Workshops have had a considerable impact on improving participant tree care knowledge, tree care skills, and community tree resources and their management across the state.

Participants indicated they provided improved tree-related services to the public and thought their work in tree-related organizations in their communities had increased the quality of tree care statewide. Additionally, workshop participants have trained many additional people in tree care and/or provided improved tree-related services to the public, a multiplier effect that considerably expands the impacts of the TCW program. The benefits of better managed community forests include:

• More beautiful towns and cities,
• Reduced risk of catastrophic disease epidemics,
• A more resilient community forest resource,
• Enhanced energy conservation,
• Greater interception and infiltration of precipitation,
• Reduced flooding, Cleaner air,
• Improved wildlife habitat, and
• Reduced noise.

Extension specialists and educators can use these findings to better serve their clientele in community forestry and other areas in several ways. The results demonstrate the importance of using a train-the-trainer approach. This approach creates a multiplier effect, expanding the overall impacts of the program to reach greater numbers of people. By training professionals in tree care, this approach builds the capacity for local organizations to deliver high quality tree care services over the long-term.

In an era of increasingly tight budgets, this is a powerful way to stretch human and financial resources while generating tangible impacts. It also demonstrates the need for periodic comprehensive evaluation of programs to determine if clientele needs are being met, to better target programming, and to assess program impacts.

Acknowledgment

A contribution of the University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension Division, Lincoln Nebraska 68583. Journal Series No. 1001.

References

Allison, R., & Wilson, J. (2002). Changes in species diversity in community forests in west central Nebraska. The Forester's Log. The Nebraska Forest Service, North Platte, Nebraska.

Anderson, L. M., & Cordell, H. K. (1988). Influence of trees on residential property values in Athens, Georgia: A survey based on actual sales prices. Landscape and Urban Planning 15:153-164.

Brandle, J. R., Hodges, L., & Wight, B. (2000). Windbreak practices. In H.E. Garrett et al. (ed.) North American agroforestry: An integrated science and practice. Madison, WI: ASA.

Clark, J. R., Matheny, N. P., Cross, G. & Wake, V. (1997). A model of urban forestry sustainability. Journal of Arboriculture 23(1):17-30.

Dillman, D. A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. New York: Wiley.

Ebenreck, S. (1989). The values of trees. In G. Moll & S. Ebenreck (ed.) Shading our cities. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Harris, R. W. (1992). Arboriculture: Integrated management of landscape, trees, shrubs, and vines. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

McPherson, E. G. (1998). Atmospheric carbon dioxide reduction by Sacramento's urban forest. Journal of Arboriculture 24(4):215-223.

McPherson, E.G., & Rowntree, R. A. (1993). Energy conservation potential of urban tree planting. Journal of Arboriculture 19(6):321-331.

Simson, J. R. & McPherson, E. G. (1996). Potential of tree shade for reducing residential energy use in California. Journal of Arboriculture 22(1):10-18.

Scott, K. I., McPherson, E. G., & Simpson, J. R. (1998). Air pollutant uptake by Sacramento's urban forest. Journal of Arboriculture 24(4):223-230.

Why They Come, Why They Go, and Why They Stay: Factors Affecting Volunteerism in 4-H Programs

David J. White
Assistant Professor, 4-H Youth Development
Deschutes County
Internet Address: david.white@oregonstate.edu

Mary E. Arnold
Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist
Internet Address: mary.arnold@oregonstate.edu

4-H Youth Development
Oregon State University Extension Service
Corvallis, Oregon

Introduction

Volunteers are an integral part of Oregon State University Extension educational program delivery (Braker, Leno, Pratt, & Grobe, 2000). This is especially true in 4-H, where the implementation of programs relies almost exclusively on the work of thousands of dedicated adult volunteers. In Oregon alone there are more than 7,200 volunteers committing time and resources to the mission of 4-H (Braker, Leno, Pratt, & Grobe, 2000).

Even though 4-H programs rely heavily on volunteer leaders, little research has explored the nature of a volunteer's experience as a 4-H leader. Given the important role volunteers play in implementing 4-H programs, it seems prudent to understand more about the:

• Factors involved in an adult becoming a 4-H leader,
• Factors that contribute to the leader's positive experience, and
• Factors that cause a leader to end his or her role.

In order to understand these factors better, a study was conducted in Deschutes County, Oregon with individuals who had ended their role as a 4-H leader.

Deschutes County, located in the southern part of the Deschutes River Basin, east of the Cascades Mountains in central Oregon, has a population approaching 120,000 (Deschutes County Resource Profile, 2000). The county is recognized as the fastest growing county in Oregon. The estimated population change between 1990 and 1999 was 42.3% (Bradbury, 2001).

Little more than 5% of the population is considered ethnically diverse (Population Research Center, 1993). There are more than 21,000 youth in the K through 12 school systems. Nearly 30% of the youth are engaged in after school programming (Community Youth Connection, 2001). The county's largest urban center is Bend, with a population of just over 50,000. Deschutes County represents a mixture of rural and urban lifestyles. More than 82% of the land is publicly owned, and less than 8% of the land is in farms (Deschutes County Resource Profile, 2000). The 4-H program enrolls more than 1,100 members and relies on 300 volunteers who support more than 130 project clubs.

Problem Statement

The county 4-H agent plays a key role in the recruitment and retention of volunteer leaders. With such a high reliance on volunteers to implement programs, there is a necessary level of care, education, and support that must be provided by the agent to ensure the volunteer's success. At the same time, the agent is increasingly called upon to address the perpetual needs and expectations of current clientele while attempting to answer the call of prospective clientele needing new and innovative programming.

One of the key factors in successfully managing these complex demands is a stable and satisfied group of volunteers. It becomes clear then, that understanding the factors involved in becoming a 4-H volunteer, the experience of the person while serving as a volunteer, and the reasons for leaving the volunteer role can provide insights useful to the agent in managing the volunteer portion of the county 4-H program.

Three key questions are involved in this understanding. First, what motivates adults to choose to become 4-H leaders? Second, what factors are involved in a leader's decision to end his or her role? And, third, does the level of support from the Extension staff and office play a role in a leader deciding to end his or her role? Answers to these questions will help in understanding the root incentives and impediments to volunteering, which in turn will help build a county program sensitive to the needs and interests of volunteers.

The Experience of Volunteering

Braker et al. (2000) sought to disclose personal, economic, and community benefits volunteers received as a result of their involvement with Extension volunteer programs. Volunteers reported that the ability to help others and the satisfaction they received from helping others were two of the main benefits received from volunteering. Respondents also reported gaining personal benefits by working with youth, spending time with their own children, and helping kids learn. Braker et al. found that volunteers were motivated by a desire to contribute and to feel good about themselves rather than by extrinsic benefits. In addition, achievement, affiliation, and power needs appear also to be important determinants of performance and success in work and volunteering (Maehr & Braskamp, 1986).

Similarly, Rouse, and Clawson (1992) found that both youth and adult volunteers were equally motivated to volunteer because of the high importance of affiliation. In addition, Rouse found that volunteers enjoy helping others and meeting and working with other volunteers and appreciate the warmth, friendliness, caring, and concern of fellow volunteers. And Wolford, Cox, and Culp (2001) found that volunteers want to be affiliated with the organization and the people in the program in addition to learning new things.

Methodology

Using enrollment data, volunteers who had left the Deschutes County 4-H program during the last 6 years were identified. Three hundred and thirty-one potential participants were identified. Current valid addresses established a sample population of 160 volunteers. A letter of informed consent, a survey instrument, and a self-addressed and stamped envelope were mailed to each person identified in the sample. Reminder postcards followed 2 week later. All surveys returned within 30 days were analyzed to gather frequencies, mean scores, ranges, and standard deviations. A total of 51 surveys were returned for a response rate of 31%.

The researchers developed the survey for the study based on anecdotal evidence from conversations with 4-H leaders and agents. Following initial development, 4-H agents in each of Oregon's 36 counties as well as the Deschutes County 4-H Executive Council reviewed the survey to establish face and content validity. Based on the review, modifications were made to increase the validity of the survey prior to distribution.

The first seven questions collected demographic data regarding the nature of the leader's participation. The next section asked respondents to rate on a scale of 1-5 their reasons for becoming a 4-H Leader and reasons for leaving their role as a leader. An answer of 1 indicated that statement was "not a reason," while an answer of 5 indicated that the statement was a "major reason." In addition, respondents were asked to rate their experience with the County 4-H Program on a scale of 1-5. An answer of 1 indicated a response of "strongly agree," and an answer of "5" indicated "strongly disagree."

Following data collection, Cronbach's Alphas were run on each of the 3 subscales to establish internal validity. Alphas for two of the scales, "experience with the County 4-H program" and "reasons for leaving," were sufficient to establish internal reliability (.84 and .78, respectively). Internal reliability for the third scale, "reasons for becoming a 4-H leader" was an Alpha of .31. Because of the low internal reliability, a factor analysis was conducted on the scale to determine if there were multiple dimensions of the scale. The factor analysis indicated that one item, "My employer rewards volunteering," should be dropped from the scale.

A second factor analysis was then conducted without this item. The results of the second analysis revealed three separate components that explain reasons for volunteering in 4-H programs. The largest component centered on the altruistic nature of doing volunteer work and the desire to make a difference in the lives of youth. The second component revealed a group of respondents who volunteered because they had time to do so or because they hoped that volunteering would lead to a paying job. The third component centered on a group of volunteers whose children were involved in 4-H, and thus they stepped forward into the role of 4-H volunteer.

The results of the factor analysis show that the reasons people become volunteers are multidimensional, which is consistent with other research examining reasons for volunteering (e.g., Clary, Snyder, Ridge, Copeland, Stukas, Haugen, & Miene, 1998).

Results

Making a difference in the lives of youth and receiving satisfaction through helping others were the top reasons why adults became 4-H leaders. This was followed closely by the fact that the leader had children involved in 4-H. Other reasons included not being able to refuse a need and enjoying volunteer work (Table 1).

The number one reason why 4-H leaders left their role as a 4-H leader was because their children were no longer involved in 4-H. The second and third reasons for leaving were because of time demands (Table 2).

Regarding the leader's experience with the County 4-H Program, it is clear that more work could be done to enhance the leader's experience. The mean scores for each of the questions in this area ranged between 2.24 and 2.54 (Table 3). It is important to note, however, that the leader's experience with the County 4-H Program did not emerge as a primary reason for the leader's leaving his or her volunteer role.

Conclusions and Impact

The results of the inquiry shed an interesting light on the nature of volunteers in 4-H. One might assume that the primary reason an adult becomes involved in 4-H is because his or her children are in 4-H. But this is only one of three top reasons that emerged. Equally important is the desire to make a difference in the lives of youth and receiving satisfaction for doing so.

This finding has interesting implications for the recruitment of 4-H volunteers. We may want to emphasize that those who desire to make a difference, whether or not they have 4-H age children, can fill the role of a 4-H leader. An increased emphasis needs to be placed on helping leaders understand the impact on youth regardless of family ties.

In addition, factor analysis of the survey instrument revealed three separate clusters of motivations for becoming a 4-H leader. These results could have tremendous implication for the type of programming needed to support 4-H volunteers, depending on the leader's reason for volunteering in the first place.

Reasons why leaders left their role were less surprising. It makes sense in these busy times that time pressures override any continued involvement in 4-H once the leader's children are no longer involved. Given this, there may be ways to look at the role of a 4-H leader that takes the time pressur