December 2002
Volume 40 Number 6

Tools of the Trade

Tips for Teaching Non-Traditional Audiences

Roger Bairstow
McMinnville, Oregon
Internet Address: roger.bairstow@orst.edu

Holly Berry
Salem, Oregon
Internet Address: holly.berry@orst.edu

Debra Minar Driscoll
Internet Address: debra.driscoll@orst.edu

Family and Community Education Faculty
Oregon State University Extension Service

Introduction

One of the greatest thrills for an Extension educator is being asked, "When's the next one?" at the end of a session. And, when the questioner is participating in a program targeted to a hard-to-reach or underserved audience, it is even more rewarding.

Delivering educational programs to those of different cultures can challenge us to re-think our methods, mindsets, and assumptions (Schauber & Castania, 2001). Successful educational programs start with a design that is culturally appropriate for the learner. The design considers the current resources of the learner, including transportation, childcare, timing, duration, and even prior topical experience. Overall, a successfully designed learning experience increases the learner's ability to participate in the world around them. It allows for the evolution of the learners and should be at the heart of what we do.

Influential Factors

We have found six categories that influence programming success. They are key areas to consider when designing new programs or retooling existing programs for new audiences.

Relationships

Relationships are crucial to program success. More emphasis is placed on relationships in many other countries (Warrix & Bocanergra, 1998). Who you know and the quality of the relationships you have will influence success. Finding an individual who is directly connected to the audience and with whom honest and open discussion is possible can provide valuable inroads. Strengthen that relationship by becoming a learner and really listening. Be humble, and realize that, although you may know a lot, you don't know everything. Make the environment comfortable. Be sure to take note of family relationships among the participants.

Teaching Tip: Focus the first few program sessions on social engagement, with only a small amount of instruction. As you get to know the group better and as they begin to know you and trust you, it will be possible to achieve more of a balance between instruction and relationship building.

Cultural Considerations

Cultural considerations are key to determining the scheduling of programs, the depth and breath of subject matter content, the extent of technology use, and how impacts are measured. Non-traditional audiences (e.g., low-income, non-Anglo, etc.) are apt to respond better to instructors who can appreciate their values and culture (Couchman, Williams, & Cadwalader, 1994; Wilson, 2001). Within many cultures, families are the center of their lives. Failing to accommodate for this may affect the level of participation in a program.

Teaching Tip: Conduct whole family events with quiet places for children in another part of the same room. Parents may feel less stress having children close than having children in another room out of sight. Do not assume that your new audience does things the same way you do. Be open to learning about cultural differences in manners, food, speaking in a group, eye contact, and other factors.

Language

Language is the lifeblood of the culture. "It loses in translation" is a phrase not to be taken lightly. Materials must be appropriately designed for the target audience. Materials designed for middle-class, Anglo, or English-speaking groups may not have the same meaning to a low-income audience or people native to Mexico, Central or South America, or Asian countries (Couchman, Williams, & Cadwalader, 1994; Watson, 2001).

Teaching Tip: Learning is more effective in the learner's native language. Put the focus on the learner by hiring appropriate staff to deliver the education in the learner's native language. Verbal translation can be time consuming, cumbersome and inaccurate.

Time

Time is a precious resource. Within the culture of Extension there is the tendency to cram as much as possible into an hour, rushing through interactions, multi-tasking, throwing reports together, and eating on the run.

If you do not have time to build relationships with key individuals, however, you probably do not have time necessary to create effective programs for audiences of other cultures. The time you take to build essential relationships and learn important aspects of the culture is time well spent.

Teaching Tip: Have realistic expectations for the first year of a program plan. Allow the time needed to gain deeper understanding of the audience. Work with key individuals to create a learning opportunity that will be meaningful to the learners.

Local Resources

Local resources will affect educational program design. Many agencies and organizations are trying to reach people they never have before (Couchman, Williams, & Cadwalader, 1994). No single organization has what it takes to do it all. Partnering with agencies that work with your target audience is a successful method of capitalizing on organizational strengths. When each organization does what they do naturally, it is not seen as extra work.

Teaching Tip: Collaborate with local agencies and services that are linked to the target audience. Many will be interested in cooperating. When each can do what they do best, all will win.

Measuring Progress

Measuring progress the "Extension way" usually means collecting information through written surveys. What are other, less-structured possibilities to evaluate a program's impact? A menu of different techniques should be considered. Personal journals and in-depth interviews of staff can reveal important information. Focus group discussions and follow-up phone calls may uncover pertinent, reportable facts.

Teaching Tip: The way information is collected must be designed with the same integrity as the program. If programming efforts reflect a high degree of relationship building with participants, the evaluation must honor the relationships built.

Conclusion

When reaching out to new audiences, we must take the time to fully understand the dynamics involved and be prepared to set aside egos and traditional ideas. "The way we've always done it" does not mean that's the way it always should be done.

References

Couchman, G., Williams, G., & Cadwalader, D. (1994). Three keys to a successful limited-resource families program. Journal of Extension [On-line], 32(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994august/a2.html

Schauber, A. & Castania, K. (2001). Facing issues of diversity: Rebirthing the Extension service. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(6). Available at http://www.joe.org/joe/2001december/comm2.html

Warrix, M. B., & Bocanegra, M. (1998). Keys to building successful training programs for Hispanic family day care providers. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998december/a4.html

Watson, W. S. (2001). Translating Extension publications into Spanish: Practical hints for Extension professionals. Journal of Extension [On-line], 39(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001december/tt2.html

Wilson, M. S. (2001). Cultural considerations in online instruction and learning. Distance Education; Melbourne.

Engaging Minority and Culturally Diverse Audiences

James J. Hoorman
Water Quality Agent
The Ohio State University Extension
Kenton, Ohio
Internet Address: hoorman.1@osu.edu

Recent articles on diversity have dealt with changing the Extension organization towards cultural diversity (Schauber, 2001a; Schauber, 2001b) or evaluating diversity educational resources (Ingram, 2002). Schauber and Castania (2001) discuss the beginning of Extension and rebirthing the Extension process. Extension began by listening and learning from its audience, communicating with them, developing trust and mutual respect, slowly introducing new ideas, and getting them to adopt new practices. Extension professionals can use these same steps to engage minority and culturally diverse audiences.

Why Engage a Minority or Culturally Diverse Audience?

Cooperative Extension has a non-discriminatory policy that states: "All educational programs»are available to clientele on a non-discriminatory basis without regard to race, color, creed, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, gender, age, disability." The United States Census (2000) reports that African Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Latinos represent 28.9% of the United States population. This represents a large segment of our population, and it is Cooperative Extension's responsibility to disseminate information to benefit all people.

The Federal government has grant or "soft money" available to work with minorities and under-served audiences. Federal grant proposals that address issues for underserved audiences receive priority funding. Including engagement and outreach grant activities for minorities and underserved audiences can be the difference between a grant being accepted or rejected.

Working with new audiences and new cultures can be enjoyable. It's like taking a trip to a foreign country without leaving home. Everyone benefits from sharing new ideas and new ways of thinking. The author has worked with the Amish, an underserved audience, for the past 5 years on water quality education. The Amish are a religious group who wish to separate themselves from the "sinful world." They have a strict religious code that includes restrictions on many modern conveniences (electricity, telephones, automobiles, etc.). This greatly affects their culture and how they interact with non-Amish people. The lessons learned from engaging the Amish may be applicable to other audiences. The following is a list of seven practical steps to engaging minority and culturally diverse audiences for the first time.

Seven Practical Steps

Understand Your Audience

Extension professionals need to understand the history and culture of a new audience. Go to conferences, read books, or take a college course. Spend some time visiting and socializing by meeting one-on-one or in small groups. Pay attention to their concerns. Develop trust and respect, and become a friend. Personal relationships foster participation in educational programs.

Interact with Innovators and Key Leaders

Understand the hierarchy within a new audience. Interact with innovators and respected key leaders who are in good standing in the community. Extension professionals need to talk to key innovators about any outreach and engagement Extension proposes to conduct. Use these people to validate Extension's integrity and goodwill. Innovators can help reduce any initial suspicions about an educational program. Let the innovators sell the benefits of the educational program to the key leaders. If they can see the benefit of the program, then it should be successful. If they have doubts, revise it. Let your audience be a part of the educational process.

Identify Issues, and Find Solutions

To effectively engage in outreach in any new community, it is important to identify local problems. If a group is not currently working with Extension, don't expect them to ask for help. Talk with innovators and key leaders, and get them involved. Ask innovators and key leaders to serve on local advisory committees. Many of Extension's preconceived ideas may be found to be false, so be flexible in your thinking and approach to educational programming. Help new audiences understand what types of educational services Extension has to offer because these groups are often not familiar with Extension. 

Get Early Success Stories

Start out slowly, and grow the program. Be patient and persistent. Start with some early success stories. If Extension professionals are knowledgeable and helpful, participation will increase. Help new audiences with all their problems, even if it is not related to the issue that Extension wants to address. By helping with all problems, the participation in other Extension issue based programs may be higher.

Keep It Simple, and Repeat the Message

Culturally diverse audience may lack exposure to higher education, so keep presentations simple. Many cultures may rely on tradition, folklore, or home-remedies that have been passed down for generations, and they may not trust new methods or science. New information may take time to be accepted. Extension professionals will often have to simplify and adapt the program to the new culture. For example, in my work with Amish audiences (who have only an eighth grade education and no electricity) black boards and easels at a meeting work better than PowerPoint presentations.  

Take time to educate children and young adults. Young people are inquisitive and may change quicker than adults. Starting a 4-H program in a new community may help educate the children and adults on best management practices and new research. Some problems may take a decade or more before positive change may be seen. Children quickly grow up to be adults, so keep repeating the message. The children are the keys to change, so educate them.

Look for Economic Incentives

Look for win-win situations. In Ohio, the concept of rotational grazing was introduced to the Amish. This practice allowed the grass to recover, doubled pasture yields, and decreased soil erosion. Ninety-four percent of Amish farmers adopted this practice within 2 years in one Amish community (Hoorman, 2002). Rotational grazing was used to exclude livestock from streams with over 10,000 feet of fencing installed. These dairy farms saved $7,500 per farm on average in reduced feed cost. There was an economical benefit to the Amish community so these best management practices were quickly adopted, with many benefits to the environment. Look for similar win-win situations with new audiences.

Evaluate, Change, Do it Again

There are always new people coming into a community and new audiences to address. Just because a program has been conducted once, do not assume everyone participated. Evaluate the program, change it, and do it again.

References

Handbook of Ohio Cooperative Extension Service, Non-Discrimination in Extension Programs, 1.04.00. Cooperative Extension, Acts of May 8, and June 30, 1914 in cooperation with U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Hoorman, J. J. (2002). Promoting best management practices in Northwest Central Ohio for Amish communities. USDA-CSREES Water Quality Grant Fact Sheet.

Ingram, P. D. (2002). Evaluating a diversity educational resource in Cooperative Extension. Journal of Extension [On-line] 40(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002february/iw2.html

Schauber, A. C. (2001a). Effecting Extension organizational change toward cultural diversity: A conceptual framework. Journal of Extension [On-line] 39(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001june/a1.html

Schauber, A. C. (2001b). Talk around the coffeepot: A key to cultural change toward diversity. Journal of Extension [On-line] 39(6) Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001december/a1.html

Schauber, A. C., & Castania, K. (2001). Facing issues of diversity: Rebirthing the Extension Service. Journal of Extension [On-line] 39(6) Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001december/comm2.html

U.S. Census Bureau, DP-1. Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000

Total Rural Capital: A Model to Engage Extension Faculty and the Public in Rural Community Development

Sharon Cartwright
Assistant Professor
School of Education
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska
Internet Address: ffskc@uaf.edu

Tom Gallagher
Leadership Development Specialist
Oregon State University Extension Service
Corvallis, Oregon
Internet Address: tom.gallagher@orst.edu

Introduction

Effective rural community development is a challenge for Extension faculty--field agents and on-campus specialists--who address rural issues. Part of the challenge is having productive communication with the public about the dimensions of rural development, which necessarily involves the disciplines of economics, political science, natural science, and rural sociology. Is there a way to talk about rural community development that both faculty and the public understand?

In this article we identify a thought model concerning rural community development that is academically sound yet accessible to lay people. The tool, called "Total Rural Capital," provides an academic foundation and framework for research and scholarship while presenting ideas in a real-world vocabulary used by rural people.

The matter of rural development has been a focus of national, state, and local policy for decades, with vast investments in rural resources such as electrification, transportation, and education. Loury (1977) argued that it is useful to think of these resources, and investments as "capital." Looking more broadly, Coleman (1990) proposed that there were three forms of community capital: physical, human, and social. Castle (1998) suggested, further, that it was more useful to divide the physical resource category into two subunits, natural and infrastructure. He called this set of four "total rural capital." In theory, these four categories contain all dimensions of rural resources (Castle, 2002). 

Four Forms of Rural Capital

Human capital is about people and their ability, individually, to satisfy human needs, such as technical knowledge and leadership skills.

Infrastructure capital consists of human-created resources, those physical items created by individuals or groups to improve the community, such as roads and libraries.

Natural capital encompasses the entire natural environment, including soil, water, air, and vegetation.

Social capital pertains to human networks, whether of two people or many. These networks typically are characterized by customs, laws, and institutions, and they often involve trust and an expectation of reciprocity. Examples include the family, civic groups, government, and a host of institutions, such as public safety, education, and health. 

A Thought Tool for Community Development

In this model all capital is contained under one of the four categories, and all communities have a mix of the four. It is the characteristics of that mix that give each community its character, and it is the balance, or imbalance, of the mix that creates needs.

The total rural capital model provides a way of analyzing these needs and a way to look at directing investments to create a different and more valuable balance in a community, what we call "community development." The assessment of needs and the projection of remedies is a faculty activity that can be discussed using the model. But is the model accessible to the public?

A Case Study in Progress

The accessibility of the model to rural community members was borne out in a recent needs assessment we conducted in each county in Oregon. Citizen participants in each county identified a range of needs, from 20 to 50, which they then organized by categories with headings. After several meetings it was apparent that participants were, despite substantial differences in issues across counties, placing their needs into categories very similar to Castle's. We are presently in the process of classifying the 800-plus needs identified by the various counties into the specific categories of the model.

As an early finding, so many of the needs are falling under "social capital" that we have found it useful to subdivide that category into four groups: social (including health), governance, education, and business/economic, creating seven in all. And, in the process of categorizing the needs, it became clear that the participants in the meetings see the connection between the various forms of capital in their communities. For example, participants would note the link between natural capital and education, and natural capital and youth development. The public is very aware that rural development is about multiple objectives.

The Academic Link

For faculty with a scholarship (which often means publication) requirement, the total rural capital framework links to the literature in a variety of disciplines, including economics, political science, and rural sociology. The framework permits faculty working in such diverse Extension programs as agriculture, forestry, energy, and family/youth development to analyze needs and to propose and test solutions within this framework.

The total rural capital model permits faculty to discuss issues with the public, including such fundamental questions as the priority of investments, maintenance costs of past or proposed investments, possible substitution of forms of capital, the value of conservation of capital for future use, and "path dependence," where an investment today limits future opportunities.

Value to Extension

Over 10 years ago, the Experiment Station Committee on Organization and Policy (ESCOP) proposed additional funding for rural development and noted a variety of issues (Schutjer, 1991). Many of these issues, such as "Rural development activities" are directed at multiple objectives. We believe that the total rural capital model can provide the comprehensive theory for rural development programs. Further, the model provides a way for both academics and the public to answer the fundamental question about Extension programs: "So what?"

References

Castle, E. N. (1998). A conceptual framework for the study of rural places. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 80(3):621-31.

Castle, E. N. (2002). A primer on rural community sustainability. Oregon State University Extension Service. Corvallis, Oregon.

Coleman J. S. (1990). Social capital. In Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

Loury, G. (1977). A dynamic theory of racial income differences. In Women, minorities, and employment discrimination. (P. A. Wallace & A. LeMund, Eds.)

Schutjer, W. A. (1991) Rural development and Extension. Journal of Extension [On-line], 29(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1991spring/tp1.html

Recipe Checklist: A Tool to Aid Development of Recipes for Audiences with Limited Resources

Debra B. Reed
Associate Professor and Nutrition Specialist
Texas Cooperative Extension
Texas A&M University System
College Station, Texas
Internet Address: d-reed@tamu.edu

Ellen Schuster
Assistant Professor and Nutrition and Food Specialist
Oregon State University Extension Service
Corvallis, Oregon
Internet Address: schustee@orst.edu

Introduction

Extension faculty devote significant program resources and time to identifying, developing, copying, and distributing recipes in nutrition education programs. Recipes are requested frequently by clients because they want a practical application of the nutrition messages that they are hearing in educational programs.

Typical sources of recipes for Extension educators are Extension publications from various states, cookbooks, magazines, and, increasingly, Web sites. A recent Lycos search using the key word "recipes" resulted in 14,502,926 Web sites, and a similar Google search resulted in 8,220,000 Web sites.

Unfortunately, many recipes may not be suitable for audiences with limited resources of education, time, and income, specifically clients in the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) and the Food Stamp Nutrition Education Program (FSNEP). A review of a sample of recipes currently available to educators of limited resource audiences was conducted by the authors to determine best practices. A checklist incorporating these best practices and standardization guidelines was created to assist recipe developers.

Review of Literature: Criteria for Recipe Development

There is limited published information on recipe development for audiences with limited resources. Schuster (1997) developed criteria for recipe development for this target population. These criteria specify that recipes:

• Use low-cost, readily available ingredients;
• Use basic equipment and appliances;
• Be easy to read and follow;
• Be successfully tested by a minimum of three people; and
• Teach at least one Dietary Guideline principle.

Schuster (1997) reported that, if space permits, additional information is desirable, such as how to: reduce the recipe in fat or sodium, fit the recipe into a menu for a meal, and include children in the preparation of the recipe. Including the nutrient content of the recipe, for selected nutrients and in a simple format, is also helpful.

Miller, Burgess, and Mason (1999) developed a cookbook for emergency feeding programs and audiences with limited-resources and used many of the same criteria as Schuster (1997). Additional criteria they used specified that the recipes:

• Are nutritious and tasty;
• Have a limited number of ingredients; and
• Are flexible so that the same basic recipe can be used with fresh, frozen, or canned food varieties.

To make the cookbook a teaching tool, nutrition information (the Food Guide Pyramid and serving sizes) and food safety information (cooking and storing temperatures) can be included. Miller, Burgess, and Mason (1999) tested recipes for clarity of instructions, taste acceptance, and ease of preparation. For many of their recipes, the ability to use a can opener was the main cooking skill required.

What Do Clients Want in a Recipe?

A qualitative study conducted by the National Live Stock and Meat Board (1993) explored consumers' preferences regarding recipe format and style. The eight focus groups were conducted in four cities with female heads of household ranging in age from 25 to 50, with a minimum annual household income of $25,000. Results showed that participants preferred numbered or bulleted preparation steps and specific directions. Preparation time, the number of servings, the type and size of equipment/utensils, and nutrition information were also seen as helpful. Although the focus group participants were not drawn from a limited income audience, these elements were also found to be important with recipes that were field tested with a limited income audience in Minnesota (E. Schuster, personal communication, 2002).

Additional Recipe Guidelines

In addition to the criteria previously mentioned, recipes should follow basic recipe standardization guidelines, including specification of amounts, ingredients, and pan sizes to ensure a consistent product (American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences, 2001). This is especially important for audiences with limited resources who will find it harder to absorb the costs of a recipe that is not edible.

Review of Existing Recipes

Most of the 400 recipes reviewed were from organizations with experience in recipe development (Baker, Sargent & Frazier, 2001; Food & Health Communications, 2001; Texas Cooperative Extension, 2000; Steele, 1999). These recipes had many desirable features and met several, but not all, of the criteria specified previously. However, 20 recipes, developed by paraprofessionals at the local level, failed to meet many of the criteria for standardized recipes. For all recipes reviewed, the most frequent omissions were:

• Not including information on food safety;
• Not listing ingredients in the order used;
• Not specifying size of pans or bowls;
• Not specifying serving size;
• Not using simple cooking terms for audiences with limited reading ability; and
• Not including ways that children could participate in making the recipe.

The nutrient information ranged from a complete nutrient label (similar to those used on food products) to a simple phrase such as "High in Fiber" or "High in Vitamin C" for the recipes reviewed. None of the recipes or their supplemental materials referenced criteria for the classification of recipes into high or low nutrient categories. Criteria used by the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH) study may provide helpful quantitative guidelines for selected nutrients (Osganian et al., 1996).

From the information given, we were unable to evaluate the development processes of the recipes reviewed and if they included testing of the preparation by multiple people. In addition, we were unable to determine the extent of involvement of staff and clients in developing the recipes. A key "ingredient" that seems to be missing in recipe development is follow-up with the target audience to determine if the recipes are used and reactions to the recipes in terms of taste, cost, and ease of preparation.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Taking into consideration guidelines for the development of standardized recipes and features that are appropriate for audiences with limited resources, a checklist was developed to aid in the evaluation of recipes (Table 1).

Those developing recipes should also seek staff input during recipe development, asking such questions as the following.

1. What would appeal to your clients about this recipe?
2. What would not be appealing to your clients about this recipe?
3. What barriers might prevent your clients from trying this recipe? How sure are you that your clients will try this recipe (on a scale where 10 = very sure they will try?, 5 = undecided, and 1 = very sure they will NOT try)?
4. What does this information on nutrition mean to you? Do you think that your clients will understand this?

They should also seek input from clients both during recipe development and after recipes have been distributed. Questions to ask clients during recipe development include the following.

1. What appeals to you about this recipe?
2. What is not appealing to you about this recipe?
3. How sure are you that will try this recipe (on a scale where 10 = very sure I will try?, 5 = undecided, and 1 = very sure I will NOT try)?
4. What does this information on nutrition mean to you?

Questions to ask other clients (different clients from those who participated in the recipe-development phase) after recipes have been given to them include the following.

1. Did you try this recipe?
2. What appealed to you about this recipe and made you want to try it?
3. When you made the recipe, what were the results?
   1. Did your family like it? Why or why not?
   2. Was it easy to make? Why or why not?
   3. Will you make the recipe again? Why or why not?
4. What does this information on nutrition mean to you?

Figure 1 shows a sample recipe that follows the guidelines in the checklist and has benefited from staff and client input.

Figure 1.
Sample Recipe

Because recipes are the cornerstone of nutrition education programs, using a comprehensive checklist and series of questions to develop and evaluate recipes can ensure that program resources are used efficiently and that client adoption is maximized.

References

American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences (2001). Food: A handbook of terminology, purchasing, and preparation. 10th Edition. Alexandria, VA.

Baker, B., Sargent, D., & Frazier, A. (2001). Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program cookbook. North Carolina Cooperative Extension, North Carolina State University.

Bielunski, M. (1993). Recipe format survey: What consumers really want in a recipe. National Live Stock and Meat Board.

Food & Health Communications, Inc (2001). Cooking demo II. Weston, Florida.

Miller, I. E., Burgess W. D., & Mason A. C. (1999). Fast and flexible low cost recipes for a family or fifty: A cookbook for emergency feeding programs and limited-resource audiences. Journal of Nutrition Education 31, 60B.

Osganian, S. K., Ebzery, M. K., Montgomery, D. H., Nicklas, T. A., Evans, M. A., Mitchell, P. D. et al. (1996). Changes in the nutrient content of school lunches: results from the CATCH Eat Smart food service intervention. Preventive Medicine 12, 400-412.

Schuster E. (1997). Teaching nutrition and food skills with easy-to-read recipes. Journal of Nutrition Education 29, 53A.

Steele, L. (1999). Spanish/English pictorial recipes. Oregon State University Extension Service. Oregon State University. Available at: http://osu.orst.edu/dept/ehe/nu_diverse_se.htm

Texas Cooperative Extension (2000). From our family to your family: Holiday recipes. Texas A&M University System.

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