Content

Editor's Page

Editor's Page

What's the difference between one category of JOE article and another? Who cares? JOE reviewers do, and JOE authors should, too.

Commentary

Welfare Reform 4 Years Later: The Mobilization of the Land-Grant System

Braun, Bonnie; Benning, Linda Kay
Welfare reform occurred during an era of economic prosperity. In question in 2001 is the ability of the economy to sustain its robust nature and maintain jobs for people at entry levels. Thus, the stage is set for continued engagement of the land-grant system, with Extension at the forefront, in welfare reform. This article describes what the land-grant system is doing to address the policy issue of welfare reform and to capture and report the system's accomplishments. The article challenges us to renew our commitment to one of this nation's most compelling issues.

Agents of Change: Thoughts on Youth Development

Teague, Karee
4-H Agents are change agents who foster changes in youth, communities, and individuals. As a youth development organization, we have an opportunity to clarify what we want to develop in youth. As we enter the new millennium, we are faced with the task of managing change and helping others adapt to change. This article discusses how the need to empower youth is intertwined with our own task of empowering ourselves.

Feature Articles

Effecting Extension Organizational Change Toward Cultural Diversity: A Conceptual Framework

Schauber, Ann C.
No state Extension organizations have achieved effectiveness in a culturally diverse society. To become effective, Extension needs an organizational culture that incorporates multiple perspectives that reflect varying values and belief systems. Extension organizations have been designed within the dominant European-American cultural paradigm, which reflects one perspective. Because culture changes very slowly, changing the organizational climate, which is integral to an organizational culture, is one method to achieve effectiveness in a diverse world. A conceptual framework for identifying an Extension organization's diversity climate is a useful step for effective organizational change.

Using the Program Life Cycle Can Increase Your Return on Time Invested

Bowling, Chester J.
Carefully timing revisions to educational programs can yield valuable returns on the time invested. Extension educators can use simple quantitative and qualitative measures to identify a program's life cycle. Letting programs go beyond their maturity phases into decline and termination is not a good investment of time. Making necessary program revisions between the maturity and the decline phases can save Extension educators both time and effort while simultaneously maintaining quality programming.

Preferred Learning Styles of Florida Association for Family and Community Education Volunteers: Implications for Professional Development.

Hoover, Tracy; Connor, Noelle J.
The Florida Association for Family and Community Education (FAFCE) is a volunteer group that works with the Family and Consumer Science program area of the Florida Cooperative Extension Service. A demographic questionnaire and learning style assessment were administered to volunteers. The mean age of volunteers was 71 years, and the majority were Caucasian females. Forty-two percent reported they have received some form of professional development as a volunteer. As a group FAFCE volunteers were field dependent. The median GEFT score was 2.0, with scores ranging from 0 to 18. Findings from this study provided useful insight and baseline data on the FAFCE volunteer program.

Extension and Health Promotion: An Adult Learning Approach

Gillis, Doris E.; English, Leona M.
In order to strengthen the health of three communities in Nova Scotia, a group of community-based agencies, including a university Extension department, a local women's association, and a regional public health department, initiated a health promotion project called PATH (People Assessing Their Health). This article examines the use of intentional adult learning approaches to enable the participants to examine their experiences of health and factors that are determinants of health in their communities. Community members designed community impact assessment tools, unique to each of their communities, that can be used to determine the impact of policies, programs, and services on their health.

Extension, Communities, and Schools: Results of a Collaborative Forestry Education Project in Philadelphia

Broussard, Shorna R.; Jones, Stephen B.
Penn State Forestry Extension worked with Philadelphia community leaders, school district administrators, and area teachers to develop a comprehensive educational program aimed at helping inner-city youth learn about forestry and forest management. Questionnaire results indicate that students who participated were more knowledgeable about forestry and gained a greater understanding of forest management. Evaluation results reveal that teachers who participated were more likely to use natural resources in their curricula. This project shows the benefits gained through collaborative programming and partnering‹skills that will be useful to Extension faculty as they address natural resources Extension with an increasingly urbanized population.

The Capable Families and Youth Project: Extension-University-Community Partnerships

Goldberg, Catherine J.; Spoth, Richard; Meek, Jim; Molgaard, Virginia
The Capable Families and Youth (CaFaY) Project creates partnerships among Extension personnel and researchers at Iowa State University, public schools, other community stakeholders, and rural families. Extension's land-grant mission and widespread local presence provide a unique opportunity to partner in all phases of the project. The preventive interventions implemented in the project were designed to reduce adolescent substance use and other problem behaviors. Schools were randomly assigned to one of three groups to evaluate the impact of preventive interventions in reducing adolescent substance use and other problem behaviors. Multiple assessments will be completed over a 10-year period to evaluate various adolescent and parent outcomes.

Educating Rural Private Water System Owners in Pennsylvania Using Satellite Versus Traditional Programs

Swistock, Bryan R.; Sharpe, William E.; Dickison, John
A safe drinking water program was delivered by satellite in an attempt to more efficiently reach the target audience while maintaining the same effectiveness present in the traditional live speaker program. Survey results were compared between attendees of the traditional and satellite program. The satellite program met the educational objectives and was cheaper and required less time commitment from specialists, but it attracted a smaller audience and allowed limited audience interaction. The cost per attendee for the two programs was similar. Future water quality programs will continue to use both satellite and traditional programs.

Extending Our Reach: Cooperative Extension's Role In Promoting Infant Health Through Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Preventative Education

Jouridine, Linda A.; Green, Stephen D.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) remains one of the deadliest health risks for infants up to age 1 year, claiming nearly 5,000 lives annually. The number of SIDS cases has decreased in the last decade due to nationwide efforts to educate the public about guidelines for reducing the risk of SIDS; however, evidence indicates that certain segments of the population are failing to implement these guidelines, which include placing infants to sleep on their backs. This article offers specific suggestions on how Extension is ideally suited to influence education, intervention, and public policy efforts aimed at reducing the incidence of SIDS.

Research in Brief

Ripple Effect Training: Multiplying Extension's Resources with Veteran Master Gardeners as MG Trainers

VanDerZanden, Ann Marie
Ripple Effect Training, a new train-the-trainer program, was implemented by the Oregon State University Master Gardener program in 1999. The goals were to increase veteran volunteer commitment and participation in the Master Gardener training program and to reduce program expenses. During a 2-day workshop, participants received instruction on the training modules and teaching strategies for adult learners. They completed a self-efficacy evaluation after the workshop and again after delivering the training. Evaluation showed they had a high level of confidence prior to delivering the training, and this confidence was elevated after completing the task. Additionally, the new Master Gardener trainees felt the quality of instruction from the Ripple Effect Trainers was similar to that of Extension agents and state specialists.

Impact of a Community Leadership Program on the Volunteer Leader

Schauber, Ann C.; Kirk, Alan R.
As issues in communities become more polarized, community volunteers can take responsibility for leading their communities through these issues. Taking responsibility for community leadership requires a set of group process and leadership skills. Findings from a survey of 56 FCL volunteers from an urban/rural region of Oregon showed an increase in leadership skills, confidence level, and hours of community participation. Findings suggested that training plus practicing new skills result in greater impact. A post-pre survey served as an easy credible method to measure behavior change and program impact.

Evaluation of Forestry Programming: Leading to Recommendations for Improvement

Bardon, Robert E.
Extension specialists are called upon to provide educational opportunities and information to field faculty in order for them to assist citizens in making informed decisions through county programming. North Carolina Extension Forestry conducted an evaluation of programming at the county level to find out if field faculty were getting the support they needed. Results indicate respondents are faced with the pressure of lack of time and lack of knowledge base to cover multiple subject areas. Demand for time and knowledge underscores the need for a strong support system in which specialists need to play an active part to assist field faculty in overcoming programming barriers.

Evaluating Pork Producers' Acceptance of Distance Education Media

DeCamp, Stephanie; Richert, Brian; Vines, Neal; Singleton, Wayne; Slipher, Greg
A booth was developed to expose pork producers to eight distance educational media. Booth survey results indicate producers had the greatest previous exposure to videotape. After exposure in the booth, producers were willing to try all media except chat rooms and multi-media kits. Producers (86%) prefer face-to-face educational programs to distance education. However, 87% of the producers indicated that distance education is the future for information access, and 84% of the producers felt that their questions could be adequately answered through distance education. These results suggest that exposure to distance education media is a limiting factor to the media's acceptance for educational program delivery.

Ideas at Work

Everyone a Teacher, Everyone a Learner: A Learner-Centered Pesticide Private Applicators Recertification Training

Simeral, Kenneth D.; Hogan, Mike P.
Meeting the challenge of stimulating participants in a mandated program prompted the development of a learner-centered Pesticide Applicators Recertification Training curriculum. The goal was to enhance the value and applicability of the material being taught. This curriculum transformed an unpopular, routine training program into an effective learning experience, with some applicators attending regardless of the status of their certification. Participants widely embraced this curriculum, preferring it by 85% over traditional methods. This type of participatory, interactive curriculum could be used in other areas of Extension, such as youth quality assurance programs.

4-H Master Tree Steward Program Teaches Thousands

Nichnadowicz, James
The 4-H Master Tree Steward Program teaches thousands of school children about trees. The article describes, step-by-step, how to create a successful volunteer program. The author details information about how to recruit and train volunteers and how to get schools involved. Adults interested in learning about trees can get training to carry out this type of program. The author describes how the program has worked in his county since its creation in 1992.

Beyond a Dream: Starting Your Own Small or Home-Based Business

Shuster, Cynthia R.
The entrepreneurial spirit that has made American dreams become a reality should be nurtured at all levels of our Extension system. Starting a small or home-based business can be rewarding, both personally and financially. It can provide an opportunity to expand a hobby or pursue an idea under consideration, or it can be a disaster. Effective Extension entrepreneurship programs can assist individuals to explore business ownership opportunities and acquire skills to enable them to start a business of their choice.

FCS TidBits: Family and Consumer Sciences Electronic Newsletter for Agents

Ladd, Linda D.
The FCS TidBits is a monthly electronic newsletter that provides FCS specialists the opportunity to share time-sensitive and current information on a monthly basis with FCS agents in the Texas Agricultural Extension Service and the Prairie View Cooperative Extension Service. Evaluations at 6 and 12 months have allowed agents and specialists to shape the format and the information shared through the newsletter. The FCS TidBits currently reaches over 320 agents across Texas and allows over 30 FCS specialists to share important ideas and notices.

Developing Leadership Skills with Grazing Councils

Penrose, Christopher D.
A monthly grazing council program was initiated in Athens County, Ohio in 1994 to address issues related to grazing management; and leadership skills have been developed by many of the participants. This program is held at local farms, and involves learning and sharing with the entire group. Many become interested in hosting meetings and sharing successful management techniques and improving skills from participant suggestions. With the help of this program, many have become recognized leaders, sharing their experiences and helping others throughout the country. Objectives of a long-term program may focus on identified issues, but other favorable results such as developing leadership skills can emerge.

Project Healthy Bones: An Osteoporosis Prevention Program for Older Adults

Klotzbach-Shimomura, Kathleen
Osteoporosis awareness has increased tremendously in the past 5 years. Project Healthy Bones is a 24- week exercise and education program for older women and men at risk for, or who have, osteoporosis. Project Healthy Bones includes both exercise and education components. The exercise component is designed to improve strength, balance, and flexibility. The education curriculum stresses the importance of exercise, nutrition, safety, drug therapy, and lifestyle factors. A unique collaboration, grant funding and the educational expertise of Cooperative Extension makes this program one that can be replicated to reduce osteoporosis.

Tools of the Trade

Thinking in Multimedia: Research-Based Tips on Designing and Using Interactive Multimedia Curricula.

Brown, Randy
As the use of computers as an educational medium increases, Extension professionals need to be informed about new technology-enhanced methods for use in community-based, educational settings. Interactive multimedia curricula (IMC) have been touted by many as a way to increase learning and facilitate a shift to a more learner-centered educational experience. As with any other educational method, IMC needs to be viewed in a critical fashion. This article addresses the question, "What things seem to make effective IMC?" and presents some research-based recommendations for those using or developing IMC.

How to Design Better Programs: A Staff-Centered Stakeholder Approach to Program Logic Modeling

Mayeske, George W.; Lambur, Michael T.
All too often evaluations are inconclusive because sufficient attention has not been given to the design and development of the program initially. This "how-to-do-it" manual adapts program logic modeling techniques initially developed by evaluators to devise better evaluations. The adaptations were made in work in Cooperative Extension and have been used successfully in a variety of settings and topical areas over a period of nearly 20 years. This article explains the use of these techniques in sufficient detail so that readers can decide whether or not they might be useful for their own program development efforts.

Begin with a Family Tree when Working with Family Finances

Polson, Jim
How should you start when meeting with a family on financial matters? Here I show an example family tree and give 16 benefits of beginning family financial planning meetings by sketching a family tree. A family tree is an easy way to quickly and efficiently collect and organize family information. One never knows what family member(s) will be key to a financial decision, so it is useful to get everyone identified at the beginning. Some other benefits include getting your meeting off to a good start, collecting needed information, and identifying frequently overlooked family members and relationships.

Development and Use of a Stocker Cattle Market Workshop in Extension Ranch Management Programming

Falconer, Lawrence L.; Parker, John L.
This article describes the development of a workshop designed to familiarize cow-calf producers with price risk management techniques. The workshop is built around the cash markets, forward cash contracts, and stocker cattle futures and options introduced by the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. Participants are exposed to concepts such as setting price targets for calves, estimating basis levels, and taking advantage of seasonal and cyclical price patterns.

Empowering Cooperative Extension Educators for Heart Health Education

Siewe, Youmasu J.
Extension continues to be guided by its mission of helping people improve their lives through science-based education focused on issues and needs. A current need of Americans is extensive education to reduce the alarming death rate from heart diseases, the leading cause of death in the country. This article provides tools to empower the Extension professional in their role as front-line interventionist to actively participate in the national initiative to reduce the burden of heart diseases among Americans.

Questions & Answers for Authors

Q&A for Authors

Submission Instructions

Instructions for Submitting Articles

Review and Evaluation Process

Review and Evaluation Process

Editorial Committees and Board

Board

Editorial Committee

As I promised (threatened?) in the last "Editor's Page" http://www.joe.org/joe/2001april/ed1.html, I'm going to say some more about the editorial reviews I do before I accept a JOE submission as ready to be sent to reviewers. And then, of course, I'm going to rave about the June JOE.

What's the Difference?

The "difference" in question here is the difference between one JOE article category and another. As I said 2 months ago, some authors "haven't paid sufficient attention to the differences among the article categories, so their articles don't fit in any of them."

I'm always leery when an author sends me a submission and tells me that, because of its length, the article is a Feature rather than a Research in Brief. The difference is not just that the former is 3,000 words long and the latter 2,000.

The key difference is that a Feature article should emphasize the implications of "the data" for Extension; hence, the extra 1,000 words. With a Research in Brief, the focus is more on the data, itself, and the methods used to gather it. Features tend to be broader in scope and implication, while Research in Brief articles tend to be more specific and localized.

To get a handle on the difference between a Tools of the Trade and an Ideas at Work article, think about the difference between "useful," on the one hand, and "innovative," on the other. Think about the difference between "tools" and "ideas," too.

And the difference between a Commentary and the other types of JOE articles? It's passion, edge, immediacy, and conviction.

The differences are kind of subtle and somewhat abstract, but our JOE reviewers know the differences and are becoming increasingly intent on maintaining them. Ergo, prospective JOE authors should take note.

What's in This Month's Issue?

We have many good articles and a number of common themes, too.

There's Extension's role in health promotion. It's on the minds of the authors of four articles in this issue (five, when you count dealing with substance use among adolescents).

And then there are the new media. We have:

• A Feature comparing traditional delivery methods with satellite delivery,
• A Research in Brief demonstrating that users' ambivalence may be more a matter of unfamiliarity than of technological barriers,
• An Ideas at Work describing the success of a simple but effective electronic newsletter, and
• A Tools of the Trade helping us "think in multimedia."

Interested in learning styles? All of us in Extension should be, and at least three articles explicitly address this important topic.

Two articles, one of our two excellent Commentary articles and a Feature, discuss organizational change and organizational culture.

The last theme I'm going to cover is surprise. In last October's "Editor's Page" http://www.joe.org/joe/2000october/ed1.html, I highlighted two articles that illustrate the "surprise of science," and this month we have an article that tells us about an unanticipated benefit of getting some farmers together to talk about a species of sustainable agriculture.

Grazing councils? Leadership development? Who'd have thought? The lesson here? Avoid the "tunnel vision" that blinds us to surprise. And look beyond our own disciplines and program areas.

Laura Hoelscher, Editor
joe-ed@joe.org

Welfare Reform 4 Years Later: The Mobilization of the Land-Grant System

A l999 National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges (NASULGC) Kellogg Commission report urged the land-grant system to engage faculty and students, and local people in addressing this nation's compelling challenges. One such challenge is that of welfare reform.

Welfare Reform–The Challenge

The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of l996 (PROWORA) ended Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and began Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). Emphasis shifted from entitlement to work and workforce preparation. Federal time limits for cash assistance were set at 5 years; some states set less. Block grants of funds were moved from federal to state and local direction. A new era in family public assistance began.

Welfare reform provided the opportunity to demonstrate a scholarship of engagement with discovery and application of knowledge through research, instruction, and outreach (Braun & Bauer, l998). The legislation, emphasizing the local nature of reform, provided conditions conducive to Extension, research, and instructional programming.

Welfare Reform–The Response

Mobilization of the land-grant system to address welfare reform represents this system at its best–extending expertise of campus and county faculties to the people. The work deserves recognition.

Response Launch

Following the work of the NASULGC Board of Human Sciences, which included legislative initiatives during congressional deliberations, a l997 spring conference, "Meeting the Challenge of Welfare Reform: Research, Education and Extension" was held. At the conference, 224 people from 45 states representing 67 educational institutions, 11 agencies, and 11 associations participated.

The conference produced:

1. Expanded understanding of related issues.
2. Commitment to advance the emerging agendas.
3. Connections with key, or potential, partners.
4. A framework for response of the land-grant system.
5. A set of strategies for research, extension/outreach, education/capacity building, and public policy with impact indicators and evaluation at the national, state, and local levels.

Conferees were challenged to achieve for this nation, in the arena of human well-being in the 21^st century, what we achieved in the agriculture arena in the 20^th century.

Research Response

Faculty began or expanded related research. A 15-state, longitudinal study, with support of the Agricultural Experiment Station Directors, began monitoring impacts of changes on the well-being of rural, low income families. The Southern region followed with a study assessing impacts in seven states. Other researchers worked alone or with students and colleagues.

Extension Response

Cooperative Extension responded with its usual educational programming diversity. Many state and county faculty leveraged TANF dollars to support their programming.

• County and state faculties began or expanded programming in partnership with departments of human services, health, and economic development.
• Public policy education was conducted to inform local leaders and citizens of options to respond knowledgeably to federal changes.
• Some educators introduced mentoring programs to support families moving into the work world.
• New curricula were created; existing were curricula adapted.
• The Food Stamp Nutrition Education Program expanded across the nation to meet the needs of people eligible for, or receiving, food stamps.
• Some taught the use of Earned Income Tax Credits to extend expendable income.
• Others addressed Individual Development Accounts as a means of asset building.

Instructional Response

In credit classes, faculty, with the support of deans and department heads, incorporated study of welfare reform. Countless undergraduate and graduate students became aware of and knowledgeable about this significant policy change and the effects on people living in poverty. Some students engaged in service learning and/or internship projects. Continuing education courses were conducted to build the skills of non-profit and human service workers. Some faculty consulted with human service agencies. Others worked with the media to focus attention on the lives of low-income people and the challenges they face.

NASULGC and CSREES Response

NASULGC urged members–presidents, provosts, Extension directors and others–to involve their institutions. A coalition of higher education associations formed to focus attention on the need for post-secondary education among individuals moving off welfare to increase earning capacity and quality of life. The USDA Cooperative State Research Education and Extension Service (CSREES), through CYFERNET, posted information on the Web and participated in conferences and committees. In l997, the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP) established the Workforce Preparedness Initiative.

Leveraging Extension Funding

In 2000, ECOP challenged the Employability Task Force of the Program Resources Ad Hoc Committee to develop strategies to position the land-grant system as a continued player in ongoing welfare/workforce education activities. As part of the work, the task force conducted a survey of states in the fall and winter of 2000-01 (Braun & Philogene, 2001). They identified Extension programming conducted with TANF funding from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Survey Findings

Nineteen states reported obtaining $24,407,456 in TANF funds for a reported 30,292 learners (23,554 adults; 6,738 youths). These funds supported programming to increase the personal responsibility and economic self-sufficiency of people moving off public assistance. This programming is consistent with the USDA-CSREES goal of "Economic Opportunity and Quality of Life for Individuals and Families," and builds on a history of extensive education for people with low incomes.

Extension faculty reported using the funds to develop scientifically researched curricula and methodologies to teach life skills. These skills enable participants to obtain and manage an income and to balance family and work demands.

Program goals and objectives included:

• Preparing welfare recipients to work with employment and networking skills (e.g., transportation, training, certification, interviewing, continuing education);
• Developing family life skills (e.g., food, nutrition and health, financial management, parenting and child development);
• Building self-enhancement skills (e.g., time management, problem solving, sanitation).

Programming produced increases in:

• Number of adults and youths trained in school-age child care, food services, horticulture, and respite care.
• Extended periods of employment among participants.
• Knowledge and skills of financial management, food and nutrition, and parenting.

Juvenile offenders redirected energies to skill building and learning. Other participants improved interviewing skills, self-perception and esteem, coping skills, and social networking skills. A number of participants sought further education through hands-on training programs, newsletters, and publications.

States reporting by region include:

Northeast: CT, MD, NH
North Central: IA, MO, NE, OH, WI
Southern: AR, FL, GA, OK, TX, VA
West: AZ, CA, NM, NV, WY

Use of Survey Findings

A complete report, with names, addresses, programs, targeted learners, goals, and outcomes was sent to Extension directors and administrators, and state program leaders for Family Consumer Sciences and 4-H in June 2001. The task force wants the report to stimulate ideas and exchange.

Just as important, NASULGC staff and the ECOP Legislative Committee will use the findings during upcoming reauthorization and annual budget discussions. They will cite these findings to support the case that Extension has the capacity to leverage its funds to attract additional funding and deliver programming that both makes a difference in the lives of people and contributes to the economy. Survey summaries are posted at http://www.nasulgc.org.

Reauthorization Opportunity

While the land-grant system accomplishments are impressive, work must continue. The federal experiment continues. It is a work in progress. Caseloads are falling. Food stamp usage is declining well below numbers who are eligible. Demand for child care and health care insurance exceeds supply. Numbers of working poor are rising, but self-sufficient incomes are not yet reality.

Welfare reform occurred during an era of economic prosperity. In question in 2001 is the ability of the economy to sustain its robust nature and maintain jobs for people at entry levels. Thus, the stage is set for continued engagement of the land-grant system in welfare reform–especially as it evolves to addressing needs of the working poor.

With PRWORA and the Farm Bill (which includes funding for food stamps) up for reauthorization in 2002, efforts are under way to modify the legislation. Numerous conferences and briefings are occurring in the nation's capital. There, academics, representatives of agencies and associations, and elected and appointed officials gather to exchange findings from research, raise questions, and identify issues to be addressed. Following discussion and debate, Congress will decide what the next 5 years of public assistance will be like for the people of this nation.

It's time again for the land-grant system, with Extension at the forefront, to reengage in policy issues leadership. It's time to inform decision makers of our accomplishments. It's time to renew our commitment to addressing this compelling issue of our time.

Barth, Judith; Benning, Linda Kay; Braun, Bonnie: Brooks, Henry M; Crosby, Greg Peterson, William L.; Schuchardt, Jane; and Stout, Jane Ann (Chair).

References

Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Universities. (1999). Returning to our roots: The engaged institution. Washington, D.C.: National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges.

Braun, B. & Bauer, J. (1998). Welfare reform: An opportunity to engage universities in community and economic development. Journal of Public Service and Outreach, 3, 33-37.

Braun, B. & Philogene, M. (2001). Employability Task Force Welfare to Work Survey. Washington, D.C.: National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges.

Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Universities (l999) Returning to our roots: The engaged institution. Washington, D.C.: National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges.

Agents of Change: Thoughts on Youth Development

Change Is the Theme

This is a discussion about change and empowerment: how our society is changing, how our paradigms are changing, how organizational management is changing. It is about looking at qualities we need to emphasize as a youth development organization, in what we develop in youth, in how we do programming, and in who we are as individuals. It is about how we can manage and cultivate change.

The premise discussion is that our task is to create empowered people, people who can respond dynamically to situations and create needed results. If our organizational mission is to cultivate productive citizens, then what the world needs and what people need to be is entrepreneurial, creative, and empowered.

As Marsha Sinetar (1995) states, "Be assured that you'll gain lasting 'job security' only as you become self-reliant, creatively resourceful and fully engaged with your process of enterprise. " In order to cultivate empowered people, we ourselves must encourage it in ourselves and our youth. Sinetar also states that "Superfluidity now affects each of our lives....One of our era's assignments is to manage tumultuous change."

How do we manage change? We do it by being adaptable to change and "taking charge constructively" (Palmer, 1995).

The Stage

Vocational development will be increasingly important for our youth. As the world of work shifts its paradigm from focusing on paychecks to the intrinsic benefits of work, a sacred view of work will arise (Senge, 1990). We will need to explore qualities that foster vocational awareness, as discussed by Sinetar (1995). It will be more and more important for us to find our true vocation, because we will be called to be committed and creative. As Sinetar points out, entrepreneurs are authentic. "Over time they do what they sense themselves born to do. It's fun to watch people become true to themselves."

Vocational awareness involves self-awareness, including such qualities as being inner-directed, creative, and self-actualizing. Sinetar adapts and grafts Maslow's "Hierarchy of Needs" onto a vocational awareness pyramid, creating a developmental framework. Our task will be to foster personal qualities that foster a spirit of entrepreneurship, qualities such as Sinetar lists:

• An inventive inclination;
• Authentic focus;
• Meaningful purposes;
• "Figuring-out" skills;
• Risk-taking effectiveness;
• A strategic, long-term outlook; and
• High spiritual intelligence.

How will we develop youth into adults who are entrepreneurs, who are self-aware, learning- and growth-oriented people? We will need these characteristics within ourselves in order to find creative ways. We will need to be role models for them. We will need to be an empowering organization, and we will need to be empowered individuals.

Organizational Change

The history of the Cooperative Extension and 4-H reflects an organization that has changed and adapted as society and the economy have changed. Now, the Extension system is at another critical juncture where we must adapt and re-define ourselves. People and organizations are being called to become more adaptable and flexible as well as unique and diverse. We as an organization are threatened by outside competition and pressures in the face of which we must strive to remain relevant, fundable, and accountable.

According to William Bridges (1996), "Dealing successfully with change is a survival skill these days, what with all the new technology, merger, and reorganizing. And I mean survival literally." Bridges (1995) discusses the difference between change and transition. Change is external and situational, while transition implies internal, psychological characteristics. In order to make changes, we need to be aware of the transition process. "The next time you are having trouble implementing a change that looked easy on paper, consider the possibility that the problem isn't with the change but with the transition." This leads to the importance of personal change in the context of organizational change.

Personal Change

How do we become change agents in 4-H, creating the results we want? Senge (1990) discusses the qualities of people who are able to get results. These are people with a high level of personal mastery. "Personal mastery is the discipline of continually clarifying and deepening our personal vision, of focusing our energies, of developing patience, and of seeing reality objectively." Personal mastery involves personal growth and learning. "It means approaching one's life as a creative work, living life from a creative as opposed to a reactive viewpoint." These sorts of people have a sense of purpose that lies behind their visions and goals. They have learned how to perceive and work with forces of change.

Being willing to try new things is not easy. Organizational change theorists have found that despite best intentions, change does not occur readily, at least with the approaches in the current paradigm. Why is change so difficult, and how can we become change oriented?

Being change oriented involves deeply personal matters. It can be threatening. It involves taking risks, being vulnerable, recognizing mistakes and correcting them, risking embarrassment. Schein (1999) discusses learning anxiety, "the feeling that if we allow ourselves to enter a learning or change process, if we admit to ourselves and others that something is wrong or imperfect, we will lose our effectiveness, our self-esteem, and maybe even our identity." Schein goes on to explain that "Adapting poorly or failing to meet our creative potential often looks more desirable than risking failure and loss of self-esteem in the learning process."

According to Senge (1990), we can begin by developing our personal mastery, which largely involves cultivating a personal vision. "It's that courage to take a stand for one's vision that distinguishes people with high levels of personal mastery." As a 4-H educator, do you have a clear vision of what you want for your program and youth? Does it fit with the 4-H organizational vision and the needs of the people? Our visions must be laced with purpose and basic touchstone principals.

A person with personal mastery must have patience and persistence. "Truly creative people use the gap between vision and current reality to generate energy for change" (Senge, 19990). Senge discusses two beliefs that limit our ability to create what we want, a sense of powerlessness (belief in our inability to bring into being all the things we really care about) and unworthiness (the belief we do not deserve to have what we truly desire). We need to be able to hold onto the vision and not allow ourselves to lose sight of it.

Conclusion

As youth development professionals, part of our task is to guide youth as they change and grow into adults. Extension agents are called upon to be agents of change, to take what is and make it into what could be. We consciously or unconsciously have a vision of what we want to develop in youth in order for them to become productive citizens. In this time of transition, our youth will need unique qualities in order to be successful in life.

As change agents, we not only guide youth through changes, we work with individuals, groups, and communities to improve the quality of children's lives. To do this, we must be empowered ourselves. As we look to what qualities we want to develop in youth, we must look at our own selves and ask, "Are we modeling the qualities we want to encourage in them?" We have the multilevel task of being what we want others to be. Thus, the issue of youth development is interwoven with the task of our own development.

References

Bridges, W. (1995). Don't forget to manage the transition too. William Bridges and Associates [On-line]. 8(3). Available: http://www.wmbridges.com/articles/base.html

Bridges, W. (1996). How you can handle change better. William Bridges and Associates [On-line]. 9(2). Available: http://www.wmbridges.com/articles/base.html

Bridges, W. (1996). Why change management isn't enough. William Bridges and Associates [On-line] 9(4). Available: http://www.wmbridges.com/articles/base.html

Nanus, B. (1992). Visionary Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Palmer, D. E. (1995). Taking Charge Constructively. Tucson, Arizona: Development Publications, LLC.

Schein, E. H. (1999). Kurt Lewin's Change Theory in the Field and in the Classroom: Notes Toward a Model of Managed Learning. The Society for Organizational Learning [On-line]. Available: http://www.solonline.org/res/wp/10006.html

Senge, P. M. (1990) The Fifth Discipline. New York: Doubleday/Currency.

Sinetar, M. (1995) To Build the Life You Want, Create the Work You Love. New York: St. Martin's Press.

Effecting Extension Organizational Change Toward Cultural Diversity: A Conceptual Framework

Introduction

"A healthy organization is one in which an obvious effort is made to get people with different backgrounds, skills, and abilities to work together toward the goal or purpose of the organization. While we have not accomplished this at a societal level, it is achievable at an organizational level," says the Dean and Provost of Pennsylvania State University at Harrisburg, John Bruhn (1996). Very few organizations in the United States have become effective in incorporating culturally diverse backgrounds, skills, and abilities in their organizational culture. In the case of Extension, this author does not know of any state that can claim to have an effective, culturally diverse Extension organization.

An effective, culturally diverse organization is one whose culture is inclusive of all of the varying groups and constituencies it intends to serve, that is, in the case of the Extension Service, the people of the state. The organization's values, vision, mission, policies, procedures, and norms constitute a culture that is manifested in multiple perspectives and adaptability to varying values, beliefs, and communication styles.

Background

People from differing cultural groups in the U.S. have differing perspectives, manifested in their values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. There are many studies that specifically describe these differences. In one significant comparative study of values within five cultures in the Southwest U.S. (Navaho, Zuni, Mexican-American, Texan Homesteaders, and Mormon), Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) explored value orientations around which they assumed all people seek meaning. One of those orientations is in how people regard nature. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck found three distinct ways in which people related to the natural environment: harmony with nature, subjugation to nature, and mastery over nature. A people or cultural group may relate to nature in all three ways, but they will vary in their order of preference.

Generally, the dominant European-American culture, from which the Extension Service evolved, primarily values mastery over nature, while many Native-Americans, Latinos, and Asian-Americans primarily value living in harmony with nature (Ting-Toomey, 1999). This core value affects the decisions that people make in their daily lives.

If Extension's educational programs in agriculture, natural resources, and human development emerge from the value orientation of mastery over nature, then several cultural groups who may value harmony with or subjugation to nature will not find these programs relevant to their lives.

In other research, Edward T. Hall (1983) found a difference in the way people perceive time. Some cultures, such as the mainstream European-American culture, see time as linear and sequential, called "monochronic." Other cultures, such as Native-American, Latino, African-American, and Asian-American, perceive time as many things happening at once and with people, called "polychronic." Polychronic people see time as a plentiful resource, and relationships tend to take priority over schedules. Thus, you may find polychronic people to be often late to meetings, while the monochronic people may be more accustomed to punctuality. Monochronic people may tend to believe that "Time is money," while polychronic people may see time as an opportunity to be with others.

These few examples of variations in values and beliefs point to the magnitude of the potential differences among us, as our nation's population has become more culturally diverse. How can we work together with such large differences? Is it better to try to accommodate these differences or to maintain uniformity in our organizations and ask others to adapt to our norms?

The Case for a Culturally Diverse Organization

University of Michigan professor Taylor Cox suggests four compelling reasons why becoming an effective culturally diverse organization is important.

• It enhances the creativity and problem-solving abilities of the organization. Once an organization can incorporate difference, previously untapped talent and energy will be focused on achieving organizational goals.
• It is morally, ethically, and socially the right thing to do. As humans, we have a tendency to favor in-group members over out-group members, which results in dominant-subordinate issues. At the same time, one of the core values of our country is equal opportunity. A conscious effort to address in-group and out-group favoritism will enhance equal opportunity.
• It affects performance of minority-group employees. Cox's research (1994) shows that if an employee believes that he or she is undervalued, regardless of what the organization says, then the employee's work performance will be affected. This leads to a higher turnover rate for an organization.
• It is a legal requirement. In the U.S., equal opportunity is supported through laws such as the Civil Rights Act, Equal Pay Act, Pregnancy Discrimination Act, Age Discrimination Act, and Americans with Disabilities Act. Organizations, especially the ones that receive government funding, maintain affirmative action programs in an effort to comply with these laws (Cox, 1994).

There are two more reasons why organizational cultural diversity is important.

• It may be more economical in the long term. When an organization is perceived as not complying with equal opportunity laws, fines and costly litigation are often the result. In the long run, it may be more economical to invest in incorporating multiple perspectives in an organization before the need for litigation arises.
• It will result in better service to a changing clientele. In the light of the rapid increase in minority-group populations in the U.S., while the majority-group population growth steadies, service organizations will need a new set of skills to better meet the needs of changing clientele in communities.

Thus, incorporating multiple perspectives, which reflect varying values and beliefs, can make an organization such as the Extension Service more effective by adding a richness of increased creativity and an adaptability to change.

If working to become an effective, culturally diverse organization is seen as a desirable goal, how does an organization change to become more multiculturally effective? Essentially, the culture of the organization has to change to become more inclusive of other value and belief systems that exist among the people the organization intends to serve.

"Organizational culture" can be defined as an organization's values, beliefs, principles, practices, and behaviors. One can find evidence of the organizational culture in its public language: the printed documents such as brochures that describe the organization's vision, values, and mission, and the policy and procedures manual. Organizational culture changes very slowly. The deeper values and beliefs implied in the language of the organization's culture may not be within the conscious awareness of the organizational members and leaders (Denison, 1990).

"Organizational climate," which is integral to and yet only a part of an organization's culture, is easier to change than its culture (Figure 1). Organizational climate is found in the private language of the organization, such as the conversations about work among staff during coffee breaks. Climate is manifested in the observable routines and rewards of the organization. The routines are the events and practices of an organization; the rewards pertain to what behaviors get acknowledged, supported, and rewarded.

As the private language of an organization changes, the public language slowly begins to change as well (Schneider, 1990; Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). Thus, the key to changing the culture of an organization toward an effective multicultural perspective is to change the organizational climate.

If a mainstream organization wants to incorporate cultural diversity as a resource, it needs to begin by strategically focusing on what the current organizational climate toward diversity is. Organizations are made up of the people in them. Therefore, if the people do not change, then the organization cannot change. Determining an organization's climate involves three levels of analysis: the individual (employee), the groups (departments, units, program areas), and the overall organization (Schneider, 1990; Cox, 1994).

Gibb's study of organizational climate as it relates to communication is especially relevant as one examines the private language of an organization in relation to diversity. Gibb found that small groups in organizations have communication patterns that can be defensive or supportive.

A defensive climate is one in which the individual feels threatened or anxious when in communication with others. Outwardly, the conversation may appear normal, while inwardly the person is putting mental energy into defending himself or herself. The defense may consist of thoughts about how one appears to the other, how one can be seen more favorably, or how one may end up a winner in the conversation through domination, by impressing the other, or by avoiding punishment or attack. In a defensive climate, the other in the conversation picks up the verbal and non-verbal cues and, in turn, listens defensively (Gibb, 1979).

The opposite of a defensive climate is a supportive one. The more supportive the climate, the less threatened the individual feels, and the more emotional and mental energy is put into the content and meaning of the message rather than in composing a defensive response (Gibb, 1979).

In essence, a defensive climate shuts down communication, whereas a supportive climate opens communication to make room for learning from multiple perspectives. An organization's climate will most likely consist of both supportive and defensive dimensions. An overall supportive climate is necessary in order to build an effective culturally diverse organization.

A Framework Toward Measuring Extension's Diversity Climate

By integrating the work of Cox (1994), Schneider and associates (1996), Gibb (1979), and Schauber (1999), a framework for measuring the Extension Service's diversity climate can be designed (Figure 2). The dimensions of the diversity climate might be found on a continuum of supportive to defensive, with uncertain (which is neither supportive nor defensive) found at the midpoint. An example of a supportive dimension is Extension professionals' openness to ongoing learning. When professionals are open to new ideas, the diversity climate is supportive of the possibility of incorporating multiple perspectives into the organizational culture.

An example of a defensive dimension is Extension professionals' perception that there is no organizational commitment to cultural diversity. As a result, professionals would avoid reaching out to culturally diverse audiences for fear that they would not be supported for doing so. An example of an uncertain dimension is Extension professionals' fear of embarrassing the self or offending others who are culturally different from them. This fear leads to a hesitancy to approach culturally different groups (Schauber, 1999).

These dimensions can be measured in relation to the routines and rewards of the organization. The routines relate to the nature of the interpersonal relationships in the organization both at work and with clientele and to the nature of the work. The rewards relate to the nature of the organizational hierarchy and the focus of support and rewards in the organization. The climate must be measured at the individual, group, and organizational levels and then integrated for an overall sense of the state Extension Service's diversity climate.

Tools for measuring Extension's organizational diversity climate might include written questionnaires, focus groups, and/or interviews. They should address all three levels of the organization (individual, group, and organizational). They are used to explore participants' definitions of diversity and what they think an ideal diverse organization is. Perceived benefits and challenges of working with people from differing cultural groups for both the participants and the organization are explored.

The findings that emerge can be used in moving the organization toward change in the following ways.

1. Presentations on the dimensions of the diversity climate to organizational members can enable them to see their organization in a new light, which in itself is a catalyst for change.
2. Dimensions of the diversity climate can be used to develop strategic plans to move the organization toward diversity.
3. The diversity climate results can stand as a benchmark in time, a place from which to measure progress of change in the organizational culture toward diversity.

Conclusion

Changing a state Extension organization to become effective in a culturally diverse society is a strategic and deliberate process of fostering change in the organizational culture. Extension's culture can be changed by identifying and then changing the Extension diversity climate. Diversity climate is manifested in the organization's private language. A conceptual framework for identifying Extension's diversity climate is thus a key to changing its organizational culture.

References

Bruhn, J. G. (1996). Creating an organizational climate for multiculturalism. Health Care Supervisor, 14.4, 11-18.

Cox, T. (1994). Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

Denison, D. (1990). Corporate Culture and Organizational Effectiveness. New York: Wiley.

Gibb, J. R. (1979). Defensive Communication. Basic Readings in Communication Theory. New York: Harper and Row, 201-208.

Hall, E. T. (1983). Dance of Life. New York: Doubleday.

Kluckhohn, F. R. & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). Variations in Value Orientations. Evanston: Row, Peterson and Company.

Schauber, A. (1999). Assessing organizational climate: First step in diversifying an organization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Union Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Schneider, B., Ed. (1990). Organizational Climate and Culture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schneider, B., Brief, A. P., & Guzzo, R. (1996). Creating a climate and culture for sustainable organizational change. Organizational Dynamics, 24.4, 7-19.

Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating Across Cultures. New York: Guilford.

Using the Program Life Cycle Can Increase Your Return on Time Invested

Quality Programming Is the Key to Success

People have them (Bleichrodt & Quiggin, 1999), plants have them (Woodward, 1984), projects have them (Kim & Bejaj, 2000), movements and corporate initiatives have them (Hutchins, 2000), industries have them (Pyka, 2000), products have them (Rink & Fox, 1999), organizations have them (Fletcher & Taplin, 1999), shopping centers have them (Lowry, 1997), even technology has them (Oliver, 1999). Life cycles can be seen virtually everywhere, and Extension programs are no exception. But why should Extension educators care about the life cycle of their programs?

When asked to "prove our worth," Extension educators respond by sharing "program achievements" (Graf, 1988). Maximizing the quality and quantity of programs is key to an Extension educator's success. But producing quality programs requires time, a resource of which there never seems to be enough. Therefore, methodologies that improve Extension educators' program production efficiency or return on time invested have value. The program life cycle is one of those methodologies.

Program Life Cycle

The five-phase program life cycle discussed here is illustrated in the figure below and explained in the following sections.

Viewing programs through a life cycle model provides the opportunity to increase program production efficiency. The efficiency comes through catching a program at the end of its maturity phase, before it reaches the decline phase.

Conceptualization Phase

In the conceptualization phase, the program springs from the educator's current knowledge base. During the first phase of the program life cycle, an educational opportunity is identified, ideas are generated, and rough drafts of the program are produced. During this phase, "thoughtful planning with innovative program design and development and promotional strategies to accommodate client needs are primary." (White, 1988).

Mallilo and Millar (1992) have identified 14 program development factors that affect program success. "Several of the highly rated factors related to developing programs [that addressed] the needs of various audiences." During the conceptualization phase, program developers should work collaboratively with the program stakeholders.

Stakeholders are people who have knowledge about the subject, people who will participate in the program, and people who will be affected by what is being learned in the program. For example, during the conceptualization of a program on community development, it's a good idea to invite Extension and non-Extension professionals who have experience doing community development work, community members who want to do community development work, and community and organization leaders who will need to work with the people doing community development work to participate in the process.

Lots of methodologies exist that allow stakeholders to have voice in the program conceptualization or for that matter the revision of programs. Quality educators will use everything from focus groups (Ducan & Marotz-Baden, 1999) and surveys to direct collaboration (including co-teaching) to involve interested stakeholders.

Development Phase

In the development phase, the program parameters and rough draft generated in the conceptualization phase are refined and solidified into a final product ready to be tested with participants. In this phase, the level of detail is increased significantly. A program on leadership, which in the conceptualization phase is described as "9 months long," gets specific time and material parameters, such as "nine 8-hour sessions held on the first Tuesday of the month starting in September and finishing in May." Content is finalized, and aesthetics are considered.

Using again the example of a leadership program, an agenda for each class day is created, with specific content to be covered and time frames for each portion of the day. The development phase is best thought of as an iterative process. For example, after each use of the leadership program, the participants complete evaluations. These are added to presenter's evaluation of "program model fit, quality of program implementation and appropriateness of expectations of outcomes/impacts" (Decker, 1990), and appropriate revisions are made. After several "trial runs," the revision process will slow to a crawl, and the program moves to the maturity phase.

Maturity Phase

In the maturity phase, programs are at their highest efficiency. Although minor tweaking or customization for a specific audience may take place (for example, teaching leadership to elected officials is different from teaching leadership to community volunteers), the program is ready to be used at a moment's notice.

All significant bugs have been eliminated, and the presenter is familiar with the content and the flow of the program. Evaluations and attendance are high. Presenters' enthusiasm is strong. Life is good. This is where educators are sometimes lulled to sleep.

Decline Phase

There are multiple factors that make an educational program successful. Watching both presenter indicators and participant indicators can help Extension professionals monitor these factors. When the indicators begin to drop, the program is entering the decline phase.

Participant Indicators

• Declining number of program participants attending sessions.
• Pre-program surveys showing high levels of program practice adoption.
• Degeneration in quantity and quality of participant questions.
• Falling evaluation ratings. Evaluations should include more than just new knowledge gained. (See Steele (1995) for a more complete explanation of other important gains.)
• Declining program impact measurements.

• Declining presenter enthusiasm.
• Increasing interest in new subject material beyond the current program.

Extension educators should keep a log of program numbers. A declining number is the first sign that it is time to renew, revise, or redefine a program. Educators should pay attention to their own enthusiasm when the program is requested and presented. A decline in either is a good sign that the program is in the decline phase. The quantity and quality of questions that participants ask is also a good indication of the program phase. In the earlier phases, lots of good questions are asked. As the program matures, the number of questions declines, and the questions are less interesting. Program evaluations can also be a good tool to use. If evaluation ratings are declining for no apparent reason, it may be time for program revision, redevelopment, or redefinition.

Termination Phase

Once program participation has dropped to levels that make presentation either difficult or severely inefficient because of lack of participant interaction, the program should be terminated. This is not always easy. Sometimes small but important groups of Extension clientele become attached to programs that have reached the termination phase. This is where program advisory committees can be very helpful. Sharing participation results with advisory committees and working with them to select and implement appropriate actions improves the quality of the decision-making process and builds support for difficult decisions.

Once the decision has been made to terminate a program, it is often helpful to have a "final offering" of the program. As part of the instruction, an explanation for the termination of the program and a brief introduction to its replacement are given. This actually gives long-time faithful program participants the opportunity to let go of the old program and warm up to its replacement. It should also be noted that removing terminated programs from marketing literature and/or resource lists is critical. Not doing this will create confusion and frustration for clientele and hinder a smooth transition between the old program and the new.

Program revision, redevelopment, or redefinition takes less time if initiated at this critical point in the life cycle. Letting a program go beyond the maturity phase and into decline and termination is both inefficient and tiresome. Substantial time and energy are required to sustain a program that is in the decline phase. Although we do not often think about it, cleanly and professionally terminating a program also requires a high level of energy.

It can be argued that program conceptualization and development phases also require significant resources and a high level of creative energy. However, it should be obvious that the first two phases of the life cycle cannot be eliminated, while the last two can and should be avoided if Extension educators want to maintain a high return on time invested.

Program Revision, Redevelopment, and Redefinition

The revision, redevelopment, or redefinition of a program should take less time than the original conceptualization and development stages. But which process should be selected?

That depends on the program, how far it went beyond the maturity phase, and what new information, knowledge, and wisdom is available. The revision process is the most involved and therefore most time consuming of the three choices. To revise a program, the developer goes back to the conceptualization phase and checks with stakeholders to determine what current material should be deleted and what new material should be included in the revised program. For example, moving a community leadership program from the concept of leadership as an individual act to the concept of leadership as a community process will require significant re-conceptualization that will best be accomplished with the help of stakeholders.

Redevelopment involves incorporating new information and knowledge, and can be done quickly by updating or adding new handouts. It may also require the elimination of some basic information and knowledge, which have become too elementary for the participants. For example, a leadership program may eliminate basic skills of parliamentary procedure in favor of advanced facilitation skills.

Redefinition is the easiest. To redefine a program, the educator shifts the emphasis. If the program was originally designed for rural gardeners, it could easily be redefined as part of a program for urban youth development. Although just as important as the other two processes, redefinition is more of a change in style than substance.

But can a program really go back into the creator's head and be born again? Of course it can. Unless program creators have been playing Rip Van Winkle since their programs were originally created, they will have new information, knowledge, and wisdom that they are eager to incorporate. They simply are not in the same intellectual place they were when the program was created.

This is the time to step back and understand how the new information, knowledge, and wisdom can be infused into the program. The amount of new information, knowledge, and wisdom that have been acquired since the conceptualization of the program will dictate the level of program deconstruction and reconstruction. Moving from contour plowing to no-till farming is a good example. The new knowledge and wisdom gained required a major shift and therefore significant preliminary explanation before the new information could be shared. Reflection on what the program creators knew when they created the programs and what they know at this stage will help in the process selection.

The Bottom Line

Describing the specific changes that will need to be made to any given program is impossible because of the number of variables and varieties of content. However, the opportunity to achieve a high return on time invested is increased if Extension educators pay attention to the life cycle of their programs. Letting programs go beyond their maturity phases into decline and termination is not a good investment of time. Noticing when a program begins to decline and recreating, redeveloping, or redefining it can save both time and money. Making relatively minor revisions or eliminating the program before it requires a major investment of time is both efficient and effective. It also leads to consistently high-quality programs, the major goal of an Extension educator.

References

Bleichrody, H. & Quiggin, J. (1999). Life cycle preferences over consumption and health: When is cost-effectiveness analysis equivalent to cost-benefit analysis? Journal of Health Economics, 18(6), 681-708.

Decker, D. J. (1990). Analyzing program "failure." Journal of Extension [On-line]. 28(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990fall/a7.html

Duncan, S. F. & Marotz-Baden, R. (1999). Using focus groups to identify rural participant needs in balancing work and family education. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 37(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999february/rb1.html

Fletcher, D. S. & Taplin, I. M., (1999). Organizational evolution: The American life cycle. National Productivity Review, 18(4), 29-36.

Graf, K. W. (1988). You make the difference. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 26(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1988fall/a5.html

Hutchins, G. (2000). Help your career and the environment. Quality Progress, 33(1), 116-117.

Kim, S. & Bejaj, D. (2000). Risk management in construction: An approach for contractors in South Korea. Cost Engineering, 42(1), 38-44.

Lowery, J. R. (1997). The life cycle of shopping centers. Business Horizons, 40(1), 77-86.

Mallilo, A. T. & Millar, P. A. (1992). Impacts on Program Success. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 30(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992summer/rb2.html

Oliver, R. W. (1999). The bioterials age. Management Review, 88(11), 12-13.

Pyka, A. (2000). Informal networking and industrial life cycles. Technovation, 20(1), 25-35.

Rink, D. R. & Fox, H. W. (1999). Strategic procurement planning across the product's sales cycle: A conceptualization. Journal of Marketing Theory & Practice, 7(2), 28-42.

Steele, S. M. (1995). Looking for more than new knowledge. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 33(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995june/iw3.html

White, B. A. (1988). Doing more with less. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 26(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1988summer/rb1.html

Woodward, F. I. (1984). Growth studies of selected plant species with well-defined European distributions: field observations and computer simulations of plant life cycles at two altitudes. The Journal of Ecology, 72, (Nov.), 1019-1030.

Preferred Learning Styles of Florida Association for Family and Community Education Volunteers: Implications for Professional Development

Introduction

Volunteers are used in all areas of Extension, including Family and Consumer Science, 4-H, Horticulture, and Agriculture, with the majority of volunteers working in the 4-H Youth Development program area. Florida county Extension agents and state Extension specialists work directly with volunteers and are responsible for a myriad of volunteer training and management programs. Therefore, an effective volunteer-management training program needs to address both principles of volunteer management and how to effectively deliver instruction or educate clientele.

Background

Over the years, researchers of volunteerism have come up with some core competencies necessary to ensure a successful volunteer program. From these core competencies and theories, certain individuals have developed models for implementing a successful volunteer program. One of the main components of volunteerism is orientation and training, which in turn helps volunteers provide quality educational programming to their clientele (Brudney, 1990; Campbell & Ellis, 1995; Culp & Schwartz, 1999; Naylor, 1973; Penrod, 1991; Rauner, 1980; Scheier, 1985; Smith & Bigler, 1985; Vinyard, 1981; Wilson, 1976).

Brudney (1990) feels that volunteers need training and supervision in order to do their job effectively. Training gives volunteers the skills and knowledge needed to perform their work well and effectively (Culp, 1997; Cumming, 1998; Wilson, 1976). Wilson is of the belief that orientation is only the beginning of training for the volunteer, although too many agencies think that orientation is the only training needed for volunteers. Rauner (1980) describes three types of training for the volunteer. Pre-service, or orientation training, prepares the volunteer to begin the job. In-service training provides for a better understanding of the scope of their job. And continuing education includes training not related to a specific subject or job.

Training for volunteer leaders will allow them to increase their skills and thus offer more potent training to the volunteers (Rauner, 1980). It is important that volunteers receive effective training because poor training can harm the organization by decreased productivity in volunteers, a possible loss of volunteers, and by decreasing the image of the organization (Naylor, 1973).

Naylor (1973) notes that traditionally, training primarily included instruction solely on skills necessary to perform the specific task or job, but educators have disagreed, because this type of training lacks provision for individual volunteer learning needs. It is important to break down the content information into teachable parts, so the volunteers are able to comprehend all aspects of the training. To be successful, volunteers need to use a variety of teaching techniques and methods when delivering professional development to clientele.

If learning is a positive experience, then an individual strives to learn more, because they are motivated to further their learning. Research shows that knowing about yourself and your audience will help you in your teaching and working with others. Learning styles are "characteristic cognitive, affective and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and respond to the learning environment" (Keefe, 1987).

This supports the premise that educators should select a variety of strategies to assist the learning styles of the audience. This will result in a multifaceted and effective program that will appeal to more than one learning style at a time (Sarasin, 1998). The Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (2000) notes that it is important to match the learning styles of volunteers with appropriate training methods in the volunteer management process.

In the 1940s, Witkin initiated research on cognitive style, studying the perceptions of individuals in different spatial orientations. He found that people differed by how they use orientation tasks (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). Witkin (1976) later characterized these perceptual characteristics among individuals as field dependent or field independent. His basic premise is that individuals differ in their learning styles and that individuals tend to teach according to their learning style. By recognizing these differences in learning styles, one can adapt instruction to meet the needs of all learners (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, & Karp, 1971).

Field-dependent learners are global learners who prefer structured educational settings. They tend to have highly developed social skills and are aware of their social environment (Garger & Guild, 1984). Field-independent learners are more likely to be analytical and perceptual learners who prefer to structure their own educational settings. They may have less developed social skills and are interested in concept attainment, with the ability to distinguish differences among concepts (Garger & Guild).

Witkin et al. (1971) find consistent gender differences by field dependence, with women tending to be more field dependent then men. This is supported by many research studies (Cairns, Malone, Johnston, & Cammock, 1985; DeRussey & Futch, 1971; Morf, Kavanaugh, & McConville, 1971; Parlee & Rajogopal, 1974; Saarni, 1973; Sherman, 1974; Takigami, 1975; Torres & Cano, 1994). However, current research by Rudd, Baker, and Hoover (1998) and Baker, Rudd, Hoover, and Grant (1997) disputes this finding. Demick (1991) believes further study is needed in this area, due to the argument that many of these studies supporting gender differences by field dependence show only a low statistical significant effect.

There is some evidence of a relationship between age and field dependence. Comalli (1965) and Schwartz and Karp (1967) find that older individuals tend to be more field dependent. They find that, after the late 30s, individuals tend to lean toward field dependence.

Later research disputes this finding (Panek, 1985; Takigami, 1975). Panek (1982), who utilized the GEFT and a personality test on women age 60-81, suggests increasing age may have an effect on personality relationships. Knox (1981) notes that the transfer of learning tends to decline with age.

Baker et al. (1997) find that Extension professionals tend to be field dependent learners. The researchers recommend that any training delivered to this group include techniques to appeal to field-dependent learners such as the opportunity for social exchange, and a structured learning environment.

Because Florida Extension volunteers have such an impact on the state of Florida, it is imperative that volunteers are successfully delivering their educational programs. This reinforces the need to provide volunteers with instructional techniques and teaching strategies. Snow and Yallow (1982) note that the success of education is dependent on the adaptation of teaching to the learning differences among learners. Therefore, an effective volunteer management-training program not only should address the principles of volunteer management but also how volunteers in turn can effectively educate clientele.

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of the study reported here was to determine learning styles of Florida Association for Family and Community Education (FAFCE) volunteers. The objectives were to do the following.

1. Determine the demographic characteristics of FAFCE volunteers,
2. Identify current informal and formal volunteer training programs for FAFCE volunteers and,
3. Determine the learning styles of FAFCE volunteers.

Materials and Methods

The sample consisted of a select group of FAFCE volunteers in Florida, along with the county Extension agents who work with FAFCE volunteers. There are approximately 3,200 FAFCE volunteers in Florida located throughout five regional districts. A purposeful sample of volunteers was taken from those attending Districts II, III, and IV meetings. The total sample was 273 FAFCE volunteers.

Two survey instruments were used, a researcher-developed questionnaire and the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) (Witkin et al., 1971). The researcher-developed questionnaire was used to collect demographic information pertaining to FAFCE volunteers. The GEFT was used to determine the learning styles of the FAFCE volunteers in the study. Faculty in Agricultural Education and Communication, Family, Youth and Community Sciences, and Program Development and Evaluation reviewed the researcher-developed instrument for content and face validity.

Learning styles were measured by the GEFT (Witkin et al., 1971). The GEFT was designed to allow for a large number of individuals to be tested in one testing session. The national mean score for the GEFT is 11.4, with those scoring below 11.4 considered field-dependent, while those scoring above 11.4 considered field-independent.

The GEFT was based upon the Embedded Figures Test (EFT); the EFT reliability estimates are favorable with a reported reliability coefficient of .82 for both males and females (Witkin et al, 1971). The questionnaire and GEFT were administered to the sample between January and April of 1999.

Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences for Windows Release 9.0 (SPSS®, 1999). Percentages and frequencies were calculated to develop a descriptive profile of the population. GEFT scores were measured with age of the selected sample through bivariate correlation. An alpha level of .05 was set a priori.

Results/Findings

Demographic Characteristics of FAFCE Volunteers

Two hundred seventy-three FAFCE volunteers participated in this study. An additional 34 individuals completed the survey and reported their role as something other than an FAFCE volunteer or Extension agent. These individuals were not included in the analysis.

Eighty-seven percent (87.2%) of FAFCE volunteer respondents were female, while 7% were male, and 12 % did not identify their gender. Nine out of ten (90%) volunteer respondents were Caucasian/White, 6% were African American, and 4% were Native American. One individual in the study was Hispanic, one individual was West Indian, and one individual did not respond. The mean age of these FAFCE volunteers was 71 years of age, with a range from 49 to 90 years of age. Twenty-four volunteers failed to report their age.

Individuals in the sample were asked to identify their educational level. Of the 268 volunteers who responded to the question, "Please indicate your highest degree completed," 6% said some high school, 44% had a high school degree, 31% attended some college, 3% had earned an associates degree, 8% earned a bachelors degree, and 6% of volunteers surveyed had a graduate degree.

FAFCE volunteers involved in the study represented three of the five regional Extension districts in the state of Florida, Districts II, IV, and V. The FAFCE volunteers represented 24 of the 67 counties in Florida.

Current Informal and Formal Volunteer Training Programs for FAFCE Volunteers

The FAFCE volunteers were asked, "Have you received training as a member of FAFCE?" Less than half (42%) of volunteers reported they have received training. Twenty percent of the volunteers did not respond to this question. Those who participated in training noted they participated in a variety of trainings (10%), leadership training (8%), educational/specific topic training (7%), Family Community Leadership (FCL) (6%), officer training (3%), monthly training (1%), and working with youth (1%). County-level training was mentioned by one participant.

Respondents were asked to report the individual or group who hosted the training. Sixty-five percent of FAFCE volunteers did not respond to this question. Twenty percent of training was reported as given by county-level agents (19%). Other trainers included FAFCE member (4%), University of Florida (3%), a variety of trainers (3%), state specialists (2%), leader trainer (2%), FCL staff (1%), and volunteers (1%). The following trainers were also mentioned: club president, community leaders, and both national and state officers.

Learning Styles of FAFCE Volunteers

As a group, FAFCE volunteers were found to be field dependent. The median GEFT score for FAFCE volunteers was 2.0, with GEFT scores ranging from 0 to 18.

Correlational analyses were conducted with the variables of GEFT score and age. The correlation for the dependent variable, GEFT score, with the independent variable, age, can be observed in Table 1. A significant low negative correlation was found between age and GEFT score (r=-.17, p=.008). The effect of age on GEFT score can only attribute to 3% of the variance (r_=.029). Two additional correlations were run to see if the age of volunteer above and below the mean age could predict GEFT scores. FAFCE volunteers were separated into two groups for this analysis. There were no significant correlations between age and GEFT score for FAFCE volunteers who were 71 years of age and younger (n=108), and those above 71 years of age (n=132).

Variable	N	Correlation1	r_	p-value
Age	240	-.17a	.029	.008
Age < 71	108	-.02	.001	.818
Age >71	132	-.14	.018	.121
aSignificant at p<.01 1Pearson product moment correlation

Conclusions

Results of the demographic portion of the survey indicate that the typical FAFCE volunteer is a Caucasian female 71 years of age who does not work outside the home. Almost half of the volunteers earned a high school degree, and almost one-third attended some college.

Forty-two percent of volunteers noted they received training as a member of FAFCE. Major training received included: a variety of training (10%), leadership training (8%), educational/specific topic training (7%), and Family Community Leadership (6%). The respondents reported the individual responsible for the training to include county Extension agents (19%), Family and Consumer Educator (4%), University of Florida (3%), a variety of trainers (3%), state specialists (2%), and leader trainer (2%).

Brudney (1990) believes that training coordinates the motives and needs of the volunteers, the organization, and clientele. Rouse and Clawson (1992) finds older volunteers identified learning new things and using skills they perform well as their most important achievements motivators. Naylor (1973) notes that lack of training can decrease productivity in volunteers, decrease the image of the organization, and cost the organization volunteers as a result. Thus, not only is it important to provide current technical content to volunteers, it is equally important that trainers use a number of methods and teaching techniques in training.

The assessment of learning styles indicated that the median GEFT score of FAFCE volunteers was 2.0. This indicates that FAFCE volunteers are field-dependent learners. There was a low negative correlation (r = -.171, p = .008), between age and GEFT score for FAFCE volunteers. As age increases, scores go down. The direction of the relationship is consistent with literature; however, the relationship observed is very weak and does not explain a great deal of variation in the model. The findings of this study do not contribute substantially to the research by Comalli (1965) and Schwartz & Karp (1967) that show as individuals age, they tend to exhibit increasing field dependence.

The majority of individuals in this study were field-dependent women, which supports findings that show a relationship between field dependence and gender (Cairns, et al., 1985; DeRussey & Futch, 1971; Morf, et al., 1971; Parlee & Rajogopal, 1974; Saarni, 1973; Sherman, 1974; Takigami, 1975; Torres & Cano, 1994). However, an equivalent comparison group of males was not available for analysis. Therefore, we can not attribute the field dependence of the group solely on gender.

Implications

The results of this study affect FAFCE volunteers, Extension agents, state specialists, and the Florida Cooperative Extension Service. The findings suggest specific volunteer leadership and training issues that should be addressed in relation to FAFCE.

For example, less than half of FAFCE volunteers (42%) reported they received training, and 20% did not even respond to this question. For volunteers to carry out the mission, analyze and comprehend subject matter, and educate individuals in the community, they must receive adequate training. Efforts should be made to increase training and workshops for FAFCE volunteers. This reaffirms the need and rationale that FAFCE volunteers are a viable constituent group that should be served by UF/IFAS, Florida Cooperative Extension Service faculty, both at the county and state level. There is a continued need for agents to deliver educational programs and training to volunteers. Agents must be conscientious and understanding of learning styles in an effort to deliver effective programs.

Given the value and importance of FAFCE volunteers representing UF/IFAS Florida Cooperative Extension Service, the effort and input focused on professional development for volunteers can enhance their effectiveness in delivering programs to the clients in Florida. Therefore, it is imperative to offer professional development to both our agents and subsequently our volunteers, in an effort to deliver effective programs to Florida. By recognizing that individuals differ in their learning styles and tend to teach according to their learning style, trainers can adapt their instruction to meet the needs of all learners.

Additionally, training in teaching, including recognizing differences in learning styles, should be addressed, because these volunteers, in turn, educate and teach in their communities. It is vital for them to understand and appreciate different learning styles and use a variety of teaching methods in their volunteer programs.

Training efforts for both volunteers and agents must appeal to field-dependent and field-independent learners. Field-dependent learners prefer a structured learning environment and social interaction. They learn best when material is relevant to their own experience and use the spectator approach for concept attainment. Field-dependent learners make broad general distinctions among concepts and perceive globally. They need externally defined goals and reinforcements, and need organization provided.

Field-independent learners perceive analytically and are able to self-impose structure or restrictions. They make specific concept distinctions with little overlap and learn social material only as an intentional task. Field-independent learners are interested in new concepts for their own sake, have self-defined goals and reinforcement, and are able to self-structure situations. Field-independent learners use a hypothesis-testing approach to attain concepts (Garger & Guild, 1984).

Accommodating the unique learning styles of all learners will greatly increase the successful transfer of information. This effort will provide volunteers, county faculty, and state specialists with a variety of instructional strategies and guidelines for program delivery. The ultimate goal is to make the volunteers better educators and trainers within their communities and consequently enhance the effectiveness and image of UF/IFAS.

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Extension and Health Promotion: An Adult Learning Approach

Introduction

Over the last decade, the Canadian health system has been attempting to shift towards greater decentralization in the governance of health care services and more community involvement in decisions about health related policies, programs, and services (Canadian Public Health Association, 1996a). This shift has been prompted, in part, by a recognition that health is determined by many factors, not just health services but also socioeconomic factors such as unemployment, income, social status, education, and social supports (Evans, Morris, & Marmor, 1994).

This article examines how a university Extension department became involved in a rural, health promotion initiative in order to further learning and action around the determinants of health. Although the role of Extension education in health education is documented (Williams, 1997), little attention has been given to the role of adult learning in these initiatives. In order to strengthen community participation in health planning of three communities in rural Nova Scotia, the Extension Department of St. Francis Xavier University collaborated with the local women's association and the regional public health department, in the People Assessing Their Health (PATH) project (Gillis, 1999). This article discusses the role of adult learning strategies in this health promotion initiative and suggests ways that Extension educators in similar contexts can employ these strategies in their work.

The federally funded PATH project (Gillis, 1999) was unique in involving team members who had extensive knowledge and experience in adult education as well as health promotion. Consequently, the team, led by two adult educators who shared the project coordinating position, incorporated a strong adult learning component, resulting in PATH becoming a stellar example of how to integrate adult learning principles in community health projects.

Using a participatory process, community members from all walks of life identified factors that they considered important in making and keeping their communities healthy. The outcome was the development of community health impact assessment tools to enable citizens to become more informed participants in decisions influencing their health. Through the PATH process, community members become more aware of the broad spectrum of factors influencing their health as well as the health concerns of other communities in their region.

The Literature

The literature from health promotion and adult learning inform this research. The World Health Organization (1984) has defined health promotion as enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion called for a collective and cooperative, rather than individualistic, approach to promoting health (World Health Organization, 1986). In many ways, health promotion is thought of as a social movement (Pederson, O'Neill, & Rootman, 1994). Labonte (1993) defines health promotion as "any activity or program designed to improve social and environmental living conditions such that a person's experience of well-being is increased." Among the varied dimensions of health promotion, Mittelmark (2000) emphasizes its basic component of "strengthening communities' ability to take effective action at the local level." Health promotion has been widely endorsed at various levels of government in Canada (Canadian Public Health Association, 1996a, 1996b; Epp, 1986; Nova Scotia Department of Health, 1994).

Several factors influence the need to increase public awareness and collective participation in issues affecting health. Like many governments in the Western world, the Canadian government has been using multiple public awareness campaigns to promote individual lifestyle changes to reduce risk of chronic disease. Although such health promotion initiatives encourage individuals to modify their risk behaviors, they tend to result in the near exclusion of collective initiatives. They also result in the neglect of the broader determinants of health such as education, social status, employment opportunities, geographical isolation, and social support systems, factors that are at the heart of poor health (Evans et al., 1994).

Evidence is growing linking the impact of socioeconomic conditions and health (Canadian Public Health Association, 1997). Overshadowing the Canadian health promotion movement during the last decade, has been the escalation in health care costs and consequently a substantial number of efforts to reform the health system (Bickerton, 1999). The overall result has been greater recognition of the need for more informed citizen involvement in issues that affect community health.

Community-based health initiatives are frequently premised on learning from and with the community in order to increase capacity, although the learning dimension is rarely acknowledged. Early community development initiatives, such as the Antigonish Movement, for example, integrated a strong adult learning component (see Coady, 1939). On close examination, many of the Antigonish Movement's adult learning initiatives were informal (e.g., dialoguing, study groups, mentoring). Informal learning theory points to the use of numerous other informal strategies (e.g., networking, self-directed learning) to increase individual and group learning outside of established academic structures (Watkins & Marsick, 1990; 1992). Similarly, the PATH project employed numerous strategies, especially dialoguing through storytelling (Labonte & Feather, 1996), to increase learning in the community.

The frequency of informal learning was noted early-on by adult educator Allan Tough (1979), whose seminal studies on self-directed learning projects in the 1970s indicated that adults are continuously learning and becoming independent and self-directed in their learning. A recent Canada-wide study confirmed this early research. Livingstone (1998) found that 90% of adults are involved in informal learning for work or for general interest and that the average amount of time they spend on such learning is 6 hours per week. Their extensive telephone survey revealed that 75% of adults (n=1500) have intentionally learned about their health and wellbeing in the last year, whether alone or with other people. This result begs many questions, such as: how does such learning occur?; how significant is the learning in the life of the individual and community?; and what future impact does new knowledge have on the quality of the person's life?

The Canadian Context

This project was located in eastern Nova Scotia, a province on the East Coast of Canada. Communities in this region have faced many barriers to maintaining and promoting health due to geographical isolation and socioeconomic conditions such as lack of employment, inadequate income, and limited education. Residents of three diverse communities in this region were involved in identifying what determined their health and developing community health impact assessment tools to guide decision making related health programs and policies. The three communities included a remote Atlantic fishing community; a rural community dependent of seasonal fishing, forestry, and tourism; and a multicultural urban community with a declining economic base due to the demise of the steel industry.

The Canadian health-care system provides universal access and is publicly funded. All Canadians are entitled to full medical care without discrimination on any basis. However, through the forces of corporate globalization, public concern is growing that the Canadian health care system is being eroded. A lack of both federal and provincial funding is paving the way for the privatization of health care and a two-tiered system that will see the rich receive better health care than the poor.

This creeping privatization is especially relevant for the rural people in this study, who will be detrimentally affected by privatization. In a private system it is unlikely that these citizens will be able to afford quality health care and very likely that they will lose the range of choices they currently access. The drive of privatized health care to make the greatest profit possible is likely to deprive rural dwellers, who have low population base (and hence low profit margins), of adequate health care services. As researchers Bell and Cloke (1989) note, "rural areas provide less healthy arenas for competition than their urban counterparts."

Moreover, corporate globalization threatens the role that health care facilities play in the web of rural life. Rural hospitals and health centers are prime targets for government cutbacks without any consideration for the fact that the rural health care sector may not only be concerned with health care access, but also with the economic, social, and environmental health and wellbeing of the community as a whole (Lauzon & Hagglund, 1998). This study is situated within the overall context of health care in Canada, one in which many community-based agencies have had to "rationalize" their programs and services, and in which the responsibility for many aspects of health care falls on overburdened volunteer organizations and informal caregivers.

The rural context of health is significant (Health Canada, 2001) especially as changing demographics heighten the challenges facing rural and remote areas. (Although there is no single standard of what rural means, we define rural as consisting of country living, low population, and relative isolation.) In their report on the closing of rural hospitals in the province of Ontario, Canadian researchers Lauzon and Hagglund (1998) note that rural health levels are lower than urban ones (see also Lorenz et al., 1993). Similarly, U.S. research shows that populations in rural areas generally suffer greater levels of disability, impairment, and mental and physical disorders than those in urban areas, while at the same time experiencing higher rates of poverty and less access to health and human services (Jacob et al., 1997; Wimberley, 1993).

PATH Adult Learning Strategies

This article focuses on the question: How were adult learning theory and strategies used to increase informal learning in the PATH project? The particular adult learning strategies that we have identified in the PATH project are:

1. Integration of the learning cycle and experiential learning,
2. Dialoguing and storytelling, and
3. Networking.

We examine each of these strategies in order to explicate how Extension educators can learn from the PATH project to become even more effective in community-based health initiatives.

Working with Experience

Underlying the PATH project was the firm belief that people in each of the three communities knew a considerable amount about what makes them and their communities healthy, although they are likely not to express it in the technical language of determinants of health. A selection committee, formed in each community, hired a local person to organize and facilitate a series of community meetings over a 6-month period. The basic criteria for selection of the facilitator was that the individual knew the community, its key organizations and agencies, local leaders, and both the formal and informal channels of communication and that he or she had an interest in being trained as a community facilitator.

This local person (facilitator) convened and facilitated meetings in community halls and over kitchen tables so that people could share their views on what determines their health. The facilitators received training in basic facilitation skills as well as the story-telling/structured dialogue approach, which was based on the experiential learning cycle by David Kolb (1984). The questions were:

1. What do you see happening?
2. Why do you think it happened?
3. So what have you learned from the experience?
4. Now what can you do about it?

The process enabled participants to draw out themes related to health determinants from their discussions. The themes from all the discussion groups were then further analyzed into clusters of themes related to the health determinants.

Working with their local steering committee, the facilitators used the information that had been generated by the community members to design their community health impact assessment tools. Each tool reflected the unique nature of the community and the community's understanding of what determines health.

Story-telling was a key strategy in the PATH project. Local residents met in small groups to tell their stories of successes and frustrations in trying to maintain and promote their health. For example, a single mother told of her desire for more education so she could become employed and the difficulty she faced having neither an education program close-by nor the money for a correspondence course. She also talked about needing transportation to medical services when her children were ill and about her children not being involved in after-school activities because they needed to come home on the bus. She felt isolated and depressed because she was identified as a "socially assisted" person.

From each story, a web of socioeconomic factors determining health unfolded. After each story was shared, participants examined what happened, why it happened, what they learned from it, and what could be done about it. Being aware that the community members were learners with a lifetime of experience, the PATH team encouraged them to reflect on and critique their experience in order to learn from it. The group process strengthened the adult learning possibilities, built community identity, and stimulated a desire to move towards constructive action on issues affecting their health (Schneider, 1997). As one participant reported, "I was amazed at how the community was able to look at itself and draw out the main things that affect its health" (PATHways, 1997).

These sessions were not intended to be traditional adult education experiences, yet there was intentionality in the integration of adult learning strategies. One participant reported, "The facilitator seemed comfortable and made others comfortable. She had a command of the situation and knew why she was there" (PATHways, 1997). The honoring of individual experiences was key in this learning process. By engaging participants' experiences with the broader determinants of health, such as their lack of employment or education, their interactions with the health care system, and their sense of ability or inability to manage their health, the facilitators were able to help the groups examine the stories, critically reflect on them, and learn from them. The telling of stories became an opportunity to reflect on one's experience, construct new knowledge, and plan for the future.

Although many people have experiences that they do not learn from (Jarvis, 1987), the facilitator intervention in this case assisted community members in learning from their experiences. Experiences, from individual and community perspectives, were shared with the intent of creating knowledge and generating action. As one participant stated, "It started to take on a positive tone, going from 'they don't care' to 'why can't we make it happen?'" (PATHways, 1997). Some examples of actions initiated after the PATH project that came out of these discussions included organizing well women's clinics, well men's clinics, and self-esteem workshops for adolescent women.

Using Dialogue as the Basis for Learning

The facilitators called meetings of community residents in each of the three project sites. Because the facilitators understood their communities and were respected by the residents, they were, for the most part, effective in organizing these meetings. They sought out people of different ages, cultural background, locale, gender, and occupations, attempting to reflect the make-up of the three communities. The most challenging group to involve tended to be health professionals.

People gathered in kitchens and community halls to discuss the factors that contributed to the health of their community. They identified strengths as well as gaps in resources and services, and in the capacity of the community to improve health. Engagement in a dialogical process facilitated the identification of supports and challenges to healthy living (English, 2000). To ensure that all the voices were heard, the facilitators used small group meetings to create a comfortable and respectful atmosphere where everyone present could have an opportunity to speak.

This process enabled participants to begin strategizing about how they could have a greater voice in assessing the impact of programs, policies, or services on their community's health. Their participation enabled each community to develop a community health impact assessment tool which could be used to assess the impact of existing and potential programs, policies and services on their health (Gillis, 1999).

The facilitation of meaningful dialogue was key in assisting the participants in making sense of their community experiences, such as being able to access adequate health services when distance was a barrier, finding social support when living in an isolated rural community, or affording adequate food for their children when employment opportunities were scarce. By sharing their life experiences, they saw how health determinants were closely interrelated. Through creating an image, for example a clock or a tree, participants saw the dynamic nature of health and how many socioeconomic factors were linked and essential for building a healthy community. They were able to identify what was happening to them and their communities, and why.

In one community group discussion, the dialogue centered around the escalation in unemployment due to the decline in the off-shore fishery, which made healthy living very difficult for the residents. Unemployment affected residents' ability to maintain mental health, good nutrition, effective schools, and a stable home life. For another community group, a toxic waste site was the focus of attention. The informal meeting structure engendered extensive dialogue among members and increased community awareness of the issues that were affecting their quality of life. The group safety (Vella, 1994) created by the small group meeting structure was especially important to support the potential for learning. As one participant noted, "I felt I learned a lot; it broadened my outlook and changed some of my opinions. I saw the other side, other values, why people don't want to leave here" (PATHways, 1997).

Networking

Another important informal learning strategy was the facilitation of networks within communities and among them. Although the three communities were geographically separate, community facilitators and steering committee members from each of the three sites benefited from opportunities to meet regularly and share their perspectives. Knowing that another community was experiencing similar problems helped the respective groups put their own issues in perspective and realize