Feature Articles

Effecting Extension Organizational Change Toward Cultural Diversity: A Conceptual Framework

Introduction

"A healthy organization is one in which an obvious effort is made to get people with different backgrounds, skills, and abilities to work together toward the goal or purpose of the organization. While we have not accomplished this at a societal level, it is achievable at an organizational level," says the Dean and Provost of Pennsylvania State University at Harrisburg, John Bruhn (1996). Very few organizations in the United States have become effective in incorporating culturally diverse backgrounds, skills, and abilities in their organizational culture. In the case of Extension, this author does not know of any state that can claim to have an effective, culturally diverse Extension organization.

An effective, culturally diverse organization is one whose culture is inclusive of all of the varying groups and constituencies it intends to serve, that is, in the case of the Extension Service, the people of the state. The organization's values, vision, mission, policies, procedures, and norms constitute a culture that is manifested in multiple perspectives and adaptability to varying values, beliefs, and communication styles.

Background

People from differing cultural groups in the U.S. have differing perspectives, manifested in their values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. There are many studies that specifically describe these differences. In one significant comparative study of values within five cultures in the Southwest U.S. (Navaho, Zuni, Mexican-American, Texan Homesteaders, and Mormon), Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) explored value orientations around which they assumed all people seek meaning. One of those orientations is in how people regard nature. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck found three distinct ways in which people related to the natural environment: harmony with nature, subjugation to nature, and mastery over nature. A people or cultural group may relate to nature in all three ways, but they will vary in their order of preference.

Generally, the dominant European-American culture, from which the Extension Service evolved, primarily values mastery over nature, while many Native-Americans, Latinos, and Asian-Americans primarily value living in harmony with nature (Ting-Toomey, 1999). This core value affects the decisions that people make in their daily lives.

If Extension's educational programs in agriculture, natural resources, and human development emerge from the value orientation of mastery over nature, then several cultural groups who may value harmony with or subjugation to nature will not find these programs relevant to their lives.

In other research, Edward T. Hall (1983) found a difference in the way people perceive time. Some cultures, such as the mainstream European-American culture, see time as linear and sequential, called "monochronic." Other cultures, such as Native-American, Latino, African-American, and Asian-American, perceive time as many things happening at once and with people, called "polychronic." Polychronic people see time as a plentiful resource, and relationships tend to take priority over schedules. Thus, you may find polychronic people to be often late to meetings, while the monochronic people may be more accustomed to punctuality. Monochronic people may tend to believe that "Time is money," while polychronic people may see time as an opportunity to be with others.

These few examples of variations in values and beliefs point to the magnitude of the potential differences among us, as our nation's population has become more culturally diverse. How can we work together with such large differences? Is it better to try to accommodate these differences or to maintain uniformity in our organizations and ask others to adapt to our norms?

The Case for a Culturally Diverse Organization

University of Michigan professor Taylor Cox suggests four compelling reasons why becoming an effective culturally diverse organization is important.

• It enhances the creativity and problem-solving abilities of the organization. Once an organization can incorporate difference, previously untapped talent and energy will be focused on achieving organizational goals.
• It is morally, ethically, and socially the right thing to do. As humans, we have a tendency to favor in-group members over out-group members, which results in dominant-subordinate issues. At the same time, one of the core values of our country is equal opportunity. A conscious effort to address in-group and out-group favoritism will enhance equal opportunity.
• It affects performance of minority-group employees. Cox's research (1994) shows that if an employee believes that he or she is undervalued, regardless of what the organization says, then the employee's work performance will be affected. This leads to a higher turnover rate for an organization.
• It is a legal requirement. In the U.S., equal opportunity is supported through laws such as the Civil Rights Act, Equal Pay Act, Pregnancy Discrimination Act, Age Discrimination Act, and Americans with Disabilities Act. Organizations, especially the ones that receive government funding, maintain affirmative action programs in an effort to comply with these laws (Cox, 1994).

There are two more reasons why organizational cultural diversity is important.

• It may be more economical in the long term. When an organization is perceived as not complying with equal opportunity laws, fines and costly litigation are often the result. In the long run, it may be more economical to invest in incorporating multiple perspectives in an organization before the need for litigation arises.
• It will result in better service to a changing clientele. In the light of the rapid increase in minority-group populations in the U.S., while the majority-group population growth steadies, service organizations will need a new set of skills to better meet the needs of changing clientele in communities.

Thus, incorporating multiple perspectives, which reflect varying values and beliefs, can make an organization such as the Extension Service more effective by adding a richness of increased creativity and an adaptability to change.

If working to become an effective, culturally diverse organization is seen as a desirable goal, how does an organization change to become more multiculturally effective? Essentially, the culture of the organization has to change to become more inclusive of other value and belief systems that exist among the people the organization intends to serve.

"Organizational culture" can be defined as an organization's values, beliefs, principles, practices, and behaviors. One can find evidence of the organizational culture in its public language: the printed documents such as brochures that describe the organization's vision, values, and mission, and the policy and procedures manual. Organizational culture changes very slowly. The deeper values and beliefs implied in the language of the organization's culture may not be within the conscious awareness of the organizational members and leaders (Denison, 1990).

"Organizational climate," which is integral to and yet only a part of an organization's culture, is easier to change than its culture (Figure 1). Organizational climate is found in the private language of the organization, such as the conversations about work among staff during coffee breaks. Climate is manifested in the observable routines and rewards of the organization. The routines are the events and practices of an organization; the rewards pertain to what behaviors get acknowledged, supported, and rewarded.

As the private language of an organization changes, the public language slowly begins to change as well (Schneider, 1990; Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). Thus, the key to changing the culture of an organization toward an effective multicultural perspective is to change the organizational climate.

If a mainstream organization wants to incorporate cultural diversity as a resource, it needs to begin by strategically focusing on what the current organizational climate toward diversity is. Organizations are made up of the people in them. Therefore, if the people do not change, then the organization cannot change. Determining an organization's climate involves three levels of analysis: the individual (employee), the groups (departments, units, program areas), and the overall organization (Schneider, 1990; Cox, 1994).

Gibb's study of organizational climate as it relates to communication is especially relevant as one examines the private language of an organization in relation to diversity. Gibb found that small groups in organizations have communication patterns that can be defensive or supportive.

A defensive climate is one in which the individual feels threatened or anxious when in communication with others. Outwardly, the conversation may appear normal, while inwardly the person is putting mental energy into defending himself or herself. The defense may consist of thoughts about how one appears to the other, how one can be seen more favorably, or how one may end up a winner in the conversation through domination, by impressing the other, or by avoiding punishment or attack. In a defensive climate, the other in the conversation picks up the verbal and non-verbal cues and, in turn, listens defensively (Gibb, 1979).

The opposite of a defensive climate is a supportive one. The more supportive the climate, the less threatened the individual feels, and the more emotional and mental energy is put into the content and meaning of the message rather than in composing a defensive response (Gibb, 1979).

In essence, a defensive climate shuts down communication, whereas a supportive climate opens communication to make room for learning from multiple perspectives. An organization's climate will most likely consist of both supportive and defensive dimensions. An overall supportive climate is necessary in order to build an effective culturally diverse organization.

A Framework Toward Measuring Extension's Diversity Climate

By integrating the work of Cox (1994), Schneider and associates (1996), Gibb (1979), and Schauber (1999), a framework for measuring the Extension Service's diversity climate can be designed (Figure 2). The dimensions of the diversity climate might be found on a continuum of supportive to defensive, with uncertain (which is neither supportive nor defensive) found at the midpoint. An example of a supportive dimension is Extension professionals' openness to ongoing learning. When professionals are open to new ideas, the diversity climate is supportive of the possibility of incorporating multiple perspectives into the organizational culture.

An example of a defensive dimension is Extension professionals' perception that there is no organizational commitment to cultural diversity. As a result, professionals would avoid reaching out to culturally diverse audiences for fear that they would not be supported for doing so. An example of an uncertain dimension is Extension professionals' fear of embarrassing the self or offending others who are culturally different from them. This fear leads to a hesitancy to approach culturally different groups (Schauber, 1999).

These dimensions can be measured in relation to the routines and rewards of the organization. The routines relate to the nature of the interpersonal relationships in the organization both at work and with clientele and to the nature of the work. The rewards relate to the nature of the organizational hierarchy and the focus of support and rewards in the organization. The climate must be measured at the individual, group, and organizational levels and then integrated for an overall sense of the state Extension Service's diversity climate.

Tools for measuring Extension's organizational diversity climate might include written questionnaires, focus groups, and/or interviews. They should address all three levels of the organization (individual, group, and organizational). They are used to explore participants' definitions of diversity and what they think an ideal diverse organization is. Perceived benefits and challenges of working with people from differing cultural groups for both the participants and the organization are explored.

The findings that emerge can be used in moving the organization toward change in the following ways.

1. Presentations on the dimensions of the diversity climate to organizational members can enable them to see their organization in a new light, which in itself is a catalyst for change.
2. Dimensions of the diversity climate can be used to develop strategic plans to move the organization toward diversity.
3. The diversity climate results can stand as a benchmark in time, a place from which to measure progress of change in the organizational culture toward diversity.

Conclusion

Changing a state Extension organization to become effective in a culturally diverse society is a strategic and deliberate process of fostering change in the organizational culture. Extension's culture can be changed by identifying and then changing the Extension diversity climate. Diversity climate is manifested in the organization's private language. A conceptual framework for identifying Extension's diversity climate is thus a key to changing its organizational culture.

References

Bruhn, J. G. (1996). Creating an organizational climate for multiculturalism. Health Care Supervisor, 14.4, 11-18.

Cox, T. (1994). Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

Denison, D. (1990). Corporate Culture and Organizational Effectiveness. New York: Wiley.

Gibb, J. R. (1979). Defensive Communication. Basic Readings in Communication Theory. New York: Harper and Row, 201-208.

Hall, E. T. (1983). Dance of Life. New York: Doubleday.

Kluckhohn, F. R. & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). Variations in Value Orientations. Evanston: Row, Peterson and Company.

Schauber, A. (1999). Assessing organizational climate: First step in diversifying an organization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Union Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Schneider, B., Ed. (1990). Organizational Climate and Culture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schneider, B., Brief, A. P., & Guzzo, R. (1996). Creating a climate and culture for sustainable organizational change. Organizational Dynamics, 24.4, 7-19.

Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating Across Cultures. New York: Guilford.

Using the Program Life Cycle Can Increase Your Return on Time Invested

Quality Programming Is the Key to Success

People have them (Bleichrodt & Quiggin, 1999), plants have them (Woodward, 1984), projects have them (Kim & Bejaj, 2000), movements and corporate initiatives have them (Hutchins, 2000), industries have them (Pyka, 2000), products have them (Rink & Fox, 1999), organizations have them (Fletcher & Taplin, 1999), shopping centers have them (Lowry, 1997), even technology has them (Oliver, 1999). Life cycles can be seen virtually everywhere, and Extension programs are no exception. But why should Extension educators care about the life cycle of their programs?

When asked to "prove our worth," Extension educators respond by sharing "program achievements" (Graf, 1988). Maximizing the quality and quantity of programs is key to an Extension educator's success. But producing quality programs requires time, a resource of which there never seems to be enough. Therefore, methodologies that improve Extension educators' program production efficiency or return on time invested have value. The program life cycle is one of those methodologies.

Program Life Cycle

The five-phase program life cycle discussed here is illustrated in the figure below and explained in the following sections.

Viewing programs through a life cycle model provides the opportunity to increase program production efficiency. The efficiency comes through catching a program at the end of its maturity phase, before it reaches the decline phase.

Conceptualization Phase

In the conceptualization phase, the program springs from the educator's current knowledge base. During the first phase of the program life cycle, an educational opportunity is identified, ideas are generated, and rough drafts of the program are produced. During this phase, "thoughtful planning with innovative program design and development and promotional strategies to accommodate client needs are primary." (White, 1988).

Mallilo and Millar (1992) have identified 14 program development factors that affect program success. "Several of the highly rated factors related to developing programs [that addressed] the needs of various audiences." During the conceptualization phase, program developers should work collaboratively with the program stakeholders.

Stakeholders are people who have knowledge about the subject, people who will participate in the program, and people who will be affected by what is being learned in the program. For example, during the conceptualization of a program on community development, it's a good idea to invite Extension and non-Extension professionals who have experience doing community development work, community members who want to do community development work, and community and organization leaders who will need to work with the people doing community development work to participate in the process.

Lots of methodologies exist that allow stakeholders to have voice in the program conceptualization or for that matter the revision of programs. Quality educators will use everything from focus groups (Ducan & Marotz-Baden, 1999) and surveys to direct collaboration (including co-teaching) to involve interested stakeholders.

Development Phase

In the development phase, the program parameters and rough draft generated in the conceptualization phase are refined and solidified into a final product ready to be tested with participants. In this phase, the level of detail is increased significantly. A program on leadership, which in the conceptualization phase is described as "9 months long," gets specific time and material parameters, such as "nine 8-hour sessions held on the first Tuesday of the month starting in September and finishing in May." Content is finalized, and aesthetics are considered.

Using again the example of a leadership program, an agenda for each class day is created, with specific content to be covered and time frames for each portion of the day. The development phase is best thought of as an iterative process. For example, after each use of the leadership program, the participants complete evaluations. These are added to presenter's evaluation of "program model fit, quality of program implementation and appropriateness of expectations of outcomes/impacts" (Decker, 1990), and appropriate revisions are made. After several "trial runs," the revision process will slow to a crawl, and the program moves to the maturity phase.

Maturity Phase

In the maturity phase, programs are at their highest efficiency. Although minor tweaking or customization for a specific audience may take place (for example, teaching leadership to elected officials is different from teaching leadership to community volunteers), the program is ready to be used at a moment's notice.

All significant bugs have been eliminated, and the presenter is familiar with the content and the flow of the program. Evaluations and attendance are high. Presenters' enthusiasm is strong. Life is good. This is where educators are sometimes lulled to sleep.

Decline Phase

There are multiple factors that make an educational program successful. Watching both presenter indicators and participant indicators can help Extension professionals monitor these factors. When the indicators begin to drop, the program is entering the decline phase.

Participant Indicators

• Declining number of program participants attending sessions.
• Pre-program surveys showing high levels of program practice adoption.
• Degeneration in quantity and quality of participant questions.
• Falling evaluation ratings. Evaluations should include more than just new knowledge gained. (See Steele (1995) for a more complete explanation of other important gains.)
• Declining program impact measurements.

• Declining presenter enthusiasm.
• Increasing interest in new subject material beyond the current program.

Extension educators should keep a log of program numbers. A declining number is the first sign that it is time to renew, revise, or redefine a program. Educators should pay attention to their own enthusiasm when the program is requested and presented. A decline in either is a good sign that the program is in the decline phase. The quantity and quality of questions that participants ask is also a good indication of the program phase. In the earlier phases, lots of good questions are asked. As the program matures, the number of questions declines, and the questions are less interesting. Program evaluations can also be a good tool to use. If evaluation ratings are declining for no apparent reason, it may be time for program revision, redevelopment, or redefinition.

Termination Phase

Once program participation has dropped to levels that make presentation either difficult or severely inefficient because of lack of participant interaction, the program should be terminated. This is not always easy. Sometimes small but important groups of Extension clientele become attached to programs that have reached the termination phase. This is where program advisory committees can be very helpful. Sharing participation results with advisory committees and working with them to select and implement appropriate actions improves the quality of the decision-making process and builds support for difficult decisions.

Once the decision has been made to terminate a program, it is often helpful to have a "final offering" of the program. As part of the instruction, an explanation for the termination of the program and a brief introduction to its replacement are given. This actually gives long-time faithful program participants the opportunity to let go of the old program and warm up to its replacement. It should also be noted that removing terminated programs from marketing literature and/or resource lists is critical. Not doing this will create confusion and frustration for clientele and hinder a smooth transition between the old program and the new.

Program revision, redevelopment, or redefinition takes less time if initiated at this critical point in the life cycle. Letting a program go beyond the maturity phase and into decline and termination is both inefficient and tiresome. Substantial time and energy are required to sustain a program that is in the decline phase. Although we do not often think about it, cleanly and professionally terminating a program also requires a high level of energy.

It can be argued that program conceptualization and development phases also require significant resources and a high level of creative energy. However, it should be obvious that the first two phases of the life cycle cannot be eliminated, while the last two can and should be avoided if Extension educators want to maintain a high return on time invested.

Program Revision, Redevelopment, and Redefinition

The revision, redevelopment, or redefinition of a program should take less time than the original conceptualization and development stages. But which process should be selected?

That depends on the program, how far it went beyond the maturity phase, and what new information, knowledge, and wisdom is available. The revision process is the most involved and therefore most time consuming of the three choices. To revise a program, the developer goes back to the conceptualization phase and checks with stakeholders to determine what current material should be deleted and what new material should be included in the revised program. For example, moving a community leadership program from the concept of leadership as an individual act to the concept of leadership as a community process will require significant re-conceptualization that will best be accomplished with the help of stakeholders.

Redevelopment involves incorporating new information and knowledge, and can be done quickly by updating or adding new handouts. It may also require the elimination of some basic information and knowledge, which have become too elementary for the participants. For example, a leadership program may eliminate basic skills of parliamentary procedure in favor of advanced facilitation skills.

Redefinition is the easiest. To redefine a program, the educator shifts the emphasis. If the program was originally designed for rural gardeners, it could easily be redefined as part of a program for urban youth development. Although just as important as the other two processes, redefinition is more of a change in style than substance.

But can a program really go back into the creator's head and be born again? Of course it can. Unless program creators have been playing Rip Van Winkle since their programs were originally created, they will have new information, knowledge, and wisdom that they are eager to incorporate. They simply are not in the same intellectual place they were when the program was created.

This is the time to step back and understand how the new information, knowledge, and wisdom can be infused into the program. The amount of new information, knowledge, and wisdom that have been acquired since the conceptualization of the program will dictate the level of program deconstruction and reconstruction. Moving from contour plowing to no-till farming is a good example. The new knowledge and wisdom gained required a major shift and therefore significant preliminary explanation before the new information could be shared. Reflection on what the program creators knew when they created the programs and what they know at this stage will help in the process selection.

The Bottom Line

Describing the specific changes that will need to be made to any given program is impossible because of the number of variables and varieties of content. However, the opportunity to achieve a high return on time invested is increased if Extension educators pay attention to the life cycle of their programs. Letting programs go beyond their maturity phases into decline and termination is not a good investment of time. Noticing when a program begins to decline and recreating, redeveloping, or redefining it can save both time and money. Making relatively minor revisions or eliminating the program before it requires a major investment of time is both efficient and effective. It also leads to consistently high-quality programs, the major goal of an Extension educator.

References

Bleichrody, H. & Quiggin, J. (1999). Life cycle preferences over consumption and health: When is cost-effectiveness analysis equivalent to cost-benefit analysis? Journal of Health Economics, 18(6), 681-708.

Decker, D. J. (1990). Analyzing program "failure." Journal of Extension [On-line]. 28(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990fall/a7.html

Duncan, S. F. & Marotz-Baden, R. (1999). Using focus groups to identify rural participant needs in balancing work and family education. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 37(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999february/rb1.html

Fletcher, D. S. & Taplin, I. M., (1999). Organizational evolution: The American life cycle. National Productivity Review, 18(4), 29-36.

Graf, K. W. (1988). You make the difference. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 26(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1988fall/a5.html

Hutchins, G. (2000). Help your career and the environment. Quality Progress, 33(1), 116-117.

Kim, S. & Bejaj, D. (2000). Risk management in construction: An approach for contractors in South Korea. Cost Engineering, 42(1), 38-44.

Lowery, J. R. (1997). The life cycle of shopping centers. Business Horizons, 40(1), 77-86.

Mallilo, A. T. & Millar, P. A. (1992). Impacts on Program Success. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 30(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992summer/rb2.html

Oliver, R. W. (1999). The bioterials age. Management Review, 88(11), 12-13.

Pyka, A. (2000). Informal networking and industrial life cycles. Technovation, 20(1), 25-35.

Rink, D. R. & Fox, H. W. (1999). Strategic procurement planning across the product's sales cycle: A conceptualization. Journal of Marketing Theory & Practice, 7(2), 28-42.

Steele, S. M. (1995). Looking for more than new knowledge. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 33(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995june/iw3.html

White, B. A. (1988). Doing more with less. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 26(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1988summer/rb1.html

Woodward, F. I. (1984). Growth studies of selected plant species with well-defined European distributions: field observations and computer simulations of plant life cycles at two altitudes. The Journal of Ecology, 72, (Nov.), 1019-1030.

Preferred Learning Styles of Florida Association for Family and Community Education Volunteers: Implications for Professional Development

Introduction

Volunteers are used in all areas of Extension, including Family and Consumer Science, 4-H, Horticulture, and Agriculture, with the majority of volunteers working in the 4-H Youth Development program area. Florida county Extension agents and state Extension specialists work directly with volunteers and are responsible for a myriad of volunteer training and management programs. Therefore, an effective volunteer-management training program needs to address both principles of volunteer management and how to effectively deliver instruction or educate clientele.

Background

Over the years, researchers of volunteerism have come up with some core competencies necessary to ensure a successful volunteer program. From these core competencies and theories, certain individuals have developed models for implementing a successful volunteer program. One of the main components of volunteerism is orientation and training, which in turn helps volunteers provide quality educational programming to their clientele (Brudney, 1990; Campbell & Ellis, 1995; Culp & Schwartz, 1999; Naylor, 1973; Penrod, 1991; Rauner, 1980; Scheier, 1985; Smith & Bigler, 1985; Vinyard, 1981; Wilson, 1976).

Brudney (1990) feels that volunteers need training and supervision in order to do their job effectively. Training gives volunteers the skills and knowledge needed to perform their work well and effectively (Culp, 1997; Cumming, 1998; Wilson, 1976). Wilson is of the belief that orientation is only the beginning of training for the volunteer, although too many agencies think that orientation is the only training needed for volunteers. Rauner (1980) describes three types of training for the volunteer. Pre-service, or orientation training, prepares the volunteer to begin the job. In-service training provides for a better understanding of the scope of their job. And continuing education includes training not related to a specific subject or job.

Training for volunteer leaders will allow them to increase their skills and thus offer more potent training to the volunteers (Rauner, 1980). It is important that volunteers receive effective training because poor training can harm the organization by decreased productivity in volunteers, a possible loss of volunteers, and by decreasing the image of the organization (Naylor, 1973).

Naylor (1973) notes that traditionally, training primarily included instruction solely on skills necessary to perform the specific task or job, but educators have disagreed, because this type of training lacks provision for individual volunteer learning needs. It is important to break down the content information into teachable parts, so the volunteers are able to comprehend all aspects of the training. To be successful, volunteers need to use a variety of teaching techniques and methods when delivering professional development to clientele.

If learning is a positive experience, then an individual strives to learn more, because they are motivated to further their learning. Research shows that knowing about yourself and your audience will help you in your teaching and working with others. Learning styles are "characteristic cognitive, affective and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and respond to the learning environment" (Keefe, 1987).

This supports the premise that educators should select a variety of strategies to assist the learning styles of the audience. This will result in a multifaceted and effective program that will appeal to more than one learning style at a time (Sarasin, 1998). The Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (2000) notes that it is important to match the learning styles of volunteers with appropriate training methods in the volunteer management process.

In the 1940s, Witkin initiated research on cognitive style, studying the perceptions of individuals in different spatial orientations. He found that people differed by how they use orientation tasks (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). Witkin (1976) later characterized these perceptual characteristics among individuals as field dependent or field independent. His basic premise is that individuals differ in their learning styles and that individuals tend to teach according to their learning style. By recognizing these differences in learning styles, one can adapt instruction to meet the needs of all learners (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, & Karp, 1971).

Field-dependent learners are global learners who prefer structured educational settings. They tend to have highly developed social skills and are aware of their social environment (Garger & Guild, 1984). Field-independent learners are more likely to be analytical and perceptual learners who prefer to structure their own educational settings. They may have less developed social skills and are interested in concept attainment, with the ability to distinguish differences among concepts (Garger & Guild).

Witkin et al. (1971) find consistent gender differences by field dependence, with women tending to be more field dependent then men. This is supported by many research studies (Cairns, Malone, Johnston, & Cammock, 1985; DeRussey & Futch, 1971; Morf, Kavanaugh, & McConville, 1971; Parlee & Rajogopal, 1974; Saarni, 1973; Sherman, 1974; Takigami, 1975; Torres & Cano, 1994). However, current research by Rudd, Baker, and Hoover (1998) and Baker, Rudd, Hoover, and Grant (1997) disputes this finding. Demick (1991) believes further study is needed in this area, due to the argument that many of these studies supporting gender differences by field dependence show only a low statistical significant effect.

There is some evidence of a relationship between age and field dependence. Comalli (1965) and Schwartz and Karp (1967) find that older individuals tend to be more field dependent. They find that, after the late 30s, individuals tend to lean toward field dependence.

Later research disputes this finding (Panek, 1985; Takigami, 1975). Panek (1982), who utilized the GEFT and a personality test on women age 60-81, suggests increasing age may have an effect on personality relationships. Knox (1981) notes that the transfer of learning tends to decline with age.

Baker et al. (1997) find that Extension professionals tend to be field dependent learners. The researchers recommend that any training delivered to this group include techniques to appeal to field-dependent learners such as the opportunity for social exchange, and a structured learning environment.

Because Florida Extension volunteers have such an impact on the state of Florida, it is imperative that volunteers are successfully delivering their educational programs. This reinforces the need to provide volunteers with instructional techniques and teaching strategies. Snow and Yallow (1982) note that the success of education is dependent on the adaptation of teaching to the learning differences among learners. Therefore, an effective volunteer management-training program not only should address the principles of volunteer management but also how volunteers in turn can effectively educate clientele.

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of the study reported here was to determine learning styles of Florida Association for Family and Community Education (FAFCE) volunteers. The objectives were to do the following.

1. Determine the demographic characteristics of FAFCE volunteers,
2. Identify current informal and formal volunteer training programs for FAFCE volunteers and,
3. Determine the learning styles of FAFCE volunteers.

Materials and Methods

The sample consisted of a select group of FAFCE volunteers in Florida, along with the county Extension agents who work with FAFCE volunteers. There are approximately 3,200 FAFCE volunteers in Florida located throughout five regional districts. A purposeful sample of volunteers was taken from those attending Districts II, III, and IV meetings. The total sample was 273 FAFCE volunteers.

Two survey instruments were used, a researcher-developed questionnaire and the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) (Witkin et al., 1971). The researcher-developed questionnaire was used to collect demographic information pertaining to FAFCE volunteers. The GEFT was used to determine the learning styles of the FAFCE volunteers in the study. Faculty in Agricultural Education and Communication, Family, Youth and Community Sciences, and Program Development and Evaluation reviewed the researcher-developed instrument for content and face validity.

Learning styles were measured by the GEFT (Witkin et al., 1971). The GEFT was designed to allow for a large number of individuals to be tested in one testing session. The national mean score for the GEFT is 11.4, with those scoring below 11.4 considered field-dependent, while those scoring above 11.4 considered field-independent.

The GEFT was based upon the Embedded Figures Test (EFT); the EFT reliability estimates are favorable with a reported reliability coefficient of .82 for both males and females (Witkin et al, 1971). The questionnaire and GEFT were administered to the sample between January and April of 1999.

Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences for Windows Release 9.0 (SPSSŪ, 1999). Percentages and frequencies were calculated to develop a descriptive profile of the population. GEFT scores were measured with age of the selected sample through bivariate correlation. An alpha level of .05 was set a priori.

Results/Findings

Demographic Characteristics of FAFCE Volunteers

Two hundred seventy-three FAFCE volunteers participated in this study. An additional 34 individuals completed the survey and reported their role as something other than an FAFCE volunteer or Extension agent. These individuals were not included in the analysis.

Eighty-seven percent (87.2%) of FAFCE volunteer respondents were female, while 7% were male, and 12 % did not identify their gender. Nine out of ten (90%) volunteer respondents were Caucasian/White, 6% were African American, and 4% were Native American. One individual in the study was Hispanic, one individual was West Indian, and one individual did not respond. The mean age of these FAFCE volunteers was 71 years of age, with a range from 49 to 90 years of age. Twenty-four volunteers failed to report their age.

Individuals in the sample were asked to identify their educational level. Of the 268 volunteers who responded to the question, "Please indicate your highest degree completed," 6% said some high school, 44% had a high school degree, 31% attended some college, 3% had earned an associates degree, 8% earned a bachelors degree, and 6% of volunteers surveyed had a graduate degree.

FAFCE volunteers involved in the study represented three of the five regional Extension districts in the state of Florida, Districts II, IV, and V. The FAFCE volunteers represented 24 of the 67 counties in Florida.

Current Informal and Formal Volunteer Training Programs for FAFCE Volunteers

The FAFCE volunteers were asked, "Have you received training as a member of FAFCE?" Less than half (42%) of volunteers reported they have received training. Twenty percent of the volunteers did not respond to this question. Those who participated in training noted they participated in a variety of trainings (10%), leadership training (8%), educational/specific topic training (7%), Family Community Leadership (FCL) (6%), officer training (3%), monthly training (1%), and working with youth (1%). County-level training was mentioned by one participant.

Respondents were asked to report the individual or group who hosted the training. Sixty-five percent of FAFCE volunteers did not respond to this question. Twenty percent of training was reported as given by county-level agents (19%). Other trainers included FAFCE member (4%), University of Florida (3%), a variety of trainers (3%), state specialists (2%), leader trainer (2%), FCL staff (1%), and volunteers (1%). The following trainers were also mentioned: club president, community leaders, and both national and state officers.

Learning Styles of FAFCE Volunteers

As a group, FAFCE volunteers were found to be field dependent. The median GEFT score for FAFCE volunteers was 2.0, with GEFT scores ranging from 0 to 18.

Correlational analyses were conducted with the variables of GEFT score and age. The correlation for the dependent variable, GEFT score, with the independent variable, age, can be observed in Table 1. A significant low negative correlation was found between age and GEFT score (r=-.17, p=.008). The effect of age on GEFT score can only attribute to 3% of the variance (r_=.029). Two additional correlations were run to see if the age of volunteer above and below the mean age could predict GEFT scores. FAFCE volunteers were separated into two groups for this analysis. There were no significant correlations between age and GEFT score for FAFCE volunteers who were 71 years of age and younger (n=108), and those above 71 years of age (n=132).

Variable	N	Correlation1	r_	p-value
Age	240	-.17a	.029	.008
Age < 71	108	-.02	.001	.818
Age >71	132	-.14	.018	.121
aSignificant at p<.01 1Pearson product moment correlation

Conclusions

Results of the demographic portion of the survey indicate that the typical FAFCE volunteer is a Caucasian female 71 years of age who does not work outside the home. Almost half of the volunteers earned a high school degree, and almost one-third attended some college.

Forty-two percent of volunteers noted they received training as a member of FAFCE. Major training received included: a variety of training (10%), leadership training (8%), educational/specific topic training (7%), and Family Community Leadership (6%). The respondents reported the individual responsible for the training to include county Extension agents (19%), Family and Consumer Educator (4%), University of Florida (3%), a variety of trainers (3%), state specialists (2%), and leader trainer (2%).

Brudney (1990) believes that training coordinates the motives and needs of the volunteers, the organization, and clientele. Rouse and Clawson (1992) finds older volunteers identified learning new things and using skills they perform well as their most important achievements motivators. Naylor (1973) notes that lack of training can decrease productivity in volunteers, decrease the image of the organization, and cost the organization volunteers as a result. Thus, not only is it important to provide current technical content to volunteers, it is equally important that trainers use a number of methods and teaching techniques in training.

The assessment of learning styles indicated that the median GEFT score of FAFCE volunteers was 2.0. This indicates that FAFCE volunteers are field-dependent learners. There was a low negative correlation (r = -.171, p = .008), between age and GEFT score for FAFCE volunteers. As age increases, scores go down. The direction of the relationship is consistent with literature; however, the relationship observed is very weak and does not explain a great deal of variation in the model. The findings of this study do not contribute substantially to the research by Comalli (1965) and Schwartz & Karp (1967) that show as individuals age, they tend to exhibit increasing field dependence.

The majority of individuals in this study were field-dependent women, which supports findings that show a relationship between field dependence and gender (Cairns, et al., 1985; DeRussey & Futch, 1971; Morf, et al., 1971; Parlee & Rajogopal, 1974; Saarni, 1973; Sherman, 1974; Takigami, 1975; Torres & Cano, 1994). However, an equivalent comparison group of males was not available for analysis. Therefore, we can not attribute the field dependence of the group solely on gender.

Implications

The results of this study affect FAFCE volunteers, Extension agents, state specialists, and the Florida Cooperative Extension Service. The findings suggest specific volunteer leadership and training issues that should be addressed in relation to FAFCE.

For example, less than half of FAFCE volunteers (42%) reported they received training, and 20% did not even respond to this question. For volunteers to carry out the mission, analyze and comprehend subject matter, and educate individuals in the community, they must receive adequate training. Efforts should be made to increase training and workshops for FAFCE volunteers. This reaffirms the need and rationale that FAFCE volunteers are a viable constituent group that should be served by UF/IFAS, Florida Cooperative Extension Service faculty, both at the county and state level. There is a continued need for agents to deliver educational programs and training to volunteers. Agents must be conscientious and understanding of learning styles in an effort to deliver effective programs.

Given the value and importance of FAFCE volunteers representing UF/IFAS Florida Cooperative Extension Service, the effort and input focused on professional development for volunteers can enhance their effectiveness in delivering programs to the clients in Florida. Therefore, it is imperative to offer professional development to both our agents and subsequently our volunteers, in an effort to deliver effective programs to Florida. By recognizing that individuals differ in their learning styles and tend to teach according to their learning style, trainers can adapt their instruction to meet the needs of all learners.

Additionally, training in teaching, including recognizing differences in learning styles, should be addressed, because these volunteers, in turn, educate and teach in their communities. It is vital for them to understand and appreciate different learning styles and use a variety of teaching methods in their volunteer programs.

Training efforts for both volunteers and agents must appeal to field-dependent and field-independent learners. Field-dependent learners prefer a structured learning environment and social interaction. They learn best when material is relevant to their own experience and use the spectator approach for concept attainment. Field-dependent learners make broad general distinctions among concepts and perceive globally. They need externally defined goals and reinforcements, and need organization provided.

Field-independent learners perceive analytically and are able to self-impose structure or restrictions. They make specific concept distinctions with little overlap and learn social material only as an intentional task. Field-independent learners are interested in new concepts for their own sake, have self-defined goals and reinforcement, and are able to self-structure situations. Field-independent learners use a hypothesis-testing approach to attain concepts (Garger & Guild, 1984).

Accommodating the unique learning styles of all learners will greatly increase the successful transfer of information. This effort will provide volunteers, county faculty, and state specialists with a variety of instructional strategies and guidelines for program delivery. The ultimate goal is to make the volunteers better educators and trainers within their communities and consequently enhance the effectiveness and image of UF/IFAS.

References

Baker, M., Rudd, R., Hoover, T., & Grant, T. (1997, December). Differences in learning styles of county Extension faculty in Florida based upon selected personal and organizational characteristics. Proceedings of the National Agricultural Education Research Meeting, Las Vegas, NV.

Boone, E. J. (1985). Developing Programs in Adult Education. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

Brudney, J. L. (1990). Fostering Volunteer Programs in the Public Sector. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Campbell, K. N., & Ellis, S.E. (1995). The (Help!) I-Don't-Have-Enough-Time Guide to Volunteer Management. Philadelphia: Energize.

Cairns, E. Malone, S., Johnston, J., & Cammock, T. (1985). Sex differences in children's group embedded figures test performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 6(5), 653-654

Comalli, P. E. (1965). Cognitive functioning in a group of 80-90-year-old men. Journal of Gerontology, 29, 9-13.

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Culp, K., III, & Schwartz, V. J. (1999). Motivating adult volunteer 4-H leaders. Journal of Extension, 37(1) [On-line]. Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999february /rb5.html.

Cummins, R. (1998). Leadership for volunteers: The way it is and the way it could be. Journal of Extension, 36(5) [On-line]. Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998october/tt2.html

Demick, J. (1991). Field dependence-independence: Cognitive style across the life span. S. Wapner, & J. Demick (Eds.). Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum.

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Saarni, C.I. (1973). Piagetian operations and field independence as factors in children's problem-solving performance. Child Development. 44, 338-345.

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Torres, R. & Cano, J. (1994). Field dependence/independence of students in a College of Agriculture. Proceedings of the National Agricultural Education Research Meeting. Dallas, TX. Vol. 21. pp 324-31.

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Witkin, H. A. & Goodenough, D. R. (1981). Cognitive Styles: Essence and Origins. Field Dependence and Field Independence. New York: International Universities Press.

Wiktin, H.A., Oltman, P.K., Raskin, E., & Karp, S. A. (1971). Group Embedded Figures Test Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Extension and Health Promotion: An Adult Learning Approach

Introduction

Over the last decade, the Canadian health system has been attempting to shift towards greater decentralization in the governance of health care services and more community involvement in decisions about health related policies, programs, and services (Canadian Public Health Association, 1996a). This shift has been prompted, in part, by a recognition that health is determined by many factors, not just health services but also socioeconomic factors such as unemployment, income, social status, education, and social supports (Evans, Morris, & Marmor, 1994).

This article examines how a university Extension department became involved in a rural, health promotion initiative in order to further learning and action around the determinants of health. Although the role of Extension education in health education is documented (Williams, 1997), little attention has been given to the role of adult learning in these initiatives. In order to strengthen community participation in health planning of three communities in rural Nova Scotia, the Extension Department of St. Francis Xavier University collaborated with the local women's association and the regional public health department, in the People Assessing Their Health (PATH) project (Gillis, 1999). This article discusses the role of adult learning strategies in this health promotion initiative and suggests ways that Extension educators in similar contexts can employ these strategies in their work.

The federally funded PATH project (Gillis, 1999) was unique in involving team members who had extensive knowledge and experience in adult education as well as health promotion. Consequently, the team, led by two adult educators who shared the project coordinating position, incorporated a strong adult learning component, resulting in PATH becoming a stellar example of how to integrate adult learning principles in community health projects.

Using a participatory process, community members from all walks of life identified factors that they considered important in making and keeping their communities healthy. The outcome was the development of community health impact assessment tools to enable citizens to become more informed participants in decisions influencing their health. Through the PATH process, community members become more aware of the broad spectrum of factors influencing their health as well as the health concerns of other communities in their region.

The Literature

The literature from health promotion and adult learning inform this research. The World Health Organization (1984) has defined health promotion as enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion called for a collective and cooperative, rather than individualistic, approach to promoting health (World Health Organization, 1986). In many ways, health promotion is thought of as a social movement (Pederson, O'Neill, & Rootman, 1994). Labonte (1993) defines health promotion as "any activity or program designed to improve social and environmental living conditions such that a person's experience of well-being is increased." Among the varied dimensions of health promotion, Mittelmark (2000) emphasizes its basic component of "strengthening communities' ability to take effective action at the local level." Health promotion has been widely endorsed at various levels of government in Canada (Canadian Public Health Association, 1996a, 1996b; Epp, 1986; Nova Scotia Department of Health, 1994).

Several factors influence the need to increase public awareness and collective participation in issues affecting health. Like many governments in the Western world, the Canadian government has been using multiple public awareness campaigns to promote individual lifestyle changes to reduce risk of chronic disease. Although such health promotion initiatives encourage individuals to modify their risk behaviors, they tend to result in the near exclusion of collective initiatives. They also result in the neglect of the broader determinants of health such as education, social status, employment opportunities, geographical isolation, and social support systems, factors that are at the heart of poor health (Evans et al., 1994).

Evidence is growing linking the impact of socioeconomic conditions and health (Canadian Public Health Association, 1997). Overshadowing the Canadian health promotion movement during the last decade, has been the escalation in health care costs and consequently a substantial number of efforts to reform the health system (Bickerton, 1999). The overall result has been greater recognition of the need for more informed citizen involvement in issues that affect community health.

Community-based health initiatives are frequently premised on learning from and with the community in order to increase capacity, although the learning dimension is rarely acknowledged. Early community development initiatives, such as the Antigonish Movement, for example, integrated a strong adult learning component (see Coady, 1939). On close examination, many of the Antigonish Movement's adult learning initiatives were informal (e.g., dialoguing, study groups, mentoring). Informal learning theory points to the use of numerous other informal strategies (e.g., networking, self-directed learning) to increase individual and group learning outside of established academic structures (Watkins & Marsick, 1990; 1992). Similarly, the PATH project employed numerous strategies, especially dialoguing through storytelling (Labonte & Feather, 1996), to increase learning in the community.

The frequency of informal learning was noted early-on by adult educator Allan Tough (1979), whose seminal studies on self-directed learning projects in the 1970s indicated that adults are continuously learning and becoming independent and self-directed in their learning. A recent Canada-wide study confirmed this early research. Livingstone (1998) found that 90% of adults are involved in informal learning for work or for general interest and that the average amount of time they spend on such learning is 6 hours per week. Their extensive telephone survey revealed that 75% of adults (n=1500) have intentionally learned about their health and wellbeing in the last year, whether alone or with other people. This result begs many questions, such as: how does such learning occur?; how significant is the learning in the life of the individual and community?; and what future impact does new knowledge have on the quality of the person's life?

The Canadian Context

This project was located in eastern Nova Scotia, a province on the East Coast of Canada. Communities in this region have faced many barriers to maintaining and promoting health due to geographical isolation and socioeconomic conditions such as lack of employment, inadequate income, and limited education. Residents of three diverse communities in this region were involved in identifying what determined their health and developing community health impact assessment tools to guide decision making related health programs and policies. The three communities included a remote Atlantic fishing community; a rural community dependent of seasonal fishing, forestry, and tourism; and a multicultural urban community with a declining economic base due to the demise of the steel industry.

The Canadian health-care system provides universal access and is publicly funded. All Canadians are entitled to full medical care without discrimination on any basis. However, through the forces of corporate globalization, public concern is growing that the Canadian health care system is being eroded. A lack of both federal and provincial funding is paving the way for the privatization of health care and a two-tiered system that will see the rich receive better health care than the poor.

This creeping privatization is especially relevant for the rural people in this study, who will be detrimentally affected by privatization. In a private system it is unlikely that these citizens will be able to afford quality health care and very likely that they will lose the range of choices they currently access. The drive of privatized health care to make the greatest profit possible is likely to deprive rural dwellers, who have low population base (and hence low profit margins), of adequate health care services. As researchers Bell and Cloke (1989) note, "rural areas provide less healthy arenas for competition than their urban counterparts."

Moreover, corporate globalization threatens the role that health care facilities play in the web of rural life. Rural hospitals and health centers are prime targets for government cutbacks without any consideration for the fact that the rural health care sector may not only be concerned with health care access, but also with the economic, social, and environmental health and wellbeing of the community as a whole (Lauzon & Hagglund, 1998). This study is situated within the overall context of health care in Canada, one in which many community-based agencies have had to "rationalize" their programs and services, and in which the responsibility for many aspects of health care falls on overburdened volunteer organizations and informal caregivers.

The rural context of health is significant (Health Canada, 2001) especially as changing demographics heighten the challenges facing rural and remote areas. (Although there is no single standard of what rural means, we define rural as consisting of country living, low population, and relative isolation.) In their report on the closing of rural hospitals in the province of Ontario, Canadian researchers Lauzon and Hagglund (1998) note that rural health levels are lower than urban ones (see also Lorenz et al., 1993). Similarly, U.S. research shows that populations in rural areas generally suffer greater levels of disability, impairment, and mental and physical disorders than those in urban areas, while at the same time experiencing higher rates of poverty and less access to health and human services (Jacob et al., 1997; Wimberley, 1993).

PATH Adult Learning Strategies

This article focuses on the question: How were adult learning theory and strategies used to increase informal learning in the PATH project? The particular adult learning strategies that we have identified in the PATH project are:

1. Integration of the learning cycle and experiential learning,
2. Dialoguing and storytelling, and
3. Networking.

We examine each of these strategies in order to explicate how Extension educators can learn from the PATH project to become even more effective in community-based health initiatives.

Working with Experience

Underlying the PATH project was the firm belief that people in each of the three communities knew a considerable amount about what makes them and their communities healthy, although they are likely not to express it in the technical language of determinants of health. A selection committee, formed in each community, hired a local person to organize and facilitate a series of community meetings over a 6-month period. The basic criteria for selection of the facilitator was that the individual knew the community, its key organizations and agencies, local leaders, and both the formal and informal channels of communication and that he or she had an interest in being trained as a community facilitator.

This local person (facilitator) convened and facilitated meetings in community halls and over kitchen tables so that people could share their views on what determines their health. The facilitators received training in basic facilitation skills as well as the story-telling/structured dialogue approach, which was based on the experiential learning cycle by David Kolb (1984). The questions were:

1. What do you see happening?
2. Why do you think it happened?
3. So what have you learned from the experience?
4. Now what can you do about it?

The process enabled participants to draw out themes related to health determinants from their discussions. The themes from all the discussion groups were then further analyzed into clusters of themes related to the health determinants.

Working with their local steering committee, the facilitators used the information that had been generated by the community members to design their community health impact assessment tools. Each tool reflected the unique nature of the community and the community's understanding of what determines health.

Story-telling was a key strategy in the PATH project. Local residents met in small groups to tell their stories of successes and frustrations in trying to maintain and promote their health. For example, a single mother told of her desire for more education so she could become employed and the difficulty she faced having neither an education program close-by nor the money for a correspondence course. She also talked about needing transportation to medical services when her children were ill and about her children not being involved in after-school activities because they needed to come home on the bus. She felt isolated and depressed because she was identified as a "socially assisted" person.

From each story, a web of socioeconomic factors determining health unfolded. After each story was shared, participants examined what happened, why it happened, what they learned from it, and what could be done about it. Being aware that the community members were learners with a lifetime of experience, the PATH team encouraged them to reflect on and critique their experience in order to learn from it. The group process strengthened the adult learning possibilities, built community identity, and stimulated a desire to move towards constructive action on issues affecting their health (Schneider, 1997). As one participant reported, "I was amazed at how the community was able to look at itself and draw out the main things that affect its health" (PATHways, 1997).

These sessions were not intended to be traditional adult education experiences, yet there was intentionality in the integration of adult learning strategies. One participant reported, "The facilitator seemed comfortable and made others comfortable. She had a command of the situation and knew why she was there" (PATHways, 1997). The honoring of individual experiences was key in this learning process. By engaging participants' experiences with the broader determinants of health, such as their lack of employment or education, their interactions with the health care system, and their sense of ability or inability to manage their health, the facilitators were able to help the groups examine the stories, critically reflect on them, and learn from them. The telling of stories became an opportunity to reflect on one's experience, construct new knowledge, and plan for the future.

Although many people have experiences that they do not learn from (Jarvis, 1987), the facilitator intervention in this case assisted community members in learning from their experiences. Experiences, from individual and community perspectives, were shared with the intent of creating knowledge and generating action. As one participant stated, "It started to take on a positive tone, going from 'they don't care' to 'why can't we make it happen?'" (PATHways, 1997). Some examples of actions initiated after the PATH project that came out of these discussions included organizing well women's clinics, well men's clinics, and self-esteem workshops for adolescent women.

Using Dialogue as the Basis for Learning

The facilitators called meetings of community residents in each of the three project sites. Because the facilitators understood their communities and were respected by the residents, they were, for the most part, effective in organizing these meetings. They sought out people of different ages, cultural background, locale, gender, and occupations, attempting to reflect the make-up of the three communities. The most challenging group to involve tended to be health professionals.

People gathered in kitchens and community halls to discuss the factors that contributed to the health of their community. They identified strengths as well as gaps in resources and services, and in the capacity of the community to improve health. Engagement in a dialogical process facilitated the identification of supports and challenges to healthy living (English, 2000). To ensure that all the voices were heard, the facilitators used small group meetings to create a comfortable and respectful atmosphere where everyone present could have an opportunity to speak.

This process enabled participants to begin strategizing about how they could have a greater voice in assessing the impact of programs, policies, or services on their community's health. Their participation enabled each community to develop a community health impact assessment tool which could be used to assess the impact of existing and potential programs, policies and services on their health (Gillis, 1999).

The facilitation of meaningful dialogue was key in assisting the participants in making sense of their community experiences, such as being able to access adequate health services when distance was a barrier, finding social support when living in an isolated rural community, or affording adequate food for their children when employment opportunities were scarce. By sharing their life experiences, they saw how health determinants were closely interrelated. Through creating an image, for example a clock or a tree, participants saw the dynamic nature of health and how many socioeconomic factors were linked and essential for building a healthy community. They were able to identify what was happening to them and their communities, and why.

In one community group discussion, the dialogue centered around the escalation in unemployment due to the decline in the off-shore fishery, which made healthy living very difficult for the residents. Unemployment affected residents' ability to maintain mental health, good nutrition, effective schools, and a stable home life. For another community group, a toxic waste site was the focus of attention. The informal meeting structure engendered extensive dialogue among members and increased community awareness of the issues that were affecting their quality of life. The group safety (Vella, 1994) created by the small group meeting structure was especially important to support the potential for learning. As one participant noted, "I felt I learned a lot; it broadened my outlook and changed some of my opinions. I saw the other side, other values, why people don't want to leave here" (PATHways, 1997).

Networking

Another important informal learning strategy was the facilitation of networks within communities and among them. Although the three communities were geographically separate, community facilitators and steering committee members from each of the three sites benefited from opportunities to meet regularly and share their perspectives. Knowing that another community was experiencing similar problems helped the respective groups put their own issues in perspective and realize that, living in this region of the province, they all shared common interests and concerns. As one participant said, "The process itself did something to get people to talk together about what had to be done, first within individual communities and then between them" (PATHways, 1997).

Members of the partner agencies, including the local women's association, the university Extension department, the public health department, along with the facilitators and members of each community steering committee, were part of a regional advisory committee. They were actively involved in the planning, design, implementation, and evaluation of the project. This participatory structure encouraged networking among community members, discouraged thinking that the facilitators and project organizers were the experts, and increased community members' belief that they could take control over their own health.

By bringing residents together to share their perspective on the health of their community, the facilitators were able to connect people in their communities and build their vision of a healthy community. Community development is successful when it brings people together and enables them to be active in shaping their future. When the PATH project ended, participants in one of the project communities formed an action group to address issues (the main issue being water quality) they had identified through the PATH process. In another community, two groups collaborated to plan and implement specific health promotion programs to address the needs of women and adolescents identified through their involvement in the PATH project.

Implications for Extension Departments

A prime intention of this project was to enable learning. More specifically, the intention was to:

• Increase community awareness and understanding about the broad spectrum of factors that determine health,
• Build a strong community network of people interested in taking action on health issues, and
• Promote information sharing and a common understanding about health issues facing their region among people from three diverse and remote communities within the region.

What lessons can Extension take from the deliberate adult learning element core to this project? Can the specific teaching and learning strategies used in this PATH project be used by other communities to promote health? We believe that Extension educators can learn a great deal from the PATH project.

To begin with, the participatory design permitted a considerable amount of learning to occur, without any lectures being given or any explicitly educational activities being used. Sensitivity to the community context, the range of literacy levels of participants, and the immediate need of residents to address current concerns around their health made structured educational initiatives superfluous. The PATH team believed that the community members knew much more than they could ever be told about what it takes to make their community healthy. The purpose of PATH was to enable the community members to work together to find their own answers to their own problems, not an easy feat when one considers the economic, social, and geographic challenges of these three communities.

Extension educators can take note that the deliberate inclusion of a learning process centered on the learning cycle of Kolb (1984) is an effective means of facilitating group learning. Encouraging the group not only to tell a story, but to critically assess why it happened and what can be done to change it, was an integral part of the individual and group learning that occurred. Although these community sessions were not structured, formal educational events, they did include intentional learning that was supported by opportunities for story-telling, dialogue, and networking. This intentional use of the elements of the learning cycle increased the possibility that learning could occur.

Extension educators can benefit from working closely with adult educators to plan participatory processes for community learning and development. In this case, such collaboration resulted in the inclusion of intentional informal learning strategies such as:

• Engaging experience, which encourages participants to learn from their everyday experiences of working together;
• Promotion of dialoguing, which honors the community participants as subjects of their learning; and
• Networking, which encourages the sharing of information and the strength of a collective effort.

Extension educators can also learn that they have a head start on identifying effective health promotion strategies. Because their focus typically is participatory, they often are able to avoid the pitfalls of some traditional health education initiatives. By using a participatory process and focusing on active, collective involvement in decisions affecting community health, Extension educators can avoid the extreme individualism that places responsibility for health primarily in the hands of the individual rather than in communities.

Extension educators are in a unique position to enable people to look at the "big picture" of health, especially the factors influencing overall population health and wellbeing. This position is particularly significant at this time, when many agencies have to rationalize their programs and services to focus on one aspect of wellbeing, such as economic development or environmental sustainability. This unique role for Extension departments ought to be carefully considered.

Future Directions

The qualitative nature of this study made certain information inaccessible. Does informal learning have a lasting impact? Did participants apply or transfer their learning after the PATH project was completed? What supports or conditions need to be in place for this transfer to happen? (See Ottoson, 1997.) How might this PATH project be used to generate other teaching/learning projects, including but not limited to health, that enable people at the grassroots to empower themselves? These questions have not been answered and warrant further study. However, Extension educators can benefit from reflecting on the lessons learned from this project as a way to further the process of adult learning and community development within the context of their work.

The authors would like to acknowledge Peggy Mahon of the St. Francis Xavier University Extension Department for her work on the PATH Project. They would also like to thank Jennifer Sumner of University of Guelph for helpful comments on an early draft of this article.

References

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Extension, Communities, and Schools: Results of a Collaborative Forestry Education Project in Philadelphia

Introduction

Today 75% of Americans live in either urban or suburban environments, and less than 2% of US citizens live on farms (National Research Council 1996). Thus, Extension's mission of reaching the people with science-based education involves addressing the needs of this increasingly urbanized population. Reaching urban audiences, youth in particular, was the foundation of an environmental education program conducted by Penn State's Forestry Extension Program and other cooperators.

Extension's long history of forestry education (Barden, Jones, & Biles 1996) is what makes it an ideal vehicle to reach inner-city youth with forest stewardship education. While the tradition of Forestry Extension lies with private landowner education, we believe that urban youth forestry education is another area where Extension can have a significant impact. Because private landowners and the public possess similar attitudes about forest management (Bliss 1994), it makes sense that urban residents could benefit from similar education efforts normally targeted at landowners.

Penn State Forestry Extension has taken a first step in addressing the educational needs of inner-city youth through several new programs. We worked with Philadelphia community leaders, school district administrators, and area teachers to develop a comprehensive educational program aimed at helping urban youth learn about forestry and forest management. We carried out three educational programs: Teaching Forest Stewardship to Urban Youth, the Police Athletic League-Penn State University Summer Natural Resources Program, and the Natural Resources Institute. Data sources include program evaluations and pre- and post-tests of attitudes and knowledge.

Teaching Forest Stewardship to Urban Youth

Recognizing schools as opportune places for environmental education, Teaching Forest Stewardship to Urban youth was implemented in cooperation with the Philadelphia School District. This educational program aimed to foster a sense of forest stewardship with inner-city youth, helping them learn more about natural resources and their management.

Broussard, Jones, Nielsen, and Flanagan (2001) conducted an evaluation of the program with the goal of comparing educational gains and attitudinal changes after each of the three educational components to determine their effectiveness. The three educational components were:

• Forestry education in a classroom,
• Forestry education in a local urban setting, and
• Forestry education in a more rural setting at a demonstration forest.

Data expressing student attitudes and knowledge about forestry were obtained by administering a questionnaire to the students before and after the activities.

One hundred eighty-two students from three Philadelphia middle schools participated in the educational program. About 46% of the students were male, and 54% were female. The students were in grades 6, 7, and 8, with ages ranging from 9 to 14. About 84% of the students classified themselves as African-American, 4% as American Indian, 1% as Asian-American, 1% as Caucasian, and 0.5% as Latin-Hispanic.

The students were divided into three groups: experimental, control, and placebo. The control group did not participate in any of the educational programs and served as a reference point for the students that did participate in the educational programs. The placebo group received a college preparation presentation unrelated to the content of the study. The students in the experimental groups participated in all three educational components, the forestry activities in the classroom, urban environment, and demonstration forest.

Within those six groups, students were randomly chosen for testing after the first, second, or third educational component. Therefore, all students took one pre-test and one post-test. The three educational activities were cumulative, so all the students in the experimental groups participated in all three components.

Forestry Education in a Classroom

The first education component was an indoor classroom session consisting of a slide presentation on Pennsylvania's forests, followed by a Project Learning Tree activity. The slide show adapted for use in this study was created by Allison Harmon (1997) and used when she tested the educational effectiveness of demonstration forest tours with private landowners.

The slide presentation covered topics of forest history, forest ecology, silvicultural treatments, forest growth and development, and threats to forest sustainability. After the slide presentation the students were led through the Project Learning Tree activity titled "We All Need Trees" (American Forest Foundation 1995). The purpose of this activity was to help students discover the diversity and multitude of products that are derived from trees and their importance to society.

Forestry Education in an Urban Setting

The second education component was an outdoor urban forestry activity at Cobbs Creek in Philadelphia. Cobbs Creek is part of the 8700-acre Fairmount Park, which is the largest urban landscaped park in the United States. The Cobbs Creek activities included topics of tree measurement and ecology, and a reiteration of tree facts presented in the classroom. The students worked in pairs to measure tree diameter, height, and crown cover. Students also identified the trees that they measured.

Back in the classroom, the students recorded all the data and created a graph of the tree characteristics for the section of Cobbs Creek that was visited. These urban forestry exercises were aimed at helping students make the link to an important natural resource in their community while further illustrating the role that forests play in their everyday lives.

Forestry Education in a Rural Demonstration Forest

The third education component was a guided tour of Penn State's 12-acre French Creek Forest Stewardship Demonstration Area. Penn State, in partnership with state and federal forestry and natural resource agencies, established seven Forest Stewardship Demonstration Areas across Pennsylvania to encourage responsible forest resource management through education (Harmon, Jones, & Finley, 1997). The 12-acre demonstration area, which is about 1 hour from Philadelphia, comprises six silvicultural treatments: control, thinning from above (high-grade), thinning from below, shelterwood, improvement thinning, and a clear-cut.

Activities at French Creek centered on walking through the woods, examining and comparing the different silvicultural methods, and discussing how harvesting affects forest sustainability and how it is used as a management tool. We also covered forest facts and ecology. The purpose of the demonstration forest activity was to provide a comparison of some harvesting options and encourage dialogue about their positive and negative consequences.

Knowledge Measures

In terms of the two knowledge measures, the students who were part of the three-stage cumulative educational activities had more forestry knowledge than the control and placebo groups (Table 1). Forest Practices knowledge scores ranged from 0 to 1, with one being higher knowledge. Forest Ecology knowledge scores ranged from 1 to 6, with a score of 6 representing higher knowledge. The educational activities together resulted in significant attitude change on all measures as well. After the educational program, students possessed more neutral attitudes about timber harvesting and strict forest preservation while understanding the use of harvesting as a beneficial management tool in forestry.

Knowledge and Attitude Measures	Mean Scores Control/Placebo	Mean Scores Treatment Groups	F Statistic	p-value
Forest Practices and Management Knowledge	0.43	1.12	41.23	.000
Forest Ecology and History Knowledge	3.39	3.78	10.66	.001
Anti-Timber Harvesting	3.861	3.483	11.33	.001
Utilitarian View of Forests	2.374	2.741	7.30	.008
Forest Preservation, not Use	3.393	3.043	11.03	.001
Timber Harvesting Beneficial Mgmt. Tool	2.673l	3.331	17.61	.000
Timber Harvesting Permanently Destroys Forests	2.941	2.394	13.49	.000
1Strongly Agree, 2Agree, 3Neutral, 4Disagree, 5Strongly Disagree

As a result of participating in the educational activities, the youth learned more about forestry, shed their negative views about forestry, and adopted attitudes in favor of harvesting sustainably. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that classroom exercises, urban forestry activities, and demonstration forests are all valuable components of an educational program and contribute to participant knowledge gain and attitude change.

Police Athletic League-Penn State University Summer Natural Resources Program

Penn State partnered with the Police Athletic League (PAL) of Philadelphia to conduct a 6-week program aimed at teaching inner-city youth about forestry and natural resources. PAL, a non-profit organization that oversees more than 300 PAL chapters across the nation, has nearly 1.5 million young people nationwide who participate every year. In Philadelphia PAL, youth centers provide more than 24,000 boys and girls, ages 6 to 18, with constructive, character-building activities, including athletics, educational programs, and civic/cultural activities to help them resist the temptations of juvenile delinquency and crime.

The PAL-PSU summer program was run through three of the West Philadelphia PAL centers. The goal of the program was to provide inner-city youth with natural resources education experiences. There were 42 students, ages 7 to 18, who participated in the PAL-PSU summer program.

The first week the students went to Cobbs Creek Community Environmental Education Center in Philadelphia. With its riparian areas, wildlife, and trees, the area was an excellent learning resource for the youth. While at Cobbs Creek the students learned about tree identification and looked at different ecological aspects of the park.

The next week students visited the Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia to learn about urban forestry and the many benefits of city trees. The youth examined how trees grow, regulate temperature, and provide oxygen.

The third week the students learned about trees and the wood products that they provide by doing an indoor Project Learning Tree activity called "We All Need Trees." The day ended with the students making their own paper. Because Cobbs Creek was in the process of laying out their trail, the next activity entailed data collection. The students surveyed the area and recorded data on trail width, areas of special interest, damaged areas, and wet areas.

The next week the students left the city to tour the French Creek Demonstration Forest in Reading. There, the students learned about forest management and timber harvesting and how they influence forest sustainability. Complex issues about forest management were explained and discussed in terms of component topics: consumers, forest products, wildlife, water, soil, and enjoyment of forest resources. This was one of the last trips, and it tied together all the concepts and topics that were introduced earlier.

The last week of the program the students visited Penn State's University Park campus for a day. The day began with a trip to Beaver Stadium, home of the Nittany Lions. Afterwards the focus shifted to college preparation talks covering areas like coursework preparation, SATs, financial aid, and careers. Many of the students were college-bound, so this information was very timely.

The afternoon was filled with trips to Penn State's agricultural and forest lands, where the students gained even more firsthand information on how we obtain food, wood products, and other benefits from the land. Before returning to Philadelphia the students toured the Deer Research Facility to learn about some of Pennsylvania's wildlife.

PAL youth centers represent an excellent partner that can give Extension another window into the urban inner-city community. As a result of the PAL-PSU summer program, the students were able to voluntarily participate in a unique program that broadened their knowledge in a new subject area. In addition to the natural resources activities, they gained some insight into the college application and admission process.

Natural Resources Institute

The Natural Resources Institute (NRI), a weeklong teacher training program, equips Philadelphia teachers with the skills necessary to incorporate natural resources into their curricula. The program was held approximately 4 driving hours from Philadelphia, at Penn State's Shavers Creek Environmental Center and at other forested areas near the University Park campus in Central Pennsylvania. Ten science teachers from Philadelphia elementary, middle, and high schools participated in the program.

The week of the Natural Resources Institute began with an orientation discussing the week's activities. In the spirit of working together, a team-building program was included early on. This day included individual and group challenges that emphasized communication, cooperation, leadership styles, diversity, improving one's self-concept, and understanding the role of the individual within the team. The day also included "Discovery Walks," during which the teachers explored how to utilize the outdoor environment for student learning experiences. The following day included more team building, a birds of prey presentation, and more classroom activities that the teachers could use.

Mid-week, the teachers went through a Project Learning Tree workshop in which presenters introduced them to the curriculum and went through several activities, as they would do with students. They also heard a presentation on wildlife from Penn State's wildlife biologist.

The last day included topics on urban forestry and tours of the Stone Valley Demonstration Forest and Rock Springs Forest Stewardship Demonstration Woodlot. This day the teachers learned about forest products, human consumption of natural resources, wildlife, and different ways that forests are managed. The teachers also explored issues of forest sustainability.

The program evaluations indicated that the teachers thought the program objectives were clearly stated; the content was relevant, timely, and appropriate; the instructional aids were supportive; and the overall program was excellent. The teachers referred to the NRI instructors as a "committed group of naturalists," and rated the instructors very high.

After attending the workshop, 80% of the teachers said they planned to incorporate natural resource activities and lessons into their classrooms within the next 6 months. The teachers ranked the team-building and hands-on instruction among the most useful aspects of the program. Teachers also found interacting with other teachers in the District very useful. One teacher described how they would greatly benefit from "the connections we made with other teachers at other schools."

Key Lessons

Through these three education programs, Penn State Forestry Extension was able to provide a number of Philadelphia youth with a quality natural resources educational experience. We identified several key lessons of program design from our experience with the Philadelphia educational programs.

First, educational program effectiveness is dependent upon incorporating both indoor and outdoor sessions. Outdoor experiential learning activities can be effective tools to work with urban youth environmental education (Bixler, Carlisle, Hammitt, & Floyd, 1994; Bennett & Padalino 1989; Bowman & Shepard 1985; Carlson & Baumgartner 1974). The indoor activities making paper and doing other Project Learning Tree exercises were effective in getting all the students acclimated to forestry and learning in a natural environment. These exercises also allowed time to address any fears or discomforts associated with learning in a forested environment.

Second, the teachers are an important link in youth education. Given the proper tools, teachers can incorporate natural resources into their classrooms providing additional benefits beyond the initial training. Some teachers indicated that lack of background knowledge was a barrier to incorporating environmental education into their curricula (Chamberlain, Forest, Gasdaska, & Weigmann, 1990). This is an area where Extension can lend expertise, becoming involved with local school districts and arranging classroom visits or field trips.

Last, tying into the urban community and environment are important aspects of inner-city youth education. By collaborating with PAL workers in established youth programs, we established a comfortable and familiar setting in which students could learn. Researchers have found that some students express fearful responses to learning in natural environments (Bixler et al., 1994; Metro, Dwyer, & Dreschler, 1981). Through this study's use of the urban environment, the children were able to make a connection with natural resources in their own communities. Translating the educational experience into something the children could relate to in their own neighborhood was key.

Conclusion

Designing an educational program using indoor, urban, and forested environments is an effective way to help students gain more knowledge and shape their attitudes about forestry. Schools and community centers represent additional avenues to reach inner-city youth. When educators (both formal and non-formal) are empowered with information, skills, networks, and confidence, they can pass the benefits of a natural resources education on to their students.

This project shows how beneficial results can be gained through collaborative programming and partnering. Our experience not only serves as an example for Extension educators interested in engaging urban youth but also provides insight into natural resources education.

References

American Forest Foundation. (1995). Project Learning Tree Environmental Education Activity Guide K-8. American Forest Foundation: Washington, DC.

Barden, C.J., Jones, S.B., & Biles, L. E. (1996). Extension forestry education: Reaching the people who make decisions. Journal of Forestry, 94(3), 31-35.

Bennett, D.B. & Padalino, J. (1989). The role of environmental education in programs for youth-at-risk. Journal of Contemporary Education, 60(3), 153-155.

Bixler, R.D., Carlisle, C.L., Hammitt, W.E., & Floyd, M.F. (1994). Observed fears and discomforts among urban students on field trips to wildland areas. Journal of Environmental Education, 21(3), 37-40.

Bliss, J.B. (1994). Forestry community or granfalloon? Journal of Forestry, 92(9), 6-10.

Bowman, M.L & C.L. Sheppard. (1985). Introducing minorities to natural resource career opportunities. Ohio Journal of Science, 85(1), 29-33.

Broussard, S., Jones, S.B., Nielsen, L.A., and Flanagan, C.A. (2001). Forest stewardship education: Fostering positive attitudes in urban youth. Journal of Forestry, 99(1): 37-42.

Carlson, J.E. & Baumgartner, D. (1974). The effects of natural resource camps on youths. Journal of Environmental Education, 5(3), 1-7.

Chamberlain, B.B., Forest, D.R., Gasdaska, J.P., & Weigmann, W.J. (1990). Environmental education needs assessment. Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources.

Harmon, A. H., Jones, S.B., & Finley, J.C. (1997). Encouraging private forest stewardship through demonstration. Journal of Forestry, 95(6), 21-25.

Metro, L.J., Dwyer, J.F., & Dreschler, E.S. (1981). Forest experiences of fifth-grade public school students. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, Research Paper NC-216. St. Paul, MN.

National Research Council. (1996). Colleges of Agriculture at the land grant universities: Public service and public policy. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

The Capable Families and Youth Project: Extension-University-Community Partnerships

Introduction

A large body of research has documented that early adolescence is a critical stage in adolescent development at which to intervene in preventing the onset of problem behaviors, such as substance use (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1995; Spanier, in press; Weissberg & Greenberg, in press). This stage is distinguished by significant physical, cognitive, and social changes in the majority of adolescents (Caplan & Weissberg, 1989). Substance use experimentation at this stage is associated with these developmental changes and may become predictive of long-term patterns of use (Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992). For this reason, a number of prevention researchers (e.g., Spoth & Molgaard, 1999; Spoth, Redmond, & Shin, 1998; Spoth, Reyes, Redmond, & Shin, 1999) have recommended early adolescence as an optimal developmental time at which to offer preventive interventions that address substance use experimentation during the early adolescent stage.

A recent examination of substance use found higher prevalence rates among rural adolescents than among urban adolescents (National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University [CASA], 2000). Specifically, the CASA study found both alcohol use and drunkenness were greater among rural adolescents. The monthly prevalence rate of alcohol use among Iowa youth (11 to 18 years of age) was 26% (Iowa Consortium on Substance Abuse and Research Evaluation [ICSARE], 2000) versus 20.5% in national sample of 12 to 17 year olds (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999). Additionally, rates of some types of alcohol-related problems among rural Iowa adolescents are showing a disturbing trend. For example, the "heavy" use of alcohol among rural Iowa adolescents was 4% in 1990, 5% in 1993, and 8% in 1999 (ICSARE, 2000).

To address the problem of early adolescent substance use initiation in rural Iowa, the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) funded the 5-year Capable Families and Youth (CaFaY) Project, a collaborative effort between Iowa State University Extension (ISUE) and the Institute for Social and Behavioral Research (ISBR) at Iowa State University. The purpose of the project is to conduct a longitudinal, controlled evaluation study of a multicomponent science-based substance use preventive intervention targeting rural adolescents and their families using an Extension-university researcher-community partnership. Science-based programs use empirically valid methods to consistently produce positive outcomes concerning the prevention of adolescent substance use, as well as the promotion of adolescent mental health and competency building.

This article focuses on a description of the project partnership in which Extension personnel at the state and community level collaborated extensively with university researchers to facilitate linkages between university research efforts, local school personnel, and families in the community.

The focal point of the project is an Extension-university researcher-community partnership aimed at "action-oriented research" (Small, 1995; Spoth, 2000; Spoth & Molgaard, 1999). The project partnership includes two goals:

• To evaluate the efficacy of universal family and adolescent competency building interventions, using findings to clarify intervention-related change mechanisms; and
• To develop strategies for Extension-university researcher-community collaboration in the diffusion of science-based family and adolescent interventions.

Background in Extension-University Researcher-Community Partnerships

The project objective is the enhancement of young adolescent and family skills and the reduction of young adolescent high-risk behaviors to ensure that greater numbers of rural young people develop into healthy and adaptive adults. (An overview of the broader program of research, Project Family, including a summary of studies and project manuscripts, is available from the second author.) This objective is realized through a partnership process that includes the problem-focused phase of action-oriented research and the various tasks of preventive intervention research (Elias, 1992; Elias, Gager, & Leon, 1997; Mrazek & Haggerty, 1994).

The partnership process and activities were well established prior to the beginning of the project. These initial activities began with a collaboration between an ISU preventive intervention researcher and an Extension Family Life Specialist. This two-way collaboration eventually evolved into a three-way collaboration among Extension state and field specialists, university-based prevention researchers, and community-based participants.

The initial collaboration inspired an early joint effort in the formation of a prevention-oriented workshop conducted as part of a larger Extension program. Subsequently, the university researcher secured funding from the NIDA to conduct a research project including preventive intervention outcome studies. Collaboration on the Extension workshop and receipt of a preventive intervention research grant set the stage for a series of meetings with other Extension staff to explore a number of specific opportunities for collaboration (Spoth, 2000; Spoth & Molgaard, 1999; Spoth & Redmond, 1996).

An example of a specific opportunity included discussions with Extension staff in the communities where the project was to be implemented. As part of this process, Extension staff consulted on preventive intervention implementation tasks. For instance, input was requested on project school recruitment and recommendations of local residents to serve as preventive intervention group leaders (Spoth & Molgaard, 1999).

The initial collaborative activities, plus the constructive early partnership experience, led to a proposed large-scale longitudinal preventive intervention outcome study. The focal point of the proposal was a partnership among state and county-level Extension staff, university researchers, and community participants. The proposal referred to the Extension System potential in project implementation and large-scale dissemination of preventive interventions.

Ultimately funded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), the proposal provided further opportunities for refining the collaborative process. Positive intervention outcomes (Redmond, Spoth, Shin, & Lepper, 1999; Spoth, Goldberg, & Redmond, 1999; Spoth, Redmond, & Lepper, 1999; Spoth, Redmond, & Shin, 1998; Spoth, Redmond, & Shin, 2000(a); Spoth, Redmond, & Shin, 2000(b); Spoth, Reyes, Redmond, & Shin, 1999;) provided continued partnership success and an incentive to develop other proposals designed to expand the concept (Molgaard, 1997; Spoth & Molgaard, 1999; Spoth et al., 1999).

It is important to note key characteristics of the partnership development process within the framework of multiple, grant-funded preventive intervention research studies. As a result of this developmental process, the structure and function of the partnership varied to some degree across early activities. In some activities, state- and county-level Extension staff assisted primarily with local implementation activities. For other tasks (e.g., dissemination), Extension staff directed the activities, and university researchers had relatively minimal involvement (Spoth & Molgaard, 1999).

The Capable Families and Youth Partnership

The Capable Families and Youth (CaFaY) Project involves a partnership among Extension staff, university researchers, and local schools and families in rural communities. Funded by the NIDA, the CaFaY partnership has benefited considerably from collaboration with ISU Extension for initial project planning, recruitment, and implementation. The overall purpose of the CaFaY Project is to conduct a longitudinal, controlled study of a multicomponent preventive intervention targeting at-risk rural adolescents and families. In addition, CaFaY provides valuable information in the development of science-based strategies for Extension-university-community partnerships in the dissemination of family and adolescent preventive interventions.

Extension's Role in Project School Recruitment

Thirty-six schools from economically stressed, rural Iowa communities were recruited for participation in the CaFaY Project by Extension staff. There were several steps in the school recruitment process.

• District level school officials were contacted by ISU Extension to inform them of the project and to obtain administrative approval and support. Subsequently, a packet of informational materials was sent to the school district superintendent.
• A follow-up meeting with school officials was scheduled and conducted by ISU Extension. During the meeting with school officials, voluntary support and participation of classroom teachers who would be involved in classroom-based program delivery was emphasized.
• With superintendent consent, meetings were arranged and conducted by ISU Extension with middle school principals to explore potential involvement of their school.
• Arrangements were made to meet with seventh grade classroom teacher(s) identified by the principal as being likely to volunteer to participate in the project. A presentation was made covering much of the same material included in the previous presentations, but with more emphasis on issues typically of concern to classroom teachers.
• Classroom teacher concerns and barriers were identified through a series of focus groups collaboratively conducted by ISU Extension and university researchers. During the focus groups, middle school teachers and counselors not involved in the selection pool for the project provided information to assist in structuring teacher training sessions, as well as teacher incentives.
• A brief interview was conducted with each interested teacher in participating schools. In some cases, presentations were made to parent groups or local school boards to obtain project endorsement. Local Extension staff were involved in these efforts.

Preventive Interventions

The 36 schools in the CaFaY Project were randomly assigned to one of three groups:

• The school-based preventive intervention group,
• The school-based preventive intervention plus the family-focused preventive intervention group (the multicomponent intervention), or
• The control group.

The 12 schools in the school-based preventive intervention group received the Life Skills Training (LST) program (Botvin, 1996; 2000); the 12 schools in the multicomponent intervention group received LST plus the Strengthening Families Program: 10-14 (SFP: 10-14) (Molgaard, Kumpfer, & Fleming, 1997). Parents of adolescents in the schools assigned to the control group received parenting information provided by ISU Extension. The following paragraphs briefly describe the multicomponent interventions.

Life Skills Training (LST). The main goal of LST is to promote skill development, primarily social resistance skills, self-management skills, and generic social skills, and to provide a knowledge base concerning substance use. Extensive research (Botvin, Baker, Dusenbury, Botvin, & Diaz, 1995; Botvin, Baker, Dusenbury, Tortu, & Botvin, 1995; Schaps, Bartolo, Moskowitz, Palley, & Churgin, 1981) has documented that LST is more effective than traditional didactic strategies in reducing adolescent substance use initiation. Further information on the LST program can be found at www.lifeskillstraining.com.

Strengthening Families Program: 10-14 (SFP: 10-14). The long-range goal of SFP: 10-14 is to reduce adolescent substance use and other problem behaviors. This goal is accomplished with parallel SFP: 10-14 adolescent and parent sessions, while a conjoint family session provides reinforcement and skill practice. Additional information on the SFP: 10-14 program can be found at www.Extension.iastate.edu/sfp/.

Both LST and SFP: 10-14 provide adolescents with skills that promote healthy relationships with teachers, peers, and family members, as well as skills that are associated with the reduction of substance use and other problem behaviors. Initial results and findings from the project are reported separately (Epstein, Botvin, & Spoth, 2001; Griffin, Epstein, Botvin, & Spoth, 2001; Spoth, Redmond, & Trudeau, 2001; Trudeau, Lillehoj, Spoth, & Redmond, 2001).

Extension's Role in Project Implementation

Over the course of the CaFaY Project, there have been several implementation phases in which Extension staff played a valuable role, in addition to the recruitment activities described earlier.

• Extension Family Life Specialists authored parenting materials provided to control group families.
• Extension Family Life Specialists authored to the family-focused SFP: 10-14 program.
• Press releases for local newspapers were wri