Volume 39 Number 1
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February 2001 Volume 39 Number 1 |
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| Scale | M | SD | % Experiencing Anxietya |
| Overall Computer Anxietyb | 101.69 | 31.79 | 20.3% |
| Subscalesc | |||
| General Attitude | 11.43 | 3.77 | 47.5% |
| Data Entry | 10.98 | 3.80 | 46.0% |
| Word Processing | 10.47 | 3.48 | 36.9% |
| Business Operations | 9.78 | 3.54 | 29.4% |
| Computer Science | 9.47 | 3.18 | 26.7% |
a Percentages in this column represent the percentages of the total respondents whose scores were at least 130 on the overall scale and 13 on the subscales.
b Overall anxiety was computed using all 40 questions. Ranges and categories for the overall computer anxiety scale were: 40-79, very relaxed/confident; 80-104, generally relaxed/comfortable; 105-129, mild anxiety; 130-149, anxious/tense; and 150-200, very anxious (Oetting, 1985).
c Ranges and categories for the five subscales, each of which had four items, were: 4-8, very relaxed/confident; 9-10, generally relaxed/comfortable; 11-12, mild anxiety; 13-14, anxious/tense; and 15-20, very anxious (Oetting, 1985).
The results of a step-wise regression analysis on the variables are presented in Table 2. The analysis was conducted using the dependent variable of computer anxiety as measured by the total of all scores recorded by respondents for the 40-item COMPAS instrument.
The table indicates that the t values for time spent using a computer, age, and years with the Extension were significant. The probabilities for these variables were all less than the alpha level of .05 established a priori. The negative t values indicate that the more education and time spent using a computer, the lower the anxiety levels. The positive t values for age and years in Extension indicate more anxiety as these variables increased. The positive t-value for gender reflects the fact that females were coded as 1 and the males as 2 and males had higher anxiety levels. The time spent using a computer explained 13% of the variance in the overall COMPAS score. Age and years with the Extension service accounted for a total of 3.5% of the variance. It would be logical that these variables would be highly inter-correlated. The remaining variables, gender and education, were not significant and accounted for less than 1% of the variance.
| Source of Variation |
SS | Df | MS | F | Probability |
| Regression | 59814.9 | 5 | 11963.0 | 15.694 | .000 |
| Residual | 266028 | 349 | 762.257 | ||
| Total | 325843 | 354 | |||
| Variables in the Equation | |||||
| Variables | R2 | F | t | Probability | |
| Time Using the Computer | .130 | 55.365 | -7.441 | .000 | |
| Age | .024 | 9.649 | 3.106 | .002 | |
| Years in Extension | .011 | 4.534 | 2.129 | .034 | |
| Education | .004 | 1.551 | -1.245 | .214 | |
| Gender | .003 | 1.104 | 1.051 | .294 | |
The most frequently adopted computer applications were e-mail, with 89.0% use; word processing, with 88.1%; and the Internet, with 80.1% usage (Table 3). Secretaries and 4-H agents used e-mail and word processing the most. Excluding the technicians, more than 85% of each of the other personnel types used the Internet. The desktop publishing application was used by only 17.0% of the respondents. Except for presentation software, the secretaries used the applications more than other personnel. This relates to the fact that secretaries used the computer more hours per day than other personnel types. Agriculture and Natural Resources (ANR) agents used presentation software more than any other personnel type and used spreadsheet, financial, and database applications considerably more than any group except the secretaries. The Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) and 4-H agents used e-mail and word processing more than other groups except the secretaries. The technicians used all the applications the least.
| Personnel Type | ||||||
| Application | ANR (n = 91) |
FCS (n = 48) |
4-H (n = 68) |
Technician (n = 75) |
Secretary (n = 120) |
Total (n = 402) |
| 82 90.1% |
46 95.8% |
66 97.0% |
47 62.7% |
117 97.5% |
358 89.0% |
|
| Word Processing | 77 84.6% |
45 93.8% |
65 96.6% |
49 65.3% |
118 98.3% |
354 88.1% |
| Internet | 79 86.8% |
43 89.6% |
58 85.3% |
36 48.0% |
106 88.3% |
322 80.1% |
| Presentation | 63 69.2% |
29 60.4% |
31 45.6% |
9 12.0% |
48 40.0% |
180 44.8% |
| Spreadsheet | 49 53.8% |
11 22.9% |
21 30.9% |
10 13.3% |
80 66.7% |
171 42.5% |
| Financial | 37 40.7% |
13 27.1% |
14 20.6% |
3 4.0% |
90 75.0% |
157 39.1% |
| Database | 22 24.2% |
6 12.5% |
16 23.5% |
8 10.7% |
65 54.2% |
117 29.1% |
| Graphics | 16 17.6% |
12 25.0% |
18 26.5% |
13 17.3% |
54 45.0% |
113 28.1% |
| Desktop Publishing | 13 14.3% |
7 14.6% |
13 19.1% |
10 13.3% |
25 20.8% |
68 16.9% |
| Others | 7 7.7% |
3 6.3% |
2 2.9% |
6 8.0% |
13 10.8% |
31 7.7% |
Extension personnel were also asked purposes for which they used computers (Table 4). The predominant uses for all personnel were educational materials and communications. ANR agents used computers to respond to clientele requests more than any other personnel type. They also used computerized record keeping more than any other group except secretaries.
| Personnel Type | ||||||
| Purposes for Computer Use |
ANR (n = 91) |
FCS (n = 48) |
4-H (n = 68) |
Technician (n = 75) |
Secretary (n = 120) |
Total (n = 402) |
| Educational Material |
83 91.2% |
45 93.8% |
64 94.1% |
41 54.7% |
110 91.7% |
343 85.3% |
| Communica- tions |
78 85.7% |
46 95.8% |
64 94.1% |
31 41.3% |
94 78.3% |
313 77.9% |
| Clients' Requests |
72 79.1% |
35 72.9% |
32 47.1% |
24 32.0% |
77 64.2% |
240 59.7% |
| Record Keeping |
54 59.3% |
21 43.8% |
32 47.1% |
20 26.7% |
105 87.5% |
232 57.7% |
| Others | 10 11.1% |
3 6.3% |
8 11.8% |
9 12.0% |
24 20.0% |
54 13.4% |
Considering the level of computer usage, it is advisable to continue to provide staff training for the Virginia Cooperative Extension personnel, and the same is likely to be true in other states. Computer training that is targeted to those 40 years of age and older may help alleviate their concerns. A review of position descriptions for technicians should be done to see what aspects of computer usage are required. This could facilitate additional training for the technicians related specifically to their needs, which might decrease their anxiety level.
It was indicated in this study that personnel used many computer applications, but only a few were used by the majority. It is suggested that the Extension training staff and other educators who work with pre-service and in-service Extension personnel review the applications to determine which are necessary in the daily work of various personnel categories and provide training specific to these applications.
The Extension training staff and other educators should provide personnel with training in new technologies. This can be accomplished more effectively when those providing the educational programming understand the needs of the personnel. A profile of a computer-relaxed respondent would be a younger employee who is a secretary and uses a computer more than 3 hours per day. A profile of a computer-anxious person would be a middle-aged respondent who is a technician and uses the computer fewer than 2 hours per day. The largest number of personnel used the computer to produce educational materials and to communicate with colleagues. Personnel used computers least for record keeping. Further research could determine whether this was because of a low level of need for this function or a lack of competency with record keeping software programs.
Additional research should be conducted to identify why technicians are more anxious about computer use than other personnel types. It would be useful to investigate the position requirements of technicians to determine what contributes to their higher anxiety levels. It may be that they are not provided sufficient access to a computer to develop a level of comfort through consistent use.
Additional study could identify if the needs of Extension clients related to computer usage are being addressed. There may be computer programs available to personnel that would assist the clients, but personnel may lack skills in using these programs. If so, additional training should be provided relative to specific programs. Focus groups could be held for personnel to suggest ways their positions could be improved with new computer programs or additional computer training. This study accounted for 17% of variance in computer anxiety. Additional research might identify variables that could explain the remaining variance.
Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1995). Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Services.
Kotrlik, J. W., & Smith, M. N. (1989). Computer anxiety levels of vocational agriculture teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 30(2), 41-48.
Oetting, E. R. (1983). Manual: Oetting's Computer Anxiety Scale (COMPAS). Ft. Collins: Tri-Ethic Center for Prevention Research, Colorado State University.
Oetting, E. R. (1985). Oetting's computer anxiety scale. In J. V. Mitchell, Jr., The ninth mental measurement yearbook. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, Vol. 2, 1079.
Smith, M. R., & Kotrlik, J. W. (1990). Computer anxiety levels of southern region cooperative extension agents. Journal of Agricultural Education, 31(1), 12-17.
Ryan J. Schmiesing
Interim Leader, Program and Volunteer Risk Management
4-H Youth Development
Internet Address: schmiesing.3@osu.edu
Jan Henderson
Leader, Program Development and Evaluation,
Internet Address: henderson.1@osu.edu
Ohio State University Extension
Columbus, Ohio
Volunteers frequently have a high public visibility on behalf of a nonprofit corporation; they are the persons whom individuals dealing with the nonprofit corporation see first and most often (DeWitt, 1995). Organizations are becoming more aware of legal pitfalls associated with poor volunteer management. Administrators are instituting the following volunteer screening practices: position descriptions, applications, interviews, reference checks, motor vehicle record checks, criminal history record checks, psychological tests, medical tests, home visits, and volunteer orientation. Using sound management practices and being aware of volunteer rights and responsibilities provide a solid foundation for an effective volunteer management program (Seevers, Graham, Gamon, & Conklin, 1997).
Today, more than one million nonprofit organizations exist in the United States, including human and social service providers, foundations, associations, civic leagues, and cooperatives (Rypkema, 1996). Organizations all over the U.S. have relied on the services of volunteers to meet the needs of their clientele.
Youth organizations recruit volunteers to coordinate and take part in camping, teaching, transporting, mentoring and counseling activities for young people. Youth programs have become an important part of society because they not only add to the quality of life, but also increase the personal pleasure of the volunteers themselves (Ellis & Noyes, 1990).
The purpose of this study was to describe the volunteer screening procedures used by administrators of selected youth organizations. The objectives were to: (a) describe the types of volunteer screening procedures used by the selected youth organizations; (b) identify liability issues encountered by volunteer administrators when implementing volunteer screening procedures; and (c) describe the types of volunteer responsibilities of the identified organizations.
A qualitative methodology was selected to obtain in-depth information and capture what subjects have to say in their own words. According to Miles and Huberman (1994), qualitative data show more in-depth information about a case or individual than do quantitative data, which tend to summarize information based on numbers and statistics.
Final determination of the eight selected organizations was based on conversations with volunteer coordinators assessing if volunteer screening procedures were in place, the level of involvement of adult volunteers, and geographic proximity to the researcher. Of the original 10 organizations contacted, the following participated in the study:
Administrators agreeing to participate in the study were interviewed in a face-to-face setting using an interview schedule consisting of 21 open-ended questions, each with necessary probes to increase level of understanding.
Table 1 outlines the current practices of the eight organizations as they relate to the use of the seven identified screening procedures.
| Screening Tool | Number of Organizations Using for All Potential Volunteers |
| Position Description |
8 |
| Application | 7 |
| Reference Check | 6 |
| Interview | 6 |
| Motor Vehicle Record Check |
4 |
| Criminal History Record Check |
3 |
| Home Visit | 2 |
Six of the participating organizations have written volunteer screening procedures in place for all potential volunteers. Screening procedures were widely distributed to paid staff, but were made available, on a limited basis, to potential volunteers. Seven organizations use the same procedures for all potential volunteers, regardless of their level of contact with youth. Of the eight organizations, four place all screening responsibility on paid staff, while the remaining organizations have the potential for volunteer involvement. The amount of training or orientation associated with volunteer screening varied from formal, national workshops to local sessions, one-on-one conversations, or reading books and articles.
Participating organizations identified several concerns that might slow the screening process or completely disqualify a potential candidate. The concerns included: (a) refusal to supply all requested information or meeting minimum requirements; (b) felony charges or extraneous comments; and (c) incomplete applications. Administrators identified the following as reasons to not accept potential volunteers: (a) engagement in illegal activities, such as pedophilia, drug trafficking, or other criminal activity; (b) conflict with organizational mission; and (c) level of commitment and behaviors of potential volunteers. Legal counsel has been involved with six administrators in the decision making process regarding volunteer acceptance.
Organizational administrators identified three positive aspects and one negative aspect of having a volunteer screening process in place. In a positive sense, the screening process provided an increased comfort level for parents of youth participants, enhanced the importance of responsibilities, and demonstrated a level of professionalism. At the same time, administrators indicated that a screening process could make the process of engaging a volunteer take too long, thus causing the potential volunteer to lose interest and not follow through with the commitment.
Six of the organizations participating in the study engage volunteers in activities that do not involve long-term, direct contact with a child. Organizations are not permitting volunteers to have access to confidential client information; volunteers are not involved with personal activities of youth; and volunteers are not expected to coach youth in activities in which physical contact between a youth and adult is routine. Volunteers in the selected organizations are involved in the transportation of youth, and, in general, activities take place in group or public settings.
Based upon the study findings, the researcher suggests the following implications and recommendations directly related to participating organizations.
The following recommendations are made for further study related to volunteer screening and selection for nonprofit agencies.
DeWitt, J. D. (1995). A legal handbook for nonprofit corporation volunteers [On-line]. Available: http://iciclesoftware.com/vlh/
Ellis, S. J. & Noyes, K. H. (1990). By the people, a history of Americans as volunteers (Rev.ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Fisher, J. C. & Cole, K. M. (1993). Leadership and management of volunteer programs: A guide for volunteer administrators. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
McCurley, S. (1994). Recruiting and retaining volunteers. In R.D. Herman and Associated (Eds.), The Jossey-Bass handbook of nonprofit leadership and management (pp. 511-534). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Patterson, J. (1994). Staff screening tool kit: Keeping the bad apples out of your organization. Washington, D.C.: Nonprofit Risk Management Center.
Rypkema, P. J. (1996). Nonprofits' essential handbook on insurance. Washington, D.C.: Nonprofit Risk Management Center.
Seevers, B., Graham, D., Gamon, J., & Conklin, N. (1997). Education through Cooperative Extension. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers.
Stephen F. Duncan
Professor, School of Family Life
Brigham Young University
Provo, Utah
Internet Address: sduncan@byu.edu
Tim Dunnagan
Department of Health and Human Development
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana
Suzanne Christopher
Department of Health and Human Development
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana
Lynn Paul
Food and Nutrition Specialist
Montana State University Extension Service
Bozeman, Montana
By creating the Families Achieving Independence in Montana (FAIM) program in 1994, Montana became one of the first states to undergo welfare reform. One assumption of the program is that families coming off welfare often need life skills education that supports the goals of economic self-support. Working in partnership with the Montana Department of Public Health and Human Services (DPHHS), Montana State University Extension Service developed EDUFAIM: Educating Families to Achieve Independence in Montana. The program is in its fourth year of funding from the Children, Youth and Families at Risk (CYFAR) Initiative of the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service (CSREES).
In this article we briefly describe the development, implementation, and preliminary evaluation of EDUFAIM as a model for statewide integration of efforts to help families dependent on public assistance enhance family resource management and move toward a more self-supporting lifestyle. We hope this model will be helpful to other states engaged in self-reliance education.
EDUFAIM is based on principles of empowerment (Cochran & Woolever, 1983). Empowerment theory implies that individuals and families have strengths that can be mobilized and that they have some idea of what their goals are and what they need to do to achieve them. Even if they are not functioning well, this perspective holds that individuals and families can develop the necessary skills and strengths they need to have the quality of life they want.
One criticism of empowerment theory as it is applied in American culture is that it overemphasizes individual responsibility for change at the expense of societal factors (Minkler, 1997). To counter this criticism, EDUFAIM program development has also been guided by an understanding of the complex needs of limited resource families. Program offerings are tied to participant needs and reflect a comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach to helping individuals and families function effectively in the community context (CES, 1991).
From a human ecological perspective, there are limiting factors at different levels of the social ecology that impede individuals' and families' access to basic resources (McCray & Williams-Willis, 1991, cited in CES, 1991). Some of these are found at the household and individual level, the community services level, and the community characteristics level. Families receiving public assistance have earnings insufficient for adequate health care, adequate nutrition, quality childcare, and adequate housing. These families may require skills in managing limited finances and family responsibilities. EDUFAIM helps families acquire these skills through focused education programs.
FAIM, the state's welfare program, has three components: the Job Supplement Program, the Pathways Program, and the Community Services Program. EDUFAIM is offered through the second component, the Pathways Program, which is designed to provide families with "educational opportunities leading to permanent public assistance alternatives." Also, families not on FAIM are referred to the classes by a wide variety of collaborators.
EDUFAIM is designed to help limited resource families gain the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed for effective family resource management and progress toward a self-supporting lifestyle. Specific educational program content is determined by the needs identified and prioritized by individual families and communities. Program areas may include, but are not limited to, the following.
EDUFAIM originally began at two regional sites serving five counties. At the request of their constituency, these regional sites have now expanded services to nine counties.
Upon entering the Pathways Program, families develop a Family Investment Agreement (FIA) in consultation with a FAIM coordinator. Families indicate in this agreement the kinds of EDUFAIM courses they believe they need to help them move toward a more self-supporting lifestyle.
These classes are taught by an EDUFAIM Family Educator assisted by an EDUFAIM Program Aide in small group settings or one-on-one, if dictated by the circumstances of the individual. The Family Educator is a Master's-prepared professional with training in family and consumer sciences who has considerable experience working with limited resource families. Program Aides are paraprofessionals indigenous to the limited resource population and have real-life experience on public assistance.
EDUFAIM staff work collaboratively with the local Community Advisory Council for FAIM, consisting of agency representatives, volunteers, and members of the target audience. Together they have developed their own vision, mission statement, and strategic plan that are in line with the state vision. They hold regular meetings to review and update their plans.
Local staff are supported with educational materials and training, evaluation, and computer technology by the state EDUFAIM Team. This team is comprised of resident and Extension faculty representing 10 disciplines:
Each site has two computers, one for office use and one for public use. These computers provide Internet connectivity, allowing the sites access to many Web-based resources for their clientele and the ability to stay connected with each other, with like-minded professionals nationally, and with the state EDUFAIM team.
The State EDUFAIM Team is in turn supported by college deans, department heads, Extension administration, and state directors of the DPHHS who, together, have developed a shared vision, mission statement, and strategic plan for addressing the educational needs of at-risk families in Montana, using EDUFAIM as a vehicle. The vision, mission, and strategic plan are reviewed and updated annually, and course corrections are made where needed.
We had five evaluation objectives for EDUFAIM. The evaluation objectives related to changes in knowledge, skills, behaviors, and health orientation that promote self-sufficient living in a cost-effective manner. The objectives included measuring:
Four measures were used to evaluate client empowerment for employment: motivation, cognition, locus of control, and self-efficacy. These measures were included because of their relationship with empowerment (Zimmerman, 1990) and obtaining employment (Vinokur & Caplin, 1987).
The mental health/well-being measures evaluated levels of self-esteem, global life satisfaction, positive and negative affect, anxiety, and depression. These variables were selected because of their positive association with healthy relationships/families, positive social networks, and employment status.
A group of EDUFAIM participants at both sites (n=34) completed a survey containing these measures at entrance into EDUFAIM and at a 3-month follow-up. Findings indicated statistically significant increases in internal locus of control (p = .029) and significant reductions in anxiety and depression levels (p = .02 and p = .03, respectively) over the course of 3 months.
Using a one group pretest-posttest design, five core classes were evaluated: nutrition, parenting, money management, job readiness skills, and housing improvement. The evaluation tools were designed to measure relevant changes in self-reported skills, knowledge, and behavior. Ideally, we would have used a quasi-experimental design that employed random assignment of individuals to a treatment and a delayed intervention group (control group) to assess program impact. However, because sample sizes in many of the classes were small and delaying client participation in a program designed to empower persons toward self-support was not acceptable, we chose the less rigorous design with its recognized limitations.
Despite these limitations, the data analysis showed positive changes in relevant measures of knowledge and behavior in participants who completed core EDUFAIM classes. These changes were consistent across all five of the core classes. Key results included increased percentages of participants reporting increases in nutritional status, food safety behaviors; and healthy cooking techniques; increased feelings of self-worth; increased parenting skills; increased money-management skills; increased decision-making and relationship-building skills; and increased job-search skills.
With regard to the fourth objective, in-depth interviews were conducted with 34 participants on 10 open-ended questions to gather formative evaluation data related to the program and to assess transformative learning as a result of participation in EDUFAIM.
Transformative learning is a concept that comes from adult education. Transformative educational processes occur when learners reassess personal assumptions and examine whether their present approach to doing things is right for them (Clark, 1993; Courtenay, Merriam, & Reeves, 1998; Sokol & Cranton, 1998). This self-reflection helps learners prepare to take action. Programs that result in transformative learning create real-life changes in participants; a "conversion" to a way of thinking about themselves; and doing things that are "better" for themselves and their families.
Outcomes of transformative learning include:
Other, less common outcomes mentioned in the literature include enhanced spirituality and an involvement in ways of knowing other than rational. These outcomes are fostered by:
The 34 interviews were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. NUD*IST (Nonnumerical, Unstructured, Data-Indexing, Searching Theorizing) qualitative software was used for data analysis (Sage, 1996). Analysis was conducted based on methods described by Strauss and Corbin (1990), Patton (1987; 1990), and Bogdan and Bicklen (1992). All authors participated in the data analysis. Analysis revealed seven themes that cross-cut the 10 interview questions. The themes were:
Life Skills
Responses subsumed under the life skills theme related to information and skills respondents learned in areas of money management, job readiness skills, parenting, and nutrition. The information and skills that respondents shared related directly to the content offered in four of the five core educational classes and reveal transformative learning outcomes. For instance, one participant remarked about changes in money management skills:
Empowerment
Responses under the empowerment theme related to changes respondents made in the way they saw themselves and in the way they interacted with the world. Issues under empowerment were separated into five areas: empowered to try skills they learned in class, empowered to teach other people skills they learned, a sense of self-respect and hope, feelings of confidence, and taking better care of themselves.
The respondents talked about changing their world-view due to participation in the program. Regarding changes in the area of self-respect and hope, one participant stated:
Social Benefits
One benefit of the program discussed by most clients was the social rewards they received from their involvement. Included under the theme social benefits were responses related to benefits received by participants that came from decreased isolation, getting to talk about issues, being around other people with similar situations, and meeting new people and making friends, suggestive of transformative learning. For instance, one participant said: "[Coming to EDUFAIM] made life easier: I guess by making more friends. I don't feel so completely alone."
Program Value
Under the theme of program value, clients expressed general comments about the positive aspects of the program, many of which echo transformative learning outcomes. One client described the program value in this manner:
Facilitating Learning
Under the theme of facilitating learning were responses related to the content of the classes, the learning environment, instructors, and educational strategies used in educational sessions. The responses reported in this section were all positive. The benefits of a positive learning environment were discussed by one client this way: "They [the instructors] make it fun and interesting to want to come here all the time. You sit there and listen to them and participate in what they are doing."
Program Weaknesses
Comments related to rules and regulations, content dislikes, and the inconvenience of the program were included under program weaknesses. Most responses under the questions "what are some of the things you really don't like about the program?" and "what about the EDUFAIM program has made your life more difficult?" were actually positive responses. A small minority of the clients reported program weaknesses. One participant shared this example of program inconvenience: "Traveling the distances. I go 50 miles each time."
"Just Do It"
The "Just do it" category came predominantly from responses to the question "if another person was about to enter the EDUFAIM program, what would you tell him or her?" Respondents made clear the benefit they derived from the program. The majority of the respondents made comments about getting as involved as the person can, taking advantage of what is offered, and using the information provided. One participant offered the following advice: "To go to the classes every week. Not to miss any cause if you do you miss out on something new, something different that could help you out."
Under the fifth and final evaluation objective, an analysis of state welfare data supplied by the state welfare agency was conducted. Using data from the EDUFAIM sites between 1996-1999, a logistic regression was conducted to evaluate the impact of EDUFAIM affiliation (EDUFAIM participant vs. non-participant) on cost-related measures.
The control variables used in the regression equation included gender, age, education, and household size. The binary dependent variables (participants and non-participants) used in four separate regressions included: 1) any employment for 1998, 2) any earnings for 1998, 3) any unearned income for 1998, and 4) any food stamps for 1998. Using an alpha level of .10, significantly less unearned income was seen with the EDUFAIM participants than the non-participants (p=.04). No significant changes were seen with any employment for 1998 (p=.25), any earnings for 1998 (p=.12), or any food stamps for 1998 (p=.98).
However, the odds ratios generated through the regressions showed that the EDUFAIM participants had almost two times the probability of obtaining any employment in 1998 and more than two-times the probability of generating any earnings in 1998. Therefore, the preliminary results are encouraging and merit additional investigations that incorporate larger sample sizes and additional data on EDUFAIM participants and non-participants throughout the state.
The EDUFAIM federal liaison has termed the EDUFAIM project a "model of collaboration." One indicator of a successful collaboration is when collaborators give unsolicited praise for the program. Of the interviews with collaborators, the federal liaison wrote that:
We hope to see EDUFAIM expand to serve the needs of Montanans throughout the state. We also hope the EDUFAIM model will be helpful to other states engaged in self-reliance education.
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Zimmerman, M. A. (1990). Taking aim on empowerment research: on the distinction between individual and psychological conceptions. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18 (1), 169-177.
Judy McKenna
Family Economics Specialist
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
Internet Address: mckenna@cahs.colostate.edu
Alma Owen
Family Economics Specialist
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Internet Address: almaowen@cfs.purdue.edu
Catherine Blansett
Doctoral Candidate
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
Internet Address: blansett@holly.colostate.edu
What if you could find a way to help low-income families save? Even better, what if you knew that almost half of the families you worked with would learn to set aside some of their income to reach a future goal? Would you want to be involved? There is a national effort sweeping the country, and preliminary evaluation data indicates that poor folks who participate can save and will save.
When the United States initiated a major shift in welfare policy in 1996, Extension educators across the country joined forces with county departments of social services and nonprofit organizations to offer life skills education to welfare recipients to prepare them for work-based support of their families. Setting the stage for significant policy change, a social work theorist, Michael Sherraden, at the Center for Social Development at Washington University, promoted the idea that assets could help low-income families achieve economic stability and security.
From the inception of tax policy, individuals have been rewarded for certain financial decisions. Individuals and families with higher incomes have been able to deduct mortgage interest on their homes (and vacation homes) and have been able to make tax-advantaged contributions to retirement accounts.
However, lower-income households have not had adequate income and cash flow to take advantage of tax benefits or accumulate assets. Although asset ownership is a critical component of financial security, almost half of America is asset poor, with less than $1,000 in assets (Boshara, 1999). More than one-third of the United States population have no investable assets (Duran, 1998).
Assets accumulate as families are able to defer current spending to savings to reach financial goals. Sherraden is credited with creating the concept of Individual Development Accounts (IDAs) to help low-income families accumulate assets to reach long-term goals. Without assets, it is difficult to own a home, help children acquire post-secondary education, or retire with adequate income.
Sherraden has written convincingly that low-income families deserve the same opportunity to amass assets as middle- and upper-income families. He believes that assets are as important to low-income families as to families with many resources. Sherraden (1991) outlines the positive effects of asset-building:
Sherraden states that the pathway out of poverty comes from saving and asset accumulation. In addition, he suggests that as low-income families switch from short-term to long-term planning, their behavior changes to achieve long-term goals.
Assets benefit society as well as families. Education increases lifetime earnings of bachelor's degree over those with high school diplomas more than $600,000. A 10% increase in the average level of education raises productivity by 8.6%. Homeownership benefits children, who have lower dropout and pregnancy rates than children of renters with identical socioeconomic characteristics (Duran, 1998).
An IDA is a savings account established by a low-income individual who meets established guidelines. As the participants save, their savings are matched by an established ratio of 1:1 up to a ratio of 1:9. Matching funds may come from Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) funds, federal and state funds, and banks through the Community Reinvestment Act.
IDA savings plans are managed by community organizations, and accounts are held at local financial institutions. At the end of a pre-agreed upon time period, often 2 to 3 years, the savings plans are available to participants for personal goals. The most common goals are education (for adults and/or their children), starting a new business, or buying a home. Depending upon each program's guidelines, additional goals may be funded, such as retirement accounts, automobile purchase and repair, and major home repairs.
All programs have something in common, but each defines its own specifics. They all define:
Several states have allocated state funds for IDAs. They include Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Virginia.
Indiana, for example, passed a $6.48 million demonstration project in 1997. The legislation authorized a $3 match for every $1 the participant saves. The Indiana guidelines allow participants who have an annual income of 150% of the federal poverty level or 60% of the median income of the county where they live. Individual contributors receive a 50% tax credit. TANF recipients may participate if they have earned income. The Indiana IDA program is administered by the state Department of Commerce and the Community Development Corporation Association. The Indiana IDA program received $930,000 in federal funding for FY2000 for IDA match dollars.
The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 included provisions for states to use TANF funds to establish IDAs for low-income individuals. As of January 2000, 25 states had included IDAs in welfare reform plans, and 27 states had passed IDA legislation for TANF recipients and/or low-income families. Even more important, money in an IDA is exempt from asset limits in all federal means-tested programs.
Many states, including Colorado, passed legislation allowing TANF funds to be used for IDAs. In fact, Colorado mandated that TANF recipients be allowed to establish IDAs, but the obstacles of establishing the new TANF program and developing an IDA program have been great. There is no state fund appropriation for IDA matches or administration, and no counties had made IDAs available to TANF recipients in early 2000. Too often, welfare program administrators have decided that TANF recipients have too few funds to save. On the other hand, TANF recipients and other low-income families who are working perceive that they could save. The Community Action Project of Tulsa County, Oklahoma used focus groups with existing clients. Eighty-nine percent of 300 respondents thought they could save $25-30 each month.
As of February 2000, there were approximately 200 IDA programs across the country, and another 100 were being developed. Because IDAs are a form of investment in the community--homeownership, business development, and workforce education--the program should be considered an investment in human capital rather than another give-away effort.
Ten foundations were convinced that IDAs offered an incentive to reward initiative of the working poor. Because this effort is based on empowerment instead of entitlement, the foundations provided $15 million to measure the potential value of IDAs. A demonstration project, the American Dream Demonstration (ADD), selected 13 sites around the country for the initial demonstration. Demonstrations are located in Austin, Texas; Barre, Vermont; Berea, Kentucky; Chicago, Illinois; Fond du Lac, Wisconsin; Indianapolis, Indiana; Ithaca, New York; Kansas City, Missouri; Portland, Oregon; San Francisco, California; Tulsa, Oklahoma; and Washington, DC. Of the original sites, only three had previous IDA experience. Nine of the thirteen are located in urban areas, but four serve small cities and rural areas.
A national evaluation study is in its initial phase (Sherraden, Page-Adams, & Johnson, 1999) to evaluate the American Dream Demonstration. The evaluation will cover 1997-2003 and will provide data about the costs and benefits of IDAs. There are several components of this large project, including interviews with participants and additional data collection through a monitoring instrument known as "MIS IDA." This computer program collects information about numbers of accounts, patterns of savings, use of savings, etc. It reports both program level and individual level data.
An experimental design survey is being done in Tulsa, Oklahoma using in-depth interviews. A snap shot survey of cross-sectional participants in programs other than Tulsa will provide information on an interim basis. Successful and non-successful participants will be interviewed and written up as case studies to bring to life the quantitative data.
One of the original American Dream Demonstration sites, ADVOCAP, Inc. in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin has been evaluated over a 2-year period. The maximum savings allowed was $1,000 per participant, which could be matched by $2 for every $1 saved. A participant could accumulate a total $3,000 in savings. Forty-four percent of the participants saved the maximum; 50% saved $400 or more; and 64% saved at least $200. Nine participants used their IDA savings to purchase homes. Ten participants funded a business. Most interesting, most of the savers funded their IDAs with a lump sum rather than in smaller amounts on a more frequent basis. (Lazear, 1999).
As of June 30, 1999, 1,488 low-income families throughout the United States had saved $259,593, and those IDA accounts garnered an additional $761,712 in matching funds (Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1999).
Initial findings indicate that programs need to do a better job with their financial education programs. The programs that offered financial education classes at the same time that participants were saving were more successful in getting people to save than those who gave workshops before savings accounts were opened.
Research on programs offering IDAs show that educational programs designed to help participants achieve financial goals and learn how to manage money and credit are excellent supports for participants in the IDA program. Through money management education, IDA participants learn to avoid credit crises (Riley, 1999).
Asset accumulation and financial education have many benefits for the participants. Participants report positive effects on life satisfaction and self-empowerment, and an overall improvement in psychological well-being. There are positive effects on planning for future economic security (Friedman, 1999). Following are comments from some of the participants.
There is a very committed group of people across the country who believe strongly that IDAs are one solution to breaking the cycle of poverty. The economic principle, incentives matter, is just as important for low-income families as for families who have greater resources.
This effort offers a significant opportunity for Extension educators to contribute educational expertise to work jointly with local nonprofit organizations to educate and increase the asset base of the working poor. Extension is known for helping to increase the economic health of communities. IDAs provide a way for poor, near-poor, and lower income families to gain a stake in the community. IDAs also help pull community resources together. Following are some of the things that you can do to help people help themselves.
Prepare for the next wave of federal grants promoting the Assets for Independence Demonstration Program. Starting in 1999, this program, funded by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, will continue to fund new projects for 5 years. The first award of $9.4 million funded 40 demonstration grants in 27 states. The awards ranged from $6,000 to $930,000 (www.hhs.gov). The goal nationally is to establish more than 10,000 IDA accounts. (See 12/14/99 Federal Register for Project Guidelines). The key ingredients to a competitive proposal are strong community partnerships with successful agencies serving low-income families and access to matching funding through state, local, and private funding (see www.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/ocs).
Become familiar with existing programs, training curricula, IDA program materials, etc. There are numerous resources including:
Check the Center for Social Development Web page to find out what your state is doing about IDAs and who the contact people are in your state < http://gwbweb.wustl.edu/Users/csd/ida>.
Check the national workforce preparation initiative Web page < www.reeusda.gov/wfp> for innovative program ideas and curricula that have been developed for low-income families.
Attend the annual spring IDA conference. (See < www.cfed.org> for details).
Hold training and partnership meetings around the state with nonprofit agencies, Community Development Credit Unions, United Way representatives, program leaders who work with TANF, and other interested people. Form community coalitions (McKenna & Carroll, 1999; Borden & Perkins, 1999; Stevens & Lodl, 1999). In the collaboration meetings, emphasize the potential to increase human and financial capital. If people are financially healthy, they are more likely to be physically healthy (Aldana & Liljenquist, 1998). Don't forget the assets that participants bring to this program.
Current research shows that financial education and financial health result in fewer absences from work and increases in productivity (Garman et al., 1999). Work with employers to hold financial education classes for low-income families at the work site.
Use (and adapt) existing curricula and promote financial education. Evaluation research (Sherraden, Page-Adams, & Johnson, 1999) indicates that participants are better prepared and more likely to complete participation if they receive financial education at the beginning of and during the time they are contributing to IDAs. Education is focused on existing strengths of participants and expands their knowledge of budgeting, saving, and investment basics. Further education is determined by the participant's goal.
IDAs are not just a program about managing credit, even though that is an important component. Neither are they only about where to find the best interest rate on a savings account. The purpose of this program is to transform participants from handout seekers to investors. Savings represent hope and the future (Riley, 1999).
Extension educators have an opportunity to partner with nonprofit agencies in the establishment and sustainability of important financial planning practices. Armed with an interesting, motivating, and challenging base curricula plus modules to meet various goals, educators can promote ideals of lifelong asset building to low-income families.
Some Extension educators have contracted to provide financial education to program participants. For example, the money management training for the Community Action Project of Tulsa County is provided by Cooperative Extension < www.idanetwork.org>. Other educators provide the training as part of their educational responsibilities. IDA savers can be incorporated into current educational programming on the earned income credit or other financial literacy and life skills programs.
Individual development accounts are designed to help low-income workers acquire assets to meet goals leading to financial security. Establishing IDA programs is a community-building and enrichment process that ultimately enhances the entire community. As Michael Sherradan says, "we want to help people save their way out of poverty."
Aldana, S. G., & Liljenquist, W. (1999). Validity and reliability of a financial strain survey. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning Education. 9(2), 11-18.
Borden, L. M., & Perkins, D .F. (1999). Assessing your collaboration: A self evaluation tool. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 37(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999april/tt1.html
Boshara, R. (1999, December). Federal and state IDA policy overview. Washington, DC: Corporation for Enterprise Development.
Corporation for Enterprise Development. (1999, December). Individual development accounts. Washington, DC.
Duran. A. (1998, October). Individual development accounts. Good Faith Fund, 2, 1-8.
Flacke, T., Grossman, B., & Jennings, S. (1999). Individual development account. Program design handbook: A step by step guide to designing an IDA program. Washington, DC: Corporation for Enterprise Development.
Garman, E. T., Kim, J., Kratzer, C. Y., Brunson, B. H., & Joo, S. (1999). Workplace financial education improves financial wellness. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 10(1), 79-88.
Lazear, D. (1999). Implementation and outcomes of an individual development account project. Center for Social Development, St. Louis, MO: Washington University.
McKenna, J., & Carroll, J. (1999). Collaborative problem solving: Financial education for youth. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 37(5). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999october/a3.html
Office of Thrift Supervision. (1998, November). Individual development accounts (IDAs): Strategy for asset accumulation. Washington, DC: Community Affairs.
Riley, Tom. (1999, January/February). Individual development accounts. Downpayments on the American dream. Philanthropy, 11-13.
Sherraden, Michael. (1991). Assets and the poor: A new American welfare policy. New York: M. E. Sharpe.
Sherraden, M., Page-Adams, D., & Johnson, L. (1999, January). Start-up evaluation report. Downpayments on the American dream policy demonstration. Center for Social Development. St. Louis, MO: Washington University.
Stevens, G. L., & Lodl, K. A. (1999). Community coalitions: Identifying changes in coalition members as a result of training. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 37(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999april/rb2.html
Faye C.H. Lee
Youth Development Advisor
University of California Cooperative Extension
San Francisco County
Internet Address: fhlee@ucdavis.edu
Shelley Murdock
Youth Development Advisor
University of California Cooperative Extension
Contra Costa County
Internet Address: swmurdock@ucdavis.edu
Both research and practical experiences support the notion that youth service and/or participation in communities can contribute to alleviating many of the problems faced by today's youth. These problems include alienation from families, schools, and communities, and involvement in activities that may lead to teen pregnancy, substance abuse, and other problems (Benard, 1990). Cross-age teaching is believed by many to be among the most effective at providing youth with opportunities that will lead to healthy development and avoidance of delinquent behaviors (e.g., Resnick & Gibbs, 1986; Schine, 1989). Having teenagers teach younger children is a commonly used model in Extension's youth development programs. Despite limited research on the benefits of cross-age teaching, many of us have observed first-hand the positive outcomes for the children who are taught by teens as well as the teenaged teachers.
The limited evaluation research from early programs showed positive results for both teens and the younger children, including acceptance and respect for diversity, increased academic achievement, development of collaboration/conflict resolution skills, a reduction in alcohol and drug abuse among participating teens, and increased empathy for teachers (e.g., National Commission on Resources for Youth, 1974; Hedin, 1987; Dean & Murdock, 1992). Evaluation research also suggested that successful programs include critical ingredients, such as high-quality training in social skills, time for group processing, and positive interdependence in which teens and younger youth learn together and depend on one another. It was noted that programs that lack these ingredients may be ineffective (Benard, 1990).
The purpose of this study was to identify current practices that contribute to positive outcomes for teenaged teachers. Specifically, this study examined:
The study sample included 13 programs in the San Francisco Bay Area that used teenagers as cross-age teachers of younger children. Although the teen teaching programs were varied in terms of settings, size, ages of teens and youngsters, and the subject matter taught, all of them shared the following common characteristics.
Qualitative research methods were used for this study because the research questions were exploratory in nature (e.g., "what is happening in these programs?" and "what are the salient characteristics?") and explanatory (e.g., "what events, attitudes, and so forth are shaping the programs?" and "how do these forces interact to prepare or not prepare teens for their teaching roles?").
Three University of California Cooperative Extension Advisors from three San Francisco Bay Area counties conducted the research using individual and focus group interviews, participant observation, and program document review. Seventeen in-depth interviews of agency staff and cross-age teachers from a wide variety of San Francisco Bay Area agencies were conducted using an open-ended, conversational format (as opposed to an oral survey).
Agencies were selected for diversity in the sample. An attempt was made to involve both large and small agencies; public and privately funded agencies; and agencies with varying organizational structures, missions, clientele, and so forth.
All of the sites selected were relatively well-established programs or pilot programs within established organizations. All offered direct service programs to children and youth on a regular basis.
Interviews were audio taped, transcribed, coded, and analyzed. Five participant observations were made of adult trainers and teen teachers during training and as the teens worked with younger children. Ethnographic field notes were completed, coded, and analyzed according to standard procedures (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Program records and documents of various programs were examined. A literature review and past assessments by the agencies were used to inform the research as well as for validity by comparing past findings with the current research.
Several strategies were employed to address validity in this study. Multiple data collection strategies, as described above, were used to triangulate methods. Within-method triangulation was also used in the in-depth interviews by asking key questions several times in different contexts. The three researchers involved in the study reviewed and discussed all of the data to reach consensus regarding the findings. Preliminary findings were presented and discussed with professional colleagues and some of the interview respondents.
There were 10 elements that were found to be essential to the success of teenagers as teachers programs.
1. Dedicated Adults Who Support Teens
The adult(s) who ran the various cross-age teaching programs in this study appeared to be a critical factor in the success and long-term sustainability of these programs. Although the program model of the study sites varied in areas such as underlying operational theories, training strategies, and day-to-day operations, they all relied on passionate, committed adult program directors who were the driving force and the backbone of these programs. The cross-age teaching programs that were sustaining and enjoying a good community following all had adult leaders who were committed to the teens and youth with whom they worked. A program director, who also gave credit to her executive director, put it this way:
There were few commonalties in the personal characteristics of these directors. The leaders who lived outside of the communities where they worked seemed to be as effective as people who lived in or were from these communities. Salaries, backgrounds, and educational attainments varied as well. The few commonalties of the program directors of the sites included: congruency between the program director and his or her particular program model; a professional as well as personal commitment to the teenagers with whom they worked; and an ability and dedication to conducting teenage cross-age teaching programs.
The program directors interviewed were generally also the founders of their programs. As a result, the program matched the director's philosophies of education, youth development, and so forth. In other instances, the match appeared to be related to the program director's career choice: for example, a child development teacher facilitated a program in which teens ran a preschool and a director with a background in recreation ran a recreational program. Like successful teachers, these program directors shared their passions and commitments with teenagers and children.
Most of the directors were involved with their teen participants outside of work and often for years later. Similarly, many of the adult staffs established personal relationships with the teens. A former teen teacher who was a junior in college at the time of the interview described her relationship with the program director:
Many of the directors seemed to have the ability and dedication to conducting teenage cross-age teaching programs. An interviewee described this as a special ability to work with teens:
The program directors of the sites had a wide range of personalities and skills but they all created learning environments that gave teenagers the opportunity to contribute positively to the lives of the youngsters with whom they worked.
2. Active Teen Recruitment
Most teens joined cross-age teaching programs from a larger pool of youth, such as their school or a community-based organization. Recruitment methods included informational meetings, posting signs, and/or distributing applications when students register for school. Completion of some type of teen participation record was also part of the induction process. Some agencies required formal, contractual agreements with the teens, whereas others only maintained records for administrative purposes. Many agencies used the application procedure as an opportunity to teach job seeking skills:
The philosophy regarding the necessary qualifications of teens differed among respondents. Generally, however, all agencies required that the teens demonstrate a genuine interest in the program.
3. Strong Curriculum
A strong curriculum with a series of detailed lessons to teach the children is essential to develop strong, confident teenaged teachers. The subject matter can be anything that is of interest to children and the teenagers. Sciences, nutrition and cooking, health, gardening, and reading are popular subjects.
A strong curriculum consisted of at least five lessons of 1 to 1 1/2 hours each. Most sites initially provided detailed lesson plans for teenagers. As teenagers gained confidence and skills, lesson plans became more flexible. Teenagers were particularly effective when using hands-on and interactive learning activities. A strong curriculum enabled teenagers to gain a high level of teaching competence quickly. Becoming competent, successful teachers is fundamental to the teenagers' self-confidence.
4. Initial Training
The number of hours that the teens were trained, the methods used, and the follow-up support provided were as varied as the programs studied. Initial training for teenagers ranged from no initial training to 50-minute daily classes for one and one-half semesters. However, a range of 10 to 30 hours seemed most common. Whereas no agency staff reported spending too much time on training, staff commonly reported that more training was needed. The director of a gardening project noted:
