Research In Brief

Teenagers as Teachers Programs: Ten Essential Elements

Faye C.H. Lee
Youth Development Advisor
University of California Cooperative Extension
San Francisco County
Internet Address: fhlee@ucdavis.edu

Shelley Murdock
Youth Development Advisor
University of California Cooperative Extension
Contra Costa County
Internet Address: swmurdock@ucdavis.edu

Both research and practical experiences support the notion that youth service and/or participation in communities can contribute to alleviating many of the problems faced by today's youth. These problems include alienation from families, schools, and communities, and involvement in activities that may lead to teen pregnancy, substance abuse, and other problems (Benard, 1990). Cross-age teaching is believed by many to be among the most effective at providing youth with opportunities that will lead to healthy development and avoidance of delinquent behaviors (e.g., Resnick & Gibbs, 1986; Schine, 1989). Having teenagers teach younger children is a commonly used model in Extension's youth development programs. Despite limited research on the benefits of cross-age teaching, many of us have observed first-hand the positive outcomes for the children who are taught by teens as well as the teenaged teachers.

The limited evaluation research from early programs showed positive results for both teens and the younger children, including acceptance and respect for diversity, increased academic achievement, development of collaboration/conflict resolution skills, a reduction in alcohol and drug abuse among participating teens, and increased empathy for teachers (e.g., National Commission on Resources for Youth, 1974; Hedin, 1987; Dean & Murdock, 1992). Evaluation research also suggested that successful programs include critical ingredients, such as high-quality training in social skills, time for group processing, and positive interdependence in which teens and younger youth learn together and depend on one another. It was noted that programs that lack these ingredients may be ineffective (Benard, 1990).

The purpose of this study was to identify current practices that contribute to positive outcomes for teenaged teachers. Specifically, this study examined:

• Current practices of teenagers as teachers programs,
• Critical elements of teen training and support, and
• Strategies that contribute to successful teenagers as teachers programs.

Research Methods

Sample

The study sample included 13 programs in the San Francisco Bay Area that used teenagers as cross-age teachers of younger children. Although the teen teaching programs were varied in terms of settings, size, ages of teens and youngsters, and the subject matter taught, all of them shared the following common characteristics.

• Teenagers were responsible for all teaching. They did not merely assist an adult.
• Teenagers taught children who were at least 2 to 3 years younger than the teens.
• Teenagers taught small groups, usually 5 to 12 children, not one-on-one.
• Teenagers were trained and taught a particular subject matter curriculum (not homework help or counseling).
• The curricula taught to younger children were for enrichment, not remediation.
• Programs were of sufficient duration so that teenagers developed relationships among themselves and with the children they taught.

Methods

Qualitative research methods were used for this study because the research questions were exploratory in nature (e.g., "what is happening in these programs?" and "what are the salient characteristics?") and explanatory (e.g., "what events, attitudes, and so forth are shaping the programs?" and "how do these forces interact to prepare or not prepare teens for their teaching roles?").

Three University of California Cooperative Extension Advisors from three San Francisco Bay Area counties conducted the research using individual and focus group interviews, participant observation, and program document review. Seventeen in-depth interviews of agency staff and cross-age teachers from a wide variety of San Francisco Bay Area agencies were conducted using an open-ended, conversational format (as opposed to an oral survey).

Agencies were selected for diversity in the sample. An attempt was made to involve both large and small agencies; public and privately funded agencies; and agencies with varying organizational structures, missions, clientele, and so forth.

All of the sites selected were relatively well-established programs or pilot programs within established organizations. All offered direct service programs to children and youth on a regular basis.

Interviews were audio taped, transcribed, coded, and analyzed. Five participant observations were made of adult trainers and teen teachers during training and as the teens worked with younger children. Ethnographic field notes were completed, coded, and analyzed according to standard procedures (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Program records and documents of various programs were examined. A literature review and past assessments by the agencies were used to inform the research as well as for validity by comparing past findings with the current research.

Validity

Several strategies were employed to address validity in this study. Multiple data collection strategies, as described above, were used to triangulate methods. Within-method triangulation was also used in the in-depth interviews by asking key questions several times in different contexts. The three researchers involved in the study reviewed and discussed all of the data to reach consensus regarding the findings. Preliminary findings were presented and discussed with professional colleagues and some of the interview respondents.

Findings

There were 10 elements that were found to be essential to the success of teenagers as teachers programs.

1. Dedicated Adults Who Support Teens

The adult(s) who ran the various cross-age teaching programs in this study appeared to be a critical factor in the success and long-term sustainability of these programs. Although the program model of the study sites varied in areas such as underlying operational theories, training strategies, and day-to-day operations, they all relied on passionate, committed adult program directors who were the driving force and the backbone of these programs. The cross-age teaching programs that were sustaining and enjoying a good community following all had adult leaders who were committed to the teens and youth with whom they worked. A program director, who also gave credit to her executive director, put it this way:

I think that any program can be successful. I don't think it's the program. I think it's the commitment that SOMEbody gives to the kids. And it not only comes from me. [My executive director] is very committed to the program. If it hadn't been for her, this program would have been scratched a long time ago. The Board has numerous times recommended that they scratch it because it's costly and they say that it doesn't bring income because we don't pay dues and we don't sell candy. So, she's very committed to it, and she has always been very committed to it and will fight and stand up for it. And I believe that I have a lot of commitment too. (Int.5).

There were few commonalties in the personal characteristics of these directors. The leaders who lived outside of the communities where they worked seemed to be as effective as people who lived in or were from these communities. Salaries, backgrounds, and educational attainments varied as well. The few commonalties of the program directors of the sites included: congruency between the program director and his or her particular program model; a professional as well as personal commitment to the teenagers with whom they worked; and an ability and dedication to conducting teenage cross-age teaching programs.

The program directors interviewed were generally also the founders of their programs. As a result, the program matched the director's philosophies of education, youth development, and so forth. In other instances, the match appeared to be related to the program director's career choice: for example, a child development teacher facilitated a program in which teens ran a preschool and a director with a background in recreation ran a recreational program. Like successful teachers, these program directors shared their passions and commitments with teenagers and children.

Most of the directors were involved with their teen participants outside of work and often for years later. Similarly, many of the adult staffs established personal relationships with the teens. A former teen teacher who was a junior in college at the time of the interview described her relationship with the program director:

I don't think we ever lost contact between each other, even though I was working with another agency. Whenever I needed something, I'd always call her and let her know. . . . Oh, I'm doing this . . . Can you help me with this? (Int. 11).

Many of the directors seemed to have the ability and dedication to conducting teenage cross-age teaching programs. An interviewee described this as a special ability to work with teens:

She's (program director) a real, kinda, I don't want to say charismatic but, you know, verging on that. But you know, I mean when Vivian talks, they (teenagers) really listen, that's what it amounts to. (Int. 10)

The program directors of the sites had a wide range of personalities and skills but they all created learning environments that gave teenagers the opportunity to contribute positively to the lives of the youngsters with whom they worked.

2. Active Teen Recruitment

Most teens joined cross-age teaching programs from a larger pool of youth, such as their school or a community-based organization. Recruitment methods included informational meetings, posting signs, and/or distributing applications when students register for school. Completion of some type of teen participation record was also part of the induction process. Some agencies required formal, contractual agreements with the teens, whereas others only maintained records for administrative purposes. Many agencies used the application procedure as an opportunity to teach job seeking skills:

They come in and we interview and it's like a job interview. I want to give them that kind of experience, and we talk about them. And a lot of times they don't realize that some of the stuff that they've done is considered background for your employment history on applications, like baby-sitting, like dog-walking, those kinds of things . . . so we talk a bit about that and I try to find out what they've actually done and we fit their interest and time into the programs that are available for volunteering with the agency. (Int. 6).

The philosophy regarding the necessary qualifications of teens differed among respondents. Generally, however, all agencies required that the teens demonstrate a genuine interest in the program.

3. Strong Curriculum

A strong curriculum with a series of detailed lessons to teach the children is essential to develop strong, confident teenaged teachers. The subject matter can be anything that is of interest to children and the teenagers. Sciences, nutrition and cooking, health, gardening, and reading are popular subjects.

A strong curriculum consisted of at least five lessons of 1 to 1 1/2 hours each. Most sites initially provided detailed lesson plans for teenagers. As teenagers gained confidence and skills, lesson plans became more flexible. Teenagers were particularly effective when using hands-on and interactive learning activities. A strong curriculum enabled teenagers to gain a high level of teaching competence quickly. Becoming competent, successful teachers is fundamental to the teenagers' self-confidence.

4. Initial Training

The number of hours that the teens were trained, the methods used, and the follow-up support provided were as varied as the programs studied. Initial training for teenagers ranged from no initial training to 50-minute daily classes for one and one-half semesters. However, a range of 10 to 30 hours seemed most common. Whereas no agency staff reported spending too much time on training, staff commonly reported that more training was needed. The director of a gardening project noted:

For me it's all a training issue. Those poor leaders could be good leaders…I think you can get those kids to be good leaders, solid leaders, and I think it has to do with training and then time. (Int.1).

5. Ongoing Training and Support

Almost all of the agencies provided ongoing support and training in addition to their initial training. In fact, many agency staff persons indicated that follow-up training was the most important. Some noted that too much initial training may be overwhelming to the teens and that they could better absorb the material in increments. One staff person felt that every venue at which teens teach will be different from the previous one and stated that training should be "event specific" (Int. 4). Another noted, "You can go over this stuff, but when you're in the situation . . . THAT'S when the questions come up. So I'm a firm believer in ongoing training." (Int. 6).

In addition to ongoing training, most programs offered ongoing processing. That is, the teens met on a regular basis, such as weekly or soon after teaching, to debrief about the experience and talk about anything else going on in their lives. This served as a means for the cross-age teachers to acquire the support of the adults and their peers and to gain new knowledge.

6. Attention to Details

A well-coordinated and functioning program depends on attending to a myriad of essential details. Although generally not considered central to any program, these elements are often called "nuts and bolts" because they hold programs together. Communication among all of the stakeholders, such as teenagers, director, parents, school is essential. Good programs also attend to teens' basic needs, such as food, transportation, and rest and relaxation. Safety and emergency procedures were also established in high-quality programs.

7. Recognition and Reward

Compensation for teenagers seemed to be related to the philosophy of the program and as such, varied. Compensation included an hourly wage, "the kids are paid $4.25 an hour and work ten hours per week " (Int. 5); a promise of a letter of recommendation; or a certificate of completion for the teen's portfolio. Some sites lost volunteer teens to paid jobs. Others noted the value of volunteerism while acknowledging the accountability that comes with a paid position:

I know when we've used teens and when we have given them a stipend you do have a certain sense of control over them because it becomes more of a job, but yet it does take away from that whole notion of volunteerism and service learning. (Int. 1).

8. Team Building

Creating a positive teen peer support network was an important goal for many teens as teachers programs. Teens interviewed indicated that they enjoyed and benefited from interactions with other teen teachers. A teenaged teacher put it this way:

In training we would have a group discussion about problems that we have, major issues that we face - gangs, AIDS, teen suicide, date rape, sexually transmitted diseases, parents, racism . . . we talk about everything. This is the most important part.

The teens that are recruited are at-risk teens and through training we talk about gangs and problems that we might face with schools or parents or different cultural conflicts, or racism, and just talking about it is like therapy. It's better than serving jail time, right? (Int. 14).

9. Setting Teens Up for Success

Good program directors don't expect success to "just happen." In addition to providing high-quality initial and ongoing training, they take active steps to ensure that the teenagers will experience success. Adult staff and teen teachers frequently expressed their confidence in the teens' ability to be good teachers. Adult staffs have high expectations of teenagers, and these were also frequently expressed. Adult staff paid attention to teens' teaching readiness. Here's how one program director described her strategy:

I don't take the kids out until I feel they're ready. Because I don't want them to go out and have a HORRIBLE experience . . . So I make sure the kids are comfortable, and then I sort of take them out and bring 'em in, take 'em out and bring 'em in and then I sort of PUSH them on.

10. Feedback and Evaluation

As part of ongoing support, most staff persons provided teens with feedback immediately after their teaching experience. Some programs held weekly teen staff meetings to debrief and plan for future weeks. Some offered opportunities for self-reflection through journals and portfolios (Int. 7). On-site observations and critiques were also used. One teenager noted about her director:

She was really serious about us. She did a lot of observing, and then if she noticed like if we needed help, she'd come up and help us out if we were getting into trouble with the kids . . . she also cared about how we felt, like she knew if we were going to be embarrassed so she would take us out. (Int. 9).

Effective evaluation for teens provided them with positive and constructive support.

Discussion and Concluding Remarks

Teenagers can be extremely effective teachers of younger children. Children respond well to teenaged teachers. Having teenagers teach is also efficient. A team of eight teenagers can teach 60 or more children working in small groups. Moreover, teenagers benefit from being teachers. Attitudes toward teachers and school, self-confidence, and sense of accomplishment can all improve. Teenagers can also be positive role models for younger children.

However, these positive outcomes do not magically occur. This study uncovered some of the essential elements of successful teens as teachers program. Extension staffs who conduct or train other organizations to conduct teens as teachers program should be aware of the complex planning and skilled implementation that are essential to create programs that benefit both teenaged teachers and the children whom they teach.

As many youth development professionals have already discovered, the effort and dedication devoted to producing high-quality teens as teachers programs can have multiple payoffs. The community benefits because programs such as teens as teachers can help create an ethos of cooperation, caring, and mutual respect (Benard, 1990). The children who are taught by teens benefit as they learn from an educational enrichment curricula taught by positive role models. Most important, teens benefit as they are challenged, are successful, and contribute positively and significantly to their communities. When adequately prepared and supported, teenaged teachers can make tremendous personal gains, as successful program directors already know:

The real success in the whole program is the teen element. Teens have learned more than they ever thought they would, than WE ever thought they would. (Int.1)

They had truly come--and they used to be tongue-tied and cowering--now they had actually done something and they could get up . . . they're just incredible. (Int. 3)

I had a teenaged girl who had attempted suicide. This year she will be graduating from Stanford and I'll be going to her graduation this weekend. (Int. 5)

References

Benard, B. (1990). The case for peers. The Corner on Research. Western Regional Center drug-free schools and communities. Portland, Oregon.

Dean, L., & Murdock, S. (1992). The effect of voluntary service on adolescent attitudes toward learning. Journal of Volunteer Administration, Summer, 5-10.

Hedin, D. (1987). Students as teachers: a tool for improving school climate and productivity. Social Policy, Winter, 42-47.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

National Commission on Resources for Youth. (1974). New roles for youth in the school and community. New York: Citation Press.

Resnick, H., & Gibbs, J. (1986). Types of peer program approaches in adolescents peer pressure theory, correlates and program implications for drug abuse prevention. Rockville, Maryland: NIDA

Schine, J. (1989). Young adolescents and community service. Carnegie Council on adolescent development working papers. New York: Carnegie Corp.

Acknowledgment

This paper is based on research funded by a 1995 State Critical Applied Research Grant, UC Agriculture and Natural Resources, Office of the Associate Vice President - Programs. A practitioner handbook is available from Shelley Murdock (swmurdock@ucdavis.edu).

Effect of Nutrition Education by Paraprofessionals on Dietary Intake, Maternal Weight Gain, and Infant Birth Weight in Pregnant Native American and Caucasian Adolescents

Janice Hermann
Nutrition Education Specialist
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
Internet Address: jrher@okstate.edu

Glenna Williams
Community Nutrition Education Programs Coordinator
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
Internet Address: gwill@okstate.edu

Donna Hunt
Assistant Professor
Stephen F. Austin State University
Nacogdoches, Texas
Internet Address: dhunt@sfasu.edu

Introduction

Adolescents are at higher risk for poor pregnancy outcomes, including low birth weight infants (Fraser et al., 1995). Oklahoma ranks 17th in the nation in adolescent pregnancies, and 22% of all low birth weight infants in Oklahoma are born to adolescents (Oklahoma Kids Count, 1998; Oklahoma State Department of Health, 1997). Low birth weight infants are more likely to die in the first month of life or have serious health or developmental problems than normal weight infants (Rees et al., 1996). Seven out of ten infants who die in Oklahoma in the first month of life are low birth weight, and one in four low birth weight infants who live experience serious health and developmental problems (Oklahoma Kids Count, 1998).

Most low birth weight infants require costly medical care at birth, and national medical costs for low birth weight infants born to adolescents are estimated to be more than $1 billion annually (ADA, 1994). Adequate dietary intake and maternal weight gain are important factors in lowering the risk of low birth weight infants (Strauss & Dietz, 1999), and adolescents, in particular, need to gain adequate weight during pregnancy (Rees et al., 1992). However, adolescents are at increased risk of low maternal weight gain, with 23% of adolescents gaining less than 21 pounds during pregnancy (Story & Alton, 1995).

Adolescents' nutritional requirements are already high for their own growth and development, and pregnancy further increases their nutritional needs. Unfortunately, many adolescents enter pregnancy in poor nutritional status (Brech, 1996). Nutritional issues that affect pregnant adolescents are similar to those affecting all adolescents, including skipping meals, snacking on foods high in fat and sugar and low nutritive value, being too busy to eat, relying on convenience and fast foods, and concern about weight (Story & Alton, 1995). Complicating their nutritional status is the fact that at-risk pregnant adolescents are more likely to be poor, not have steady employment, and live in poverty (Oklahoma Kids Count, 1998).

Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (OCES EFNEP), in cooperation with the Chickasaw Nation and Choctaw Nation WIC programs, implemented and evaluated a 3-year nutrition education program for pregnant adolescents. The project was funded by the ES/WIC Education Initiative. Program evaluation investigated the effect of nutrition education by paraprofessionals on dietary intake, maternal weight gain, and infant birth weight in pregnant Native American and Caucasian adolescents.

Materials and Methods

This cooperative nutrition education program was implemented in seven counties in Oklahoma, five counties where the Chickasaw Nation operates WIC clinics and two counties where the Choctaw Nation operates WIC clinics. The intended audience was rural pregnant adolescents participating in the Chickasaw Nation and Choctaw Nation WIC programs.

The paraprofessionals for this project were Native American and Caucasian, and were supervised by County Extension Educators. The paraprofessionals received an initial 4-week in-service training and, thereafter, monthly in-service training on basic nutrition, food preparation and food safety, maternal nutrition, and infant nutrition delivered by State Cooperative Extension Service Specialists, County Extension Educators, and Chickasaw Nation and Choctaw Nation WIC Nutritionists.

The paraprofessionals conducted an eight-session nutrition education program for participants using the "Have A Healthy Baby" curriculum developed for pregnant adolescents (Konzelmann et al., 1991) along with supplementary materials developed at Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service (OCES). The nutrition education sessions were conducted at the public schools in which the participants were enrolled. Two to four participants were typically present at each session. In addition, paraprofessionals conducted nutrition education sessions at the participants' homes during the summer or when a participant was not enrolled in school.

Participants enrolled in the nutrition education program completed a demographic questionnaire prior to receiving education and a 24-hour food recall before and after receiving education. A registered/licensed dietitian trained the paraprofessionals on administering the 24-hour recalls. The 24-hour recalls were analyzed using the EFNEP Reporting System (ERS) for servings from the Food Guide Pyramid food groups. Postpartum participants also completed a questionnaire on maternal weight gain and infant birth weight.

Demographic, dietary, maternal weight gain, and infant birth weight data were analyzed using the Statistical Analysis Systems Analysis of Variance and Least Squared Means procedures available at Oklahoma State University (Statistical Analysis System Institute, 1990). Significance was set at pŁ0.05.

The number of servings consumed from each Food Guide Pyramid food group were analyzed separately for participants who consumed less than the minimum number of servings recommended for pregnant adolescents and for participants who consumed at least the minimum number of servings. The Food Guide Pyramid can be used as a guide to recommend the number of food servings required to meet nutritional needs during pregnancy (Brech, 1996). For pregnant adolescents, the recommended number of servings from the Food Guide Pyramid are: six to eleven bread, cereal, rice, and pasta servings; three to five vegetable servings; two to four fruit servings; four to five milk, yogurt, and cheese servings; and three meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, and nut servings (Story & Alton, 1995).

Results and Discussion

Three hundred and thirty-six pregnant adolescents participated in the nutrition education program; 78% were Caucasian, and 22% were Native American. The Choctaw Nation and Chickasaw Nation WIC programs are open to eligible participants of all races. Participants ranged from 13 to 19 years of age, with an average age of 16.7 years. The majority of participants were in school (78%), not employed (77%), and from small communities (71% from communities with a population less than 10,000), and this was their first pregnancy (83%).

Significant improvements in the number of servings consumed from the Food Guide Pyramid food groups were observed among participants after receiving nutrition education (Table 1). For participants as a whole whose initial number of servings were less than the minimum recommended for a food group, a significant increase in servings was observed. A similar trend was observed for Caucasian participants whose initial number of servings were less than the minimum recommended. For Native American participants whose initial number of servings were less than the minimum recommended for a food group, a significant increase in servings was observed except for the fruit group.

A difference in the direction of intake was observed among participants who were consuming at least the minimum number of recommended servings before education. For participants as a whole whose initial number of servings was at least the minimum recommended for a food group, a significant decrease in servings was observed. A similar trend was observed for Caucasian participants. For Native American participants whose initial number of servings was at least the minimum recommended for a food group, a significant decrease in servings was observed except for the vegetable and the milk, yogurt, and cheese groups.

Despite the decrease in the number of servings consumed, these participants still consumed more servings than the improved intake among participants whose initial number of servings was less than the minimum recommended, with the exception of the meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, and nut group. A possible explanation for this observation is that these participants had increased their food intake during pregnancy, but after receiving the nutrition education believed they were over consuming and reduced their food intake in an effort to meet the nutritional demands of pregnancy but prevent excessive weight gain.

The increase in the number of servings consumed from the Food Guide Pyramid food groups among adolescents who consumed less than the minimum number of recommended servings before education is important. Adequate nutrition during pregnancy can reduce the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes (Brech, 1996). Several studies have reported that pregnant adolescents do not consume adequate servings from the Food Guide Pyramid food groups. In one study of pregnant adolescents in a rural southern community, 77% did not consume the recommended servings from the fruit or vegetable groups, and 60% did not consume the recommended servings from the milk, yogurt and dairy group (Dunn et al., 1994). In another study of pregnant adolescents, 52% did not consume the recommended servings from the bread, cereal, rice, and pasta group, and 74% did not consume the recommended servings from the fruit and vegetable groups (Skinner et al., 1992).

Important trends in maternal weight gain were observed among participants. In this program, only 7.4% of all participants gained less than 21 pounds (8.0% of Caucasian and 5.7% of Native American participants). This favorably compares to the national average of 23% of pregnant adolescents gaining less than 21 pounds (Story & Alton, 1995). Adequate maternal weight gain can reduce the risk of poor pregnancy outcomes (Strauss & Dietz, 1999). The incidence of low birth weight infants and infant mortality decreases with a 21 to 25 pound weight gain and even further declines with a 26 to 35 pound weight gain (Brech, 1996). Adolescents may be higher risk for low maternal weight gain due to concern over their own body weight and lack of understanding about maternal weight gain. In a focus group study, pregnant adolescents expressed an overwhelming feeling of confusion as to why an adequate maternal weight gain was important (Story & Alton, 1995).

Important trends in the incidence of low birth weight infants (<2500 g) also were observed among participants. In this program, the rate of low birth weight infants was only 4.5% for all participants, 3.5% for Caucasian, and 7.5% for Native American. This favorably compares to statewide low birth weight infant rates of 11.8% for all pregnant adolescents, 11.6% for Caucasian adolescents, and 11.1% for Native American adolescents (Oklahoma State Department of Health, 1997). These data represent an impressive reduction in the rate of low birth weight infants for program participants.

Conclusion

Pregnant adolescents want to have healthy infants, and this concern is a major influence in the change in pregnant adolescents' dietary behaviors (Pope et al., 1997). This desire should be viewed as a motivation for adolescents to improve their diets. However, if adolescents are to make dietary changes, nutrition recommendations must be made within the context of adolescents' everyday lives (Skinner et al., 1996).

This program evaluation demonstrated that nutrition education by paraprofessionals with pregnant adolescents was effective in improving dietary intake, maternal weight gain, and infant birth weight. In addition, nutrition education delivered within the schools was an effective method in reaching pregnant adolescents. Although the "Have A Healthy Baby" curriculum was developed for pregnant adolescents, further modifications to target Native American adolescents may be beneficial for this group. Further research is also needed evaluating pregnant Native American adolescents' dietary patterns and food preferences.

The observed decrease in the rate of low birth weight infants represents a decrease in medical costs. The estimated medical costs for a low birth weight infant for the first year of life is $11,900 (Lewit et al., 1995). Thus, the decreased rate of low birth weight infants among participants receiving education from paraprofessionals represents a saving of $297,500 in medical costs during the first year of life. These medical savings will undoubtedly continue beyond the first year of life.

Recommendations

As a result of the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA), decision-makers are asking for documented evidence as to the effectiveness of public dollars spent in CES education. Extension Educators will increasingly make programming choices based on proven program effectiveness in order to meet these expectations. Therefore, the researchers recommend nutrition education programs such as "Have A Healthy Baby" for pregnant adolescents as an effective program that clearly demonstrates a benefit to society in terms of both health outcome and medical savings.

References

American Dietetic Association. (1994). Position of the American Dietetic Association: Nutrition care for pregnant adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 94,449-450.

Brech, D. M. (1996). Nutrition: A major role in healthy babies of teen patents. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 33-35.

Dunn, C., Kolasa, K., Cunn, P.C., & Ogle, M. B. (1994). Dietary intake of pregnant adolescents in a rural southern community. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 94,1040-1041.

Fraser, A. M., Brockert, J. E., & Ward, R. H. (1995). Association of young maternal age with adverse reproductive outcomes. The New England Journal of Medicine, 332,1113-1117.

Konzelmann, K., Vandergraff, D., Wood, O., Barkman, S., Roepke, J. (1991). Have a healthy baby, part of the Expanded Food and Nutrition Program (EFNEP). West Lafayette, IN, Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service.

Lewit, E. M., Baker, L. S., Corman, H., & Shiono, P. H. (1995). The direct cost of low birth weight [On-line]. Available: http://www.futureofchildren.org/LBW/04LBWLEW.htm

Oklahoma Kids Count. (1998). 1998 Oklahoma kids count factbook. Oklahoma Institute for Child Advocacy, Inc. Oklahoma City, OK.

Oklahoma State Department of Health. (1997). Percent of low-weight births by age and rate/ethnicity, Oklahoma. In: 1997 Oklahoma health statistics. University of Oklahoma, Moore, OK.

Pope, J. F., Skinner, J. D., & Carruth, B. R. (1997). Adolescents' self-reported motivations for dietary changes during pregnancy. Journal of Nutrition Education, 29,137-144.

Rees, J. M., Engelbert-Fenton, K. A., Gong, E. J., & Bach, C. M. (1992). Weight gain in adolescents during pregnancy: Rate related to birth-weight outcome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 56,868-873.

Rees, J. M., Lederman, S. A., & Kiely, J. L. (1996). Birth weight associated with lowest neonatal mortality: Infants of adolescents and adult mothers. Pediatrics, 98,1161-1166.

Skinner, J. D., Carruth, B. R., Pope, J., Varner, L., & Goldberg, D. (1992). Food and nutrient intake of white, pregnant adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 92,1127-1130.

Skinner, J. D., Carruth, B. R., Ezell, J. M., & Shaw, A. (1996). How and what do pregnant adolescents want to learn about nutrition. Journal of Nutrition Education, 28,266-271.

Statistical Analysis System Institute (1990). SAS/STAT User's Guide, version 6, 4th ed., Cary, NY.

Story, M. & Alton, I. (1995). Nutrition issues and adolescent pregnancy. Nutrition Today, 30,142-151.

Strauss, R. S., & Dietz, W. H. (1999). Low maternal weight gain in the second or third trimester increases risk for intrauterine growth retardation. Journal of Nutrition, 129,988-993.

Competencies Needed to be Successful County Agents and County Supervisors

Anita W. Cooper
Boone County Family and Consumer Sciences Agent
Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service
Harrison, Arkansas
Internet Address: boone@uaex.edu

Donna L. Graham
Associate Professor
Agricultural and Extension Education
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, Arkansas
Internet Address: dgraham@uark.edu

Introduction

The Cooperative Extension Service has been an agency for change and problem solving, and a catalyst for individual and social action for almost 100 years. At its creation, the rural, agrarian American population had a great need for educational assistance. The first county agents were itinerant teachers hired for their practical farm and home experiences.

However, lifestyles are radically different today than in 1914. The agency has had to adapt to societal changes and reorient itself to a fundamentally industrial and service-oriented population (Russell, 1995). Change has been necessary to meet the demands of society throughout the organization's existence. The role of the Extension agent has also changed over time, and the number of competencies identified for agents has increased (Beeman, Cheek, McGhee, & Grygotis, 1979; Maines, 1987; Gonzalez, 1982; Hahn, 1979; ECOP, 1987; ECOP, 1992).

The new technology of information gathering, exchange, and processing is forcing the Cooperative Extension Service into new roles away from the researcher-specialist-county agent-producer hierarchy that has characterized the technology transfer model (ES-USDA, 1988). In the future, the success of Extension programs will be determined to a large degree by the ability of the Cooperative Extension Service to keep highly qualified agents. The extent to which programming is effective in specific geographic locations will be largely determined by agents whose job responsibilities place them in direct contact with local people.

It will take a competent staff to meet the needs of the people and ensure the success of the Cooperative Extension Service into the 21st Century. Strother (1977) stated that the delivery of a high level of competence is the primary public justification for the Cooperative Extension Service. Therefore, it is imperative that the competencies of those agents deemed to be successful be identified and categorized for organizational success.

Purpose and Methodology

The purpose of this study was to identify and describe:

1. the competencies needed to be successful county Extension agents and county Extension supervisors in Arkansas,
2. the competencies perceived to be the most important for agents and supervisors, and
3. the differences in the perceived level of importance of competencies for county agents and supervisors.

The population for the study was county Extension agents in Arkansas in the program areas of agriculture, family and consumer sciences, 4-H, and community development. An open-ended, two-part questionnaire was distributed to all agents attending spring administrative conferences. Agents were asked to (a) list the competencies of successful agents and (b) list any competencies needed for successful supervisors that were different from those of successful agents. Additional demographic data on job assignment, gender and tenure were collected. A response rate of 87% was received.

Eight hundred forty-two separate statements of competencies were received. After duplications were removed, the competencies were summarized into common themes, resulting in 57 competency items. The responses were categorized by a panel of experts into the seven areas used in the employees' evaluation system:

1. program planning, implementation, and evaluation;
2. public relations;
3. personal and professional development;
4. faculty/staff relations;
5. personal skills;
6. management responsibility; and
7. work habits.

A second questionnaire was mailed to the agents and supervisors who were asked to rank each of the 57 competencies on a Likert scale from 6=very important to 1=least important for the competencies for successful agents and supervisors. All respondents who had worked for less than 2 years were excluded from the study, resulting in a total of 127 respondents being used in the study for an overall response rate of 68%. A Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of .81 was determined for the 57 competency statements on the second questionnaire. The means, frequencies, and standard deviations were used to describe the respondents because this was a population study.

Findings

Great diversity of job assignments among the respondents was found. It was determined that 53 agents (41.7%) had one-half or more of their job assignment in agriculture, while only 38 (30.0%) of the family and consumer science agents had a majority of their assignment in this program area. The greatest diversity of job assignment was found for agents with a 4-H appointment. Only 40 (31.5%) had an appointment greater than 25% in 4-H youth development, while 62 (48.8%) had from a 5-25% appointment, meaning these agents had split appointments between two or more program areas. Fifty-six of the respondents (44.2%) had responsibility as the county supervisor, but 14 (11.0%) reported that this administrative responsibility accounted for more than 75% of their time.

Sixty-four percent of the respondents had more than 10 years of service, 37.8% having worked 11-20 years, and 26.8% having worked 20 years or more for Extension. Of those who responded to the survey, 79 (62.2%) were males, and 48 (37.8%) were females. Four of the female respondents had agriculture assignments.

Objective One

Objective One was to identify the competencies of successful county Extension agents and county Extension supervisors. From the total of 842 competency statements received, duplications were removed, and the competencies were cataloged into common themes. The result was 57 competencies that agents and supervisors regarded as needed for success. These are listed in Table 1.

Objective Two

For Objective Two, county agents and supervisors were asked to identify those competencies that were the most important competencies for success. These were rated on a six-point Likert scale with 6=the most important competencies and 1=the least important competencies. The mean of each competency statement was calculated and placed in rank order to identify the most importance competencies for county Extension agents and county supervisors.

There were 34 competencies with mean scores of 5.00 or higher for the county agents and 45 competencies with 5.00 or higher for county supervisors. Only two competencies, being a former 4-H member and having a farm background, were rated below the median for both the agent and supervisor.

Character traits were considered to be the most valued competency for both the agent and the supervisor. The competency dependable was ranked the highest by county agent, with a mean of 5.74, while supervisors felt that being fair, honest, trustworthy (Mean =5.90) was the most important competency. Management skills such as teamwork, conflict resolution, decision making, giving credit, fairness, and delegation were ranked higher for the county supervisors. Personal development skills such as staying current in their discipline area, following up with clientele, commitment, and a positive attitude were ranked higher for county agents. When all of the competencies were evaluated, there were 27 statements that were ranked two standard deviations above the midpoint. These top-ranked competencies are listed in rank order in Table 2.

Objective Three

Objective Three sought to determine if there were differences in the perceived level of importance of competencies of successful county Extension agents and county supervisors. Each county agent rated competencies important to be a successful county Extension agent as well as competencies needed to be a successful county supervisor. Alternatively, county supervisors rated each competency perceived to be successful as county Extension agents and as county supervisors. All competencies were categorized into the seven evaluation areas. The mean score of each competency area was used to determine the perceived differences in importance of each competency area.

The ability to plan, implement, and evaluate a local program is the basis of all county work. This process involves the identification of needs, the involvement of people in the planning process, and the evaluation of each program after implementation. As shown in Table 3(a), agents rated the program planning competencies as very important competencies for county Extension agents, with a mean score of 5.26, while the agents rated these competencies of lesser importance for supervisors, with a mean score of 4.99. However, the supervisors ranked the program planning competencies somewhat equal for agents and supervisors, with a mean score of 5.24 for agents and 5.22 for supervisors.

Working with the public has been an important aspect of the job since Extension's beginning and is still of great importance, as shown in Table 3(b). Both agents and supervisors rated the public relations competencies more important for the agents. The agents rated the competencies with a mean score of 5.31 for the county agent and the competencies for the supervisor with a mean score of 5.17. Supervisors rated these competencies as more important overall, with a mean score of 5.56 for agents and 5.47 for supervisors.

Both the agents and supervisors rated communication skills, computer literacy, subject matter competency, and other personal and professional development competencies higher for agents than for supervisors, as shown in Table 3(c). The mean score for these competencies was rated at 4.94 for agents, while the mean score for supervisors was 4.75, according to the agent ratings. However, there was little difference in the supervisors' rating of both groups, with a mean score of 5.03 for agents and a mean score of 5.01 for supervisors.

The Faculty/Staff Relations competencies were deemed to be very important to both groups. The agents rated the competencies with a mean score of 5.46 for agents and 5.32 for the supervisors. The supervisors rated the competencies with higher mean scores for both the agent and for the supervisor, with a mean score of 5.77 and 5.79, as shown in Table 3(d). These competencies included being fair, honest, trustworthy, giving credit where credit is due, an interest in all programs, and promoting teamwork.

Personal Skills competencies were rated as slightly more important for supervisors than for agents by both groups. These competencies included people skills, sense of humor, positive attitude, extrovert, friendly, outgoing, self-motivated, and caring. Table 3(e) shows that agents rated the importance of the personal skills with a mean score of 4.92 for agents and 4.94 for supervisors. The supervisors rated the competencies with a mean score of 4.99 for agents and 5.14 for supervisors.

Management responsibilities varied the greatest of the competency areas. Agents rated these competencies with a mean of 4.91 for agents and 4.46 for supervisors. However, supervisors rated these competencies higher overall, with a mean of 5.52 for agents and 5.57 for supervisors. While county supervisors are managing professional staff, the county agents have a major management responsibility for volunteer leaders. Table 3(f) illustrates this rating.

As shown in Table 3(g), agents rated the work habits competencies very high, with a mean score of 5.31 for agents and a mean score of 5.20 for supervisors. The supervisors rated this higher, with a mean score of 5.42 for agents and 5.51 for supervisors. These ratings suggest that all agents and supervisors feel they should be proficient in the competencies of time management, dependable, organized, and respond to clientele requests in a timely manner.

The importance of the seven competency areas was ranked using the average mean rating of all of the competencies within each area. As shown in Table 4, both agents and supervisors rate the competency area Faculty/Staff Relations as the most important competency area. The area Management Responsibility was rated as the second most important competency area for the supervisors but was rated as the least important competency area for the agents. Both agents and supervisors rated the areas of Work habits and Public Relations high being the second or third most important competency areas for both groups. Personal/professional development was ranked as the least important competency area for both agents and supervisors.

Conclusions

There is evidence of great diversity of job assignments across all program areas. Over half of the respondents have assignments in agriculture, and roughly one-third have assignments in family and consumer sciences. 4-H and community development are receiving fragmented attention as program areas, as indicated by small allocation of time in job responsibilities.

It is difficult to maintain strong, viable programs when one-half of the county agents have less than 25% appointed time to these areas. Diverse job assignments require diverse competencies. To be successful, agents must have increased technical competencies in more than one program area.

The agents with more than 10 years of service could be considered career agents who may have similar philosophies of Extension work. This may account for the similarities of ratings of competencies in this study.

Thirty-nine competencies were perceived to be of high importance for success. As society has changed and the rural, farm population has decreased, the need for practical experience has decreased as an important competency for agents. However, the educational level of today's audience has changed, and competence in agriculture and family and consumer science requires more specialized training. The need for specialized knowledge is reflected in lesser importance of the competency having a farm background.

Additionally, agents have assumed new roles to manage and train volunteers, to assist 4-H members with project work, to prepare for activities, and to maintain clubs as opposed to working directly with 4-H members. The higher rating of competencies in Management Responsibility and Faculty/Staff Relations, rather than the competency of being a 4-H member is evidence of this.

There was little difference in the perceived level of importance in four competency categories. Agents and supervisors agreed that Program Planning, Implementation, and Evaluation; Public Relations; and Personal and Professional Development were more important competencies for agents. Faculty/Staff Relations was rated the most important competency area for both agents and supervisors. This has become more important as Extension programs have shifted to issue-based problems where interdisciplinary team effort is required.

Additionally, Management Responsibilities were rated more important competencies for supervisors than for agents. This is a paradigm shift of training needs, which have historically focused on technical subject matter for all agents.

While shifts of competencies were found, Arkansas agents believe that a strong work ethic and character traits such as being dependable and fair, honest, and trustworthy will bring the most success for agents of the future. People skills, credibility, and earning peer/clientele respect will always bring success to our changing organization.

Recommendations

Competencies identified in the study as most important for the success of supervisors and agents should be incorporated into in-service training, especially management training for supervisors. A balance is needed between process skills and technical subject-matter training for all field staff. This study should be replicated using the Delphi method to help clarify words, phrases, and other subjective statements and to establish consistency of the ratings. The reliability of the competency statements should be improved by item refinement.

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This article is online at http://joe.org/joe/2001february/ent-rb.html.

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