Volume 39 Number 6
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December 2001 Volume 39 Number 6 |
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Editor's PageThe December 2001 JOE has two notable things that distinguish it aside from the quality of the articles it contains. First, more than half the articles focus on diversity. Second, at the end of each Commentary, you have the opportunity to join our new JOE Discussion Forum. Diversity to the ForefrontOver the last few years, JOE has published a number of articles that raise the issue of diversity and how Extension is meeting the challenge it presents. Judging from the number of submissions that raise the topic this year, diversity, in all its many facets, is moving to the forefront as an issue engaging JOE authors' attention. When it became clear how many articles on diversity had passed our reviewers' scrutiny (and mine) and been accepted for publication, I brought it to the attention of the JOE Board of Directors, and we decided to publish them in a single issue. If diversity is at the forefront for so many JOE authors, it is time to do what we can to highlight that fact for JOE readers. The two Commentary articles discuss diversity and what Extension must do and is doing to meet its challenge. One wonders if it might perhaps already be too late. The other describes a necessary rebirth for Extension. The first articles in the Features, Research in Brief, Ideas at Work, and Tools of the Trade sections also center or touch on diversity--on how things are now, on how we can make them better, and on how we can more effectively meet the needs of our increasingly diverse clientele. I have purposely not enumerated which of the articles in this issue deal overtly with diversity and which don't. The articles that do not nonetheless cover a range and wealth of topics that also deserve your attention. JOE Discussion ForumJOE is a Web journal, and we are moving to take more advantage of that fact. Our latest effort is the JOE Discussion Forum, which we're inviting you to join at the end of the two Commentary articles. There, you can enter or start a new discussion with your Extension colleagues on the issues raised in the articles. JOE has always been a forum for discussion of the issues engaging Extension professionals. The Web gives us the chance to capitalize on that strength, to encourage a more dynamic, interactive exchange. The discussions will remain "live" and you will have the opportunity to participate for the 2 months that the December issue is current. Consider this a "beta test." We plan to extend the forum capability in the future, but we're still working on how and how far. Much will depend on you. We've made it as easy and transparent as possible for you to participate in the JOE Discussion Forum, and we hope you will. Laura Hoelscher, Editor
Achieving Diversity and Pluralism: Our (Sad) Separatist ModelMaurice Dorsey It is a sweeping but still sound generalization to say that the powerful people in the United States are those who are white, male, wealthy, straight, and Christian; who enjoy magazine-cover looks; and who are abled. Individuals who do not fall into these categories are often faced with challenges that can be disruptive to their success in life, whether through oppression, discrimination, public ridicule, or other forms of personal disgrace. How has the land grant college and university system met this challenge to our identity and barrier to fulfilling our educational mandate? Largely through a separatist model. Divide and Separate1862 land grant colleges and universities have historically provided the core of educational leadership for this country, providing expertise in teaching, research, and service. 1890, 1994, and HSI programs were created for African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanics because the country as a whole was not prepared to provide equity and equal access to all people. The 1890, 1994, and HSI schools are doing an outstanding job educating their target populations. That's the upside. The downside is that 1862 institutions are thereby absolved from accepting responsibility to move diversity to the top of the educational agenda, both internally and externally. 1890's, 1994's, and HSI's are, indeed, part of the solution for reaching diverse populations. Their outstanding record proves that. But how can they‹alone--fully meet the challenge of preparing minorities for full participation in mainstream America? The existence of and need for racially targeted programs such as 1890's, 1994's, and HSI's imply that minority populations are not "good enough" to belong to the 1862 core institutions. It smacks a little of "separate but equal," and we all know how that played out. In a quite real way, then, I believe that minority programs are a mixed blessing and a halfway measure. Come TogetherWe face issues of diversity and pluralism in this country and in the land grant college and university system. Continuing to face them separately will not lead to success. At some point, that will exacerbate problems, not solve them. This is not meant to be a broad indictment of 1862's. I am honored to work with diversity professionals such as Kathy Castania, Cornell University; Ann Schauber, Oregon State University; A. J. Dye, CSREES; and the authors of many of the articles in this issue of the Journal of Extension. But in the area of diversity more work needs to be done--much more. We need to develop a common language whereby issues of diversity can be discussed in a non-threatening environment. Employees need to feel safe in bringing their whole selves to the table. We need leaders who are not afraid to move the issue of diversity to the front of the agenda. We need leaders who are willing to stand face-to-face with those who refuse to do the right thing or who insist that we take diversity slowly. We need to do this together--1862's, 1890's, 1994's, and HSI's. We need to examine why our core institutions are unwilling to fully embrace diversity, which encompasses more than race and gender. Why do some men feel they are better than women? Why do some of the affluent feel they are better than the less affluent? Why do some straights feel better than gays? Why do some Christians feel better than everybody? Why don't we seem to care more than we do? We need to grapple with these questions together--1862's, 1890's, 1994's, and HSI's. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 created the Cooperative Extension System, unquestionably the finest educational infrastructure in the world. USDA has made a huge contribution to educating the American public. Yet is still hard for many to observe those who get the greatest opportunity move even further ahead while some others with fewer opportunities are left further behind. It's been 87 years since the passage of the Smith-Lever Act. How are we preparing for a future where there is no need for a divide-and-separate system? We're not. We must ask ourselves why. And we must do it together--1862's, 1890's, 1994's, and HSI's. Or is it already too late?
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|
Group |
Total |
Invited |
Interview or Focus Group |
Refused |
Agreed but Cancelled |
||
|
No Response |
Conflict in Schedule |
No Reason Given |
|||||
|
Director's Cabinet |
16 |
16 |
16 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
County Faculty |
|||||||
|
Mid-Columbia |
11 |
8 |
3 |
1 |
1 |
- |
3 |
|
Mid-Valley |
13 |
10 |
6 |
1 |
1 |
- |
2 |
|
West |
14 |
11 |
6 |
2 |
2 |
- |
1 |
|
Metro |
18 |
13 |
7 |
2 |
2 |
- |
2 |
|
N. Coast / Clackamas |
13 |
10 |
6 |
- |
3 |
- |
1 |
|
South |
18 |
10 |
5 |
1 |
2 |
- |
2 |
|
Central |
19 |
9 |
7 |
1 |
1 |
- |
- |
|
East |
13 |
11 |
5 |
1 |
2 |
- |
3 |
|
Staff Chairs |
|||||||
|
Eastern |
16 |
10 |
7 |
1 |
1 |
- |
1 |
|
Western |
16 |
13 |
9 |
2 |
2 |
- |
|
|
TOTAL |
167 |
121 |
77 |
10 |
17 |
2 |
15 |
All of the interview and focus groups were audio taped, transcribed, and analyzed both by hand and in the QSR Nudist 4.0 software program. The data were first sorted for key words that reflected attitudes, perceptions, and opinions of participants in regard to diversity. These key words were then clustered into themes, and the themes were then analyzed refined, and checked for inter-rater reliability.
Both the interviews and focus groups included participant summary checks as a means of checking for intentionality, correctness, and confirmation of specific points. A panel of experts reviewed both the focus group and interview guides for credibility as well as the data set for inter-rater reliability. The questions were tested in a pilot focus group of Extension specialists.
The 16 interviews and 10 focus groups were studied to identify patterns and themes of organizational climate with regard to diversity. Nineteen themes emerged based on repetition of words or a recurrence of meanings from the 26 transcripts. These themes were then sorted using the framework of supportive, defensive, and uncertain dimensions to form a picture of Oregon's diversity climate (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Organizational Diversity Climate Framework
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Organizational Diversity Climate
Routines At work with clientele Nature of the work Rewards Focus of support and rewards |
A description of the 19 themes follows. (Also see Figure 2.)
Supportive Dimensions of the Diversity Climate
A supportive diversity climate was defined as the routines and rewards of the organization that are inclusive of cultural groups other than the dominant cultural group in the organization both as staff and clientele. The dimensions were:
Defensive Dimensions of the Diversity Climate
A defensive diversity climate was defined as the routines and rewards of the organizational system that are resistant to including culturally diverse groups other than the dominant cultural group in the organization either as staff or clientele. In essence, this defensive theme was about intergroup relations. They included:
Uncertainty Dimensions of the Diversity Climate
The uncertainty dimension of the diversity climate was defined as the routines and rewards of the organization that were neither supportive nor defensive, but rather indicative of a state of hesitancy due to numerous barriers. The dimensions were:
Figure 2
Dimensions of OSU Extension's Diversity Climate
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Overall Diversity Climate
When the 19 diversity climate themes were considered as a whole, they became dynamic and interactive. For example, while faculty had a commitment to serving others (supportive), they also felt that they carried a full plate and that there was a lack of fiscal resources to serve diverse audiences (defensive). As a whole, the supportive, defensive, and uncertain dimensions when looked at interactively resulted in a climate that moved more toward the middle, or rather an overall state of uncertainty. An observable characteristic of this climate was inaction, or acceptance of the status quo. At the same time, the 19 themes also pointed to an opportunity for the organization to become more supportive of cultural diversity.
If the organization builds on the supportive dimensions and addresses the uncertain and defensive dimensions through a strategic plan of action, the organization could create an overall supportive diversity climate. Resonating with what Extension professionals are saying, that is, the private language of the organization, a solidly supportive diversity climate becomes the catalyst that then shifts the organizational culture to create an effective, culturally diverse organization. This is exactly what is underway within OSU Extension.
After studying the organization's diversity climate, the Director's Cabinet adopted an organizational commitment to diversity to be reviewed annually for a reassessment of progress. The defensive dimension of lack of organization commitment has now become a supportive dimension of organizational support for diversity.
A diversity committee was formed to work on enhancing the supportive dimensions and changing the uncertain and defensive dimensions into a supportive diversity climate. The self-formed committee of 30 is currently revising the recruitment, selection, and mentoring processes for hiring staff, developing culturally appropriate educational materials, assessing the language capacity of staff, and providing opportunities for staff to develop intercultural communication skills.
There are many more strategies unfolding, all built around the diversity climate dimensions. Thus, articulating OSU Extension's diversity climate has become a catalyst as well as a roadmap for change. We now also have a benchmark in time, a starting place to measure organizational change toward diversity.
A key to Extension's cultural change to become a more effective, culturally diverse organization is the faculty's talk around the coffeepot, that is, the private language about diversity in the Extension organization. In this case study of OSU Extension, the diversity climate was identified as having supportive, defensive, and uncertain dimensions, resulting in an overall diversity climate of uncertainty.
Capitalizing on the supportive dimensions, strategies were developed to change the uncertain and defensive dimensions into a supportive climate. A clear change strategy is in place to change the diversity climate and thus change the organizational culture of OSU Extension to become more relevant in a culturally diverse society.
Bruhn, J. G. (1996). Creating an organizational climate for multiculturalism. Health Care Supervisor, 14(4), 11-18.
Hall, E.T. (1959). The silent language. New York: Doubleday, 1959.
Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Schauber, A. (1999). Assessing organizational climate: First step in diversifying an organization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Cincinnati: Union Institute.
Schauber, A. (2001). Effecting Extension organizational change toward cultural diversity: A conceptual framework. Journal of Extension [On-line] 39 (3) Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001june/al.html.
Schneider, B. (1990). The climate for service: An application of the climate construct. In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational climate and culture (pp. 383-412). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating across cultures. New York: Guilford.
In many quarters, "Extension" still conjures up the Norman Rockwell image of the county agent: a local person dealing with the agricultural and farm management problems within the county. It is a very rural image -- one that ties the typical land grant institution to a specific rural clientele to which it provides adult and youth education in the areas of agriculture and home economics.
As the United States becomes more urban and suburban, Extension's ability to adapt in broadening its programming to more urban audiences becomes critical (Reaves, 2000). Despite its agrarian image, no policy or legislation forbids Extension or its land grant university members to develop and implement programs for urban areas. While the majority of Extension's human and financial resources continue to be directed toward rural constituencies, a growing urban program is noted (USDA-CSREES, 2000).
The idea of an urban Extension component to address the needs or urban constituencies is not new. A Ford Foundation urban program of the late 1950s and early 1960s piloted a number of urban Extension concepts throughout the country. This pilot study resulted in a call for urban Extension programming with "urban agents" in response to the massive urbanization of the country, which was leading to racial tension and urban sprawl (Ford Foundation, 1966, pp. 2-3).
In the context of community-to-agriculture relationships, Ron Swoboda stated about Extension programming in 1986: "Even though we're concentrating on rural development and agricultural development here, primarily non-metro areas, we must not ignore the metro areas and the total relationship perspective in terms of society and politics" (1986, p. 237).
To be sure, the USDA Cooperative Extension system faces a number of hurdles in expanding its educational programs beyond its rural roots into urbanized America, including:
In contrast to the USDA and its long tradition of working through land grant universities, the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has operated its Office of University Partnerships (OUP) only since 1994. Recognizing the crucial role that America's colleges and universities can play in rebuilding communities, HUD established the Office of University Partnerships to encourage and expand the efforts of these institutions to foster community development. A major program of this office is the Community Outreach Partnership Center (COPC), which funded more than 100 2- or 4-year universities or colleges to establish outreach programs in primarily inner-city environments.
According to HUD, "Congress created the Community Outreach Partnership Centers (COPC) program in 1992 as a 5-year demonstration to determine the feasibility of facilitating partnerships between institutions of higher education and communities to solve urban problems through research, outreach, and exchange of information" (1999, p. 9). Applicants may apply for up to 400,000 USD for a period of 3 years to be matched by resources from the university and/or community.
Despite an obvious compatibility of goals between the HUD COPC program and USDA Cooperative Extension programming to foster community development, the coordination or collaboration between the two programs at the university/community level remains relatively rare, with programs at Iowa State University, Texas A&M, and Michigan State University as some exceptions.
Rationales for this divergence may vary, but the following potential reasons are posited.
With the expressed purpose of expanding Cooperative Extension presence in an urban setting, Iowa State University Extension and the Iowa State University Department of Community and Regional Planning applied for and received a HUD COPC grant in 1998. The focus of the proposal was to establish an urban outreach center within the Enterprise Community in the city of Des Moines. A major goal of the grant was to marshal Extension resources both at the university level and field staff on location to address the community development needs of the inner city. Traditionally, Iowa has a very limited urban program, and it remains among the six states without a state contact to Extension's Rural-Urban Initiative (USDA-CSREES, 2000).
As a response to the rural economic crisis of the 1980s, Iowa State University Extension launched a leadership training program in 1988 funded in part through the W. K. Kellogg Foundation and later the Iowa Department of Economic Development. The program, called Tomorrow's Leaders Today (or TLT), was designed to help replenish the supply of local leaders in rural communities and create consortia of rural communities that might better address development concerns. The mechanism for doing so was through cooperation with "clusters" of neighboring communities committed to sharing resources and working toward common goals (Borich & Foley, 1990).
The Tomorrow's Leaders Today curriculum was composed of 11 sessions with 40 hours of instruction spread out over 9 months. The first five sessions were standard for all classes. Participants selected projects to plan and implement in their cluster. Sessions six through 11 were customized to reflect local needs and specific projects. More than 1,200 people from over 150 rural communities received the training. The overall retention/completion rate of participants exceeded 90%. The program was successful in either creating or enhancing more than two-dozen small-town development consortia.
A realistic approach to leadership development must recognize its complexity. The Tomorrow's Leaders Today program strove to increase the knowledge and skills community leaders need to lead effectively. Above all, individual participants were committed to developing their own leadership potential and to exploring how working with other communities may benefit their own organizations and community.
Having been active in community development in rural communities, Iowa State Extension faced a new challenge in 1998 as part of a team receiving a Community Outreach Partnership Center (COPC) grant from the US Department of Housing and Rural Development. The Des Moines Enterprise Community (EC) is located on the north side of Iowa's capital city, bordering the central business district. This area is facing problems common to nearly every large urban area, including unemployment, poverty, and a lack of adequate education and health care. The Enterprise Community comprises five distinct neighborhoods, each with an active neighborhood organization: Chautauqua Park, King-Irving, Mondamin-Presidential, New Vision, and River Bend (see Figure 1).
Figure 1
Location of the Des Moines Enterprise Community
The Des Moines Enterprise Community is one of the most diverse communities in the state of Iowa. With a population of nearly 9,000, the Enterprise Community is 45% white, 42% African American, 12% Asian, and 1% Hispanic. It is entirely within a HUD-designated benefit area. There is a 12% unemployment rate within the Enterprise Community as compared to 3% for the entire city. Nearly 60% of the households have an annual income of less than $10,000, and about 30% of the residents do not own a car (US Census, 1990).
Education is a crucial concern for the Des Moines Enterprise Community. About 38% of the adult residents have no high school diploma or GED. Students' basic skills scores are among the lowest in the city. Additionally, family issues are of great concern to the area. About 45% of EC households are headed by a single adult, and 21% of all expectant mothers receive no prenatal care.
Within the 1994 strategic plan for the area, "fragmentation" of human-service delivery systems, political power, information, financial resources, planning efforts, and transportation systems are cited as major issues. In discussions with city planners and neighborhood leaders, a related concern emerged focusing on the need for more collaboration among neighborhood organizations, community groups, and grassroots organizations within the Enterprise Community. At the time of Iowa State's Community Outreach Partnership Center (COPC) proposal to HUD, there was no ongoing collaboration or partnering among these groups, and this proposal paid special attention to strengthening integrated, as well as neighborhood, planning in the Enterprise Community.
Private human-service providers actively involved within the area include the United Way Human Services Campus, Urban Dreams and Tiny Tot Family Outreach Center, Employee and Family Resources, and the Mercy Medical Center. Deliverers of public services within the Enterprise Community include the State Department of Human Services, Polk County Social Services, and the City of Des Moines Community Service Department. Creating a common voice through which collaborative efforts can be sustained was listed as a major concern in the 1994 Enterprise Community's strategic plan.
The Des Moines Enterprise Community has created a framework for the development of economic opportunity, a sustainable community-based partnership, and a strategic vision for change. This comprehensive implementation structure is built on the involvement of the grassroots, 25-member Steering Committee, appointed by the Des Moines City Council, that designed the plan and coordinated a multi-year commitment of public and private resources, while keeping the vision foremost in the community.
In planning various aspects of the programming that would take place through the COPC initiative, a great deal of consideration was given to ideas and concerns expressed by local residents and community groups. To address the concerns expressed on fragmentation and empowerment, an adaptation of the Tomorrow's Leaders Today curriculum is being offered within the Enterprise Community to develop collaboration between neighborhoods and promote leadership development.
To augment the leadership training, a series of studios is being conducted with the objective to assist the community with planning. The first studio, offered during spring 1999, focused mainly on updating the existing plans within the community. The second studio, offered in summer 1999, focused on integrating the neighborhood plans into an overall vision for the Enterprise Community area. These efforts were coordinated with the five neighborhood associations, the Des Moines City Planning Department, and the COPC Advisory Committee, which is also the Des Moines Enterprise Community's Steering Committee, all of which served as the studios' clients.
The implementation of the program created some trepidation among the affected Extension field staff. Despite success in other settings, university-based faculty were told that implementing community leadership training originally designed for and conducted among a rather homogenous population in a rural area would be problematic among the diverse population of the inner city. Project staff were advised that results of past Extension efforts in the neighborhoods involved had been mixed and that expectations should be tempered with a heavy dose of reality.
Using basic community development principles, efforts were made to further involve the community in designing the leadership development program to be delivered. Prior to program implementation, the potential curriculum was reviewed with more than a dozen community leaders representing all five neighborhoods through the use of a focus group setting.
A modified Tomorrow's Leaders Today program was initially planned to be offered three times over the course of the 3-year COPC project, using a condensed nine-session format. Input from the Enterprise Community Steering Committee, neighborhood association boards, and the focus group was used to refine the planned curriculum.
Based upon that input, the Tomorrow's Leaders Today curriculum was further modified to six sessions over a 6-week period. Additional emphasis was placed on issue education and networking with local leaders. Provisions for child care for participants also were made. While a nominal participant fee enhanced revenue in the original Tomorrow's Leaders Today program, it was dropped for the EC at the suggestion of the focus group, which advised that participation by local residents would be inhibited if any fee were charged.
Recruitment took place through the Enterprise Community Steering Committee/COPC Advisory Committee, the neighborhood associations, local churches, and nonprofit organizations. Similar to the rural version of Tomorrow's Leaders Today, team formation by neighborhood community was emphasized. During the course of the first 2 years of the urban program, nearly 60 residents have completed the 6-week training. The formation of a "graduate program" as a means of continuing education is under way.
Figure 2
Panel of Local Media Experts Discusses Media Relations with the Enterprise Community
Figure 3
Tomorrow's Leaders Today Participants Engaged in an "Understanding Ourselves
and Others" Skill-Building Activity
The first graduation was held October 26, 1999, with certificates presented by the dean of the Iowa State University College of Design and the mayor of Des Moines. Forty-seven people attended the graduation in addition to the 17 graduates.
Figure 4
Mayor of Des Moines Discussing Neighborhood Issues at Tomorrow's Leaders Today
Graduation
Participants in the spring 2000 Tomorrow's Leaders Today program suggested that the COPC project also offer a leadership program to youth. Thus, the COPC Supervisory Committee and the EC Steering Committee, with the help of Iowa State University (ISU) Extension youth leadership development specialists, created "Toolbox for Young Leaders." The skill-development topics were similar to those of Tomorrow's Leaders Today, but language and activities were geared for sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-graders.
Youths participated in recreational activities presented by ISU Extension, ISU minority affairs personnel and the local COPC coordinator, which developed skills in team building and team relations. Graduates received certificates presented by the ISU College of Design dean and the mayor of Des Moines. A subsequent youth leadership program was held in the summer of 2000, with another planned for 2001.
While after only 2 years it is premature to state success in terms of impacts or outcomes, the reception of Iowa State University's COPC project by the Des Moines Enterprise Community and the leadership training participants has been positive. The combination of leadership training for adults and youth, and the resources and assistance of six studio classes in community planning, landscape architecture, and civil engineering, has helped the city and the local neighborhoods reassess the EC's potential and better plan for their collective future. The City of Des Moines has bestowed the "Key to the City" to the COPC program, and the program has also received two "Local Best Practice" awards from the US Department of Housing and Urban Development.
There is every indication that curricula in leadership development and community development created for rural residents can be adapted to urban settings. The operative word, however, is adapted. Residents and local leaders continue to be involved in the evolution of the Tomorrow's Leaders Today and Toolbox for Young Leaders training programs. A "one size fits all" approach has not been attempted, but a philosophy of program development has been maintained in a different community environment.
Of equal importance in the Des Moines Community Outreach Partnership Program is the demonstration that the often-divergent organizations of the rural-oriented USDA Cooperative Extension and the urban-oriented HUD Community Outreach Partnership Center Program can be successfully integrated. Rather than creating redundant community development programs, Iowa State University's Des Moines COPC program has successfully incorporated existing Extension programming and staff in working within inner-city environments.
At the very least, Iowa State's Des Moines COPC program would indicate that program coordination between HUD and USDA Cooperative Extension is possible. The organizational cultures can be bridged. Extension can creatively assist urban residents through its distance educational paradigm, and with the proper approach, rural community development models and other Extension programs can be adapted to urban settings.
The success of this integration and adaptation, however, does beg the question: should there be more efforts to coordinate the land-grant/USDA Extension urban programs with HUD university outreach efforts? Perhaps in the best of both worlds, HUD would collaborate with land grant universities in expanding Extension efforts in urban settings and Extension would initiate a serious dialogue with HUD regarding the resources it has to offer in partnership. In this process, HUD would be able to leverage a much smaller funding base within its Community Outreach Partnership Program by encouraging land grant universities to address urban issues at the community level.
Borich, T. O., & Foley, M. F. (2000). Tomorrow's Leaders Today: Redefining the rural community. In E. Castle & B. Baldwin (Eds.), National Rural Studies Committee proceedings(pp. 109-115). Western Rural Development Center. Corvallis, Oregon.
Fehlis, C. P. (1992). Urban Extension progams. Journal of Extension[On-line]. 30(2). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992summer/a3.html.
Ford Foundation. (1966). Urban Extension: A report on experimental programs assisted by the Ford Foundation. Ford Foundation. New York, NY.
Jacob, S. G., Willits, F. K., & Crider, D. M. (1991). Citizen use of Cooperative Extension in Pennsylvania: An analysis of statewide survey data. Pennsylvania State University College of Agriculture, University Park, PA.
Krofta, J., & Panshin, D. (1989). Big city imperative: Agenda for action. Journal of Extension[On-line]. 27(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1989spring/index.html.
National Extension Urban Task Force (1995). Urban Extension: A national agenda. USDA - CSREES. Washington, DC. [On-line]. Available at: http://www.reeusda.gov/ecs/utf.htm.
Reaves, J. E. (2000). Cooperative Extension: Making a difference through urban programs. [On-line] Available at: http://www.reeusda.gov/ecs/urbanprg.htm.
Swoboda, R. (1986). A CRD leader's perspective and reaction. In P.F. Korsching & J. Gildner (Eds.), Interdependencies of agriculture and rural communities in the twenty-first century: The North Central Region. The North Central Regional Center for Rural Development. Iowa State University. Ames, Iowa.
US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). (1996). Colleges and communities -- partners in urban revitalization: A report on the Community Outreach Partnership Centers program. [On-line]. Available at: http://www.oup.org:80/files/annrpt.wpd.
United States Department of Agriculture Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (USDA-CSREES) (2000). Community partnerships: Rural-urban interface. Available at: http://www.reeusda.gov/ecs/urban/compart.htm.
Warner, P. D., Christenson, J. A., Dillman, D. A., & Salant, P. (1996). Public perceptions of Extension. Journal of Extension. [On-line]. 34(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1996august/a1.html.
Gloria Fidalgo
Doctorate Candidate
Karen Chapman-Novakofski
Associate Professor
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition
Internet Address: kmc@uiuc.edu
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Urbana-Champaign, Illinois
As the Hispanic population in the United States continues to grow, Extension educators are challenged to find avenues through which education programs can be delivered to this group. The number of health promotion programs offered at the work site has increased as a means of reaching out. However, the participation of Hispanics in such programs has been low (Aguirre-Molina & Molina, 1993). One reason may be that 90% of farm workers in the Midwest are Hispanic migrant workers (Mas, Papenfuss, & Guerrero, 1997). Also, Hispanics may be over-represented in low, blue-collar occupations (NCLR, 1993). Workers at these job settings are difficult to reach.
Another route through which Hispanic groups might be reached is English as a Second Language classes (ESL). Lyons, Woodruff, Candelaria, Rupp, and Elder (1997) conducted a program (n=139) in which five 3-hour modules on nutrition were integrated into community college-based ESL classes. The researchers reported statistically significant intervention effects in changing sodium intake and several other trends. However, this report did not offer any insight into the process of reaching Hispanic clientele through ESL classes.
This article describes some of the challenges and barriers we found and strategies we used to overcome these barriers. In this regard, this article represents an evaluation of the process, rather than outcomes research. Learning how the process of program implementation changes depending on the culture of participants is important to consider whether conducting research or delivering programs.
An 11-class Spanish nutrition education program was taught to low-income Hispanic men and women in an informal ESL program. This was a pilot test of the content and process of a bilingual nutrition education curriculum. Because Extension programs have had success in reaching low-income groups (Grogan, 1991), the nutrition curriculum was designed to be similar to the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) basic nutrition curricula.
The curriculum consisted of seven nutrition classes based on the Food Guide pyramid with classes taught only in Spanish and emphasized nutrition and the prevention of cardiovascular diseases (CVD).
Throughout the program, a number of challenges were met and barriers overcome. Many of these barriers and possible solutions are similar to those that may be encountered with any low-income group. Other barriers seem to be specific to the Hispanic culture.
Challenges of Working with the Volunteer Organization
1. ESL Class Time and Schedule
The educator planned with the director of the volunteer organization the summer and fall schedules as well as the amount of time needed for the completion of each class. However, the schedule and the actual starting time of the nutrition classes varied according to the weekly volunteer organization's schedule and needs, with several last-minute changes due to unexpected events at the ESL site
2. ESL Tutor Volunteers' Participation in the Nutrition Classes
On many days there was a large number of tutor volunteers, not necessarily Hispanic, often highly educated, who expressed a desire to stay and participate in the nutrition classes. Tutor volunteers who sat with the participants sometimes helped them answer surveys used to evaluate the impact of the class. To overcome this barrier, the educator clearly defined tables for tutors versus participants. The educator also asked volunteers to ask their questions after class. In addition, the educator emphasized that all questions about class be directed to her rather than to the tutors.
3. Changes in ESL Classes' Location
The location of the ESL classes was changed from one religious community center to another. This caused the nutrition and ESL classes to start later in the fall than was scheduled. A second mailing of flyers announcing the beginning of the nutrition classes and having tutor volunteers call participants to inform them of the new ESL classes site helped alleviate confusion.
4. Competition with Concurrent Activities Offered at the ESL site
At the new ESL site, most participants attended religious and social activities in addition to the ESL and nutrition classes. Usually, these activities were scheduled on a different day than the ESL classes. Occasionally, these activities were scheduled during nutrition class time, causing lower nutrition class attendance. Scheduling flexibility was critical to ensuring optimum participation.
Challenges in Participation
The number of participants who attended the 11 classes varied throughout the program, ranging from 2 to 25. Participants who came to one class were not necessarily the same participants who came to the following class.
1. Childcare
Some families dropped out of the program because they were concerned that their children might disturb class. To overcome this, the educator assured participants that children were not a disturbance and included children in lunch or taste testing.
2. Transportation
Although there was public transportation to the site, most participants relied on rides from friends and family. If friends or family couldn't provide a ride home, participants wouldn't stay for the nutrition class after the ESL class. To overcome this barrier, the educator invited the owner of the car to come to class and involved them in lesson activities.
3. Employment Schedules
Many participants had rotating shift work schedules or second jobs that conflicted with class time. Each class was designed to be as self-contained as possible so that understanding the material in one class was not dependent on knowledge acquired in a previous class. In addition, the same important health messages were given in all classes.
4. Predominance of Males
Traditionally, nutrition education programs for low-income groups have targeted females, mostly homemakers. However, the majority of the participants in these classes were often male. To address this, the educator included eating behavior more typical of males (e.g., eating at the work site, eating at restaurants). Because many of the male participants had experience working at food services, the educator involved the male participants in food preparation activities to keep them interested.
5. Domination of Class Discussion by a Single Participant
In some classes, one participant dominated the discussion. To overcome this barrier, the educator always listened to what the dominant participant had to say but then directed the question to someone else. In addition, the educator involved this participant in other activities such as distribution of leaflets, cooking, setting lunch, and setting the room for the class.
When the participant happened to be a male, the educator was more careful in listening to him so he would not feel offended or disrespected. In this way the educator avoided conflict with the machismo value, which is quite prevalent in the Latino culture (Anderson, Ryan, & Leashore, 1997).
6. Hispanics' Value of Punctuality
Hispanics differ from many Americans in the value they attach to punctuality (Triandis, 1994; Clark & Hoffman, 1998). For instance, arriving 15 minutes late to an informal meeting or class may be considered acceptable by Hispanics. On some occasions, this delay disrupted the educator's teaching plans and survey administration.
To overcome this, the educator motivated the participants to be on time for a free light lunch. Also, after each class, the educator announced the next week's food preparation activity. Nevertheless, on many occasions the educator had to adapt to Hispanics' sense of punctuality and start the nutrition class later.
7. The Educator as a Community Resource
Once the educator gained the trust of participants, they identified her as a resource person. Many participants, especially females, started consulting the educator for problems related to seeking health services, housing, legal aspects, and their personal life.
This created a conflict of interest because, if the educator referred them to community services, then the educator would be doing the job of the volunteer organization. On the other hand, if the educator did not give them any information, they might have interpreted it as a refusal to help them and might have discouraged them from participating in the nutrition program. This raised the ethical question of providing information that the participants needed for their own good.
The educator referred them to the director of the volunteer organization but followed up. If they were not helped at the volunteer organization, then the educator personally referred the participants' problem to community services.
Challenges of Program Evaluation
The number of participants who answered surveys designed to demonstrate the impact of the nutrition program varied greatly. Not every person who attended the classes answered all the surveys. The participants who answered the survey at one class were not necessarily the same participants who answered the surveys at the next class, and there was a low survey response rate.
1. Fear of Offering Written Information
Participants' fear of offering written information may have been involved. This attitude could have been related to the legal status of participants and their desire to remain anonymous. To overcome this barrier, the educator assured participants of confidentiality. To assure participants of the good will of the educator, the director of the volunteer organization acted as witness and signed the study consent form of each participant. In addition, participants wrote a code number instead of their name in the surveys to keep them anonymous.
2. Number of Surveys
In order to lessen the burden of answering the surveys, the educator spread the surveys throughout the program. However, some participants still said there were many surveys to answer.
3. Low Literacy in Spanish
The low survey response rate is explained in part by the participants' low literacy in Spanish. According to the Spanish Skills Proficiency Test (SSPT), 63% (8) of summer and 50% (4) of fall participants who completed this test had low literacy in Spanish. The educator also observed that some participants helped others in reading and explaining the survey instruments. The educator asked participants to direct all questions to her.
4. Hispanics' Value of Cooperativism and Saving Face
Occasionally, some participants asked for help from other participants in reading and in explaining survey questions. In addition, some participants copied the survey answers from others. Hispanics value cooperative situations and simpatiamore than competitive situations (Triandis, 1994). The cultural script of simpatiaor to be simpatico means that they expect the other person to show loyalty, friendliness, affection, politeness, dignity, and respect. In addition, the participants' action could have been influenced by the desire to save face or to look good in front of the educator.
To overcome these barriers, the educator emphasized that participants should work alone and that the answers were confidential. The educator also arranged seating so that participants were separated.
ESL classes can provide easy access to the Hispanic population. There are, however, some disadvantages. Because the Extension program will be a dependent program, it will be secondary to the ESL program in terms of time and space. The primary purpose of the Hispanic group at ESL programs is to learn English. Therefore, it is important to find a balance between the needs of the volunteer organization offering ESL classes and those of the nutrition program.
Low class attendance is a common problem for low-income audiences. One way to lessen the impact of this is to make each nutrition class self-contained. The same important points should be emphasized in all classes to ensure participants receive it.
The classroom group dynamics of Hispanics may be different from those of other groups. In the study reported here, Hispanics' value of punctuality and machismo had an effect on the delivery of class, while their cultural scripts of simpatiaand the value of cooperativism had an effect on the evaluation of the program. The educator needs to understand, respect, and balance participants' beliefs with the goals of the program.
Because Hispanics frequently identify the educator as a resource person, the educator should learn about the needs of Hispanics and the community resources available for them. This may impose additional responsibility but will promote rapport with Hispanic clients and encourage their participation in the nutrition program.
Program evaluation is difficult because of sporadic attendance, low literacy, fear of written opinions, and cooperativism. Qualitative evaluation rather than traditional quantitative surveys may provide an answer to some of these difficulties.
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Kristyn Harms
Undergraduate Student
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