Research In Brief

Cracking the Concrete Ceiling: Inquiry into the Aspirations, Values, Motives, and Actions of African American Female 1890 Cooperative Extension Administrators

Introduction

The potential population Extension serves continues to become more ethnically diverse. Does Extension administrative leadership reflect diversity in both ethnicity and gender? In most states the answer is "no."

Statement of the Problem

The study reported here investigated the plight of African American women administrators in historically black 1890 land-grant institutions. There are low numbers of African American women administrators currently employed in these institutions. The limited number of African American women administrators makes it difficult for aspiring female leaders to find African American role models who have been successful in cracking the "concrete ceiling."

This term, which is very similar to the "glass ceiling," is defined as those artificial barriers based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent qualified individuals from advancing upward in their organization into management level positions. "Concrete ceiling" not only restricts access to top-level positions but middle management positions. It is denser and not as easily shattered.

The glass ceiling is identified primarily as a women's issue; however, evidence shows that minorities are faced with insurmountable barriers as they attempt to move upward (U. S. Department of Labor, 1997). In spite of laws and policies that have opened doors for women and people of color, an invisible barrier still remains (Ayman, 1997).

During the early periods of Extension, there were no female administrators in 1862 or 1890 Extension Systems. Currently, in the 56 1862 land-grant universities, there are 9% (5) female directors, 7% (4) female associate directors, and 2% (1) female interim directors, all of whom are Caucasian, except for one African American female associate director. In the 17 1890 land-grant universities, including Tuskegee, there are 24% (4) female administrators, 12% (2) female associate administrators, and 6% (1) acting female associate administrator, all of whom are African American. These low numbers result in a lack of role models for aspiring women administrators; however, in comparison to 1862 land-grant Universities, 1890 land-grant Universities are doing a much better job in hiring African American females in administrative positions.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to explore and describe the challenges African American women administrators face and what they believe contributes to their success in breaking the concrete ceiling within the 1890 Cooperative Extension System (CES).

Maddy's (1992) study, Women Who Shattered The Glass Ceiling: Postpositivist Inquiry into the Aspirations, Values, Motives and Actions of Women Serving as CEOs of Cooperative Extension Systems, featured female administrators in 1862 institutions. This current study was in part a replication of Maddy's study, but with a focus on female administrators in 1890 institutions.

Methodology

The specific approach of this qualitative study was the use of triangulation to assess how these women were successful in breaking the concrete ceiling. Source triangulation was used, which included unstructured and structured observations, personal interviews, open-ended questions, biographical data, and member checks. A set of open-ended questions was used with the final member's check. These data were cross-referenced to determine the credibility of emerging themes.

A case study approach was used to reveal the thoughts of participants. Patton (1987) affirms the idea of case studies for one to understand a particular problem or situation more in depth. Sturman (1997) indicates that a case study is an investigation of an individual. The researcher conducting a case study believes that "to understand a case, to explain why things happen as they do, and to generalize or predict from a single example requires an in-depth investigation of the interdependencies of parts and of the patterns that emerge" (Sturman, 1997, p. 61).

Data for the study were analyzed inductively. Inductive data analysis was compared to content analysis, which is a process aimed at uncovering embedded information and making it explicit.

Prolonged and persistent observation was needed to establish credibility for the purpose of learning the culture of the environment. Persistent observation distinguished what was real from what was not real. As a result of observing each of the six subjects for a period of five days, trust was built. This process was important to bring out the most salient points (Guba & Lincoln, 1997). The researcher observed the participants in their natural environment and took notes in the form of a daily diary. "A primary purpose of observational description is to take the reader of the evaluation report into the program setting that was observed" (Patton, 1987, p. 12). Observations involved everything from examining incoming mail to observing how personnel issues were handled.

To begin the induction process, participants were interviewed about their success using an instrument that included opened-ended questions. For example, one question was "what does it take for an African American woman to achieve a top leadership position within 1890 Cooperative Extension Systems?" Many questions included probe questions to get more in-depth information.

The computerized program "NUD*IST" (Non-numerical, Unstructured, Data, Indexing, Searching, and Theorizing) was used as a way of unitizing and categorizing raw data. This process is based on principles of Glaser and Strauss' (1967) grounded theory, but it is flexible to accommodate other frameworks. The data consists of two hyperlinked systems, document and index. The document system manages data documents by storing them along with data about them. An index system is created, managed, and explored from ideas and categories by using "NODES." A node is like a folder for data or could be described as a parking space.

Findings

The participants had varied work experiences and years of experience. They prepared themselves through additional leadership trainings for their leadership role. They set records as being "the first female" administrator in the 1890 Cooperative Extension System at their institution. The average age was 51.2, and ranged from 43 to 57. Eight broadly defined themes emerged from the data to support the common values, motives, and actions of these women administrators. The themes were:

• Barriers,
• Leadership style,
• Work environment,
• Communication,
• Conflict management,
• Decision-making,
• Professional development, and
• Success.

The values, beliefs, and rules of the organizations in which the female administrators worked influenced every aspect of how things got done. Although their backgrounds varied, there were more similarities than differences among them. The women appeared to be comfortable with their own leadership styles, which encompassed a spirit for teamwork and open lines of communication.

Their success was attributed to a solid upbringing, both parents in the home during their early childhood, a strong religious foundation, and parents' strong belief in education. Because they are unique in their positions, they have "reached out" to each other, resulting in the formation of an informal support group. They look to each other for problem solving and programming collaborations.

Conclusions

Based upon the review of literature and the findings, the following conclusions were reached.

1. This study revealed that it was the personal and professional characteristics that contributed to the African American females breaking through the concrete ceiling.
   
   
2. Though their jobs seemed to result in a hectic lifestyle, participants still time for church and family. Extension employees across the United States voice concern about balancing their personal and professional lives. Because the administrators in this study seem to be successful in obtaining a balance, they can serve as positive role models for other Extension employees.
   
   
3. Though all participants have an academic background in Family and Consumer Sciences, they all continue to remain current in professional development activities focused on leadership, which helps them in their administrative roles.
   
   
4. Each administrator was committed to "the power of positive thinking." This was evident in the approaches they took when communicating, making decisions, and in conflict management situations. Their approach to dealing with issues was more proactive as opposed to reactive.
   
   
5. The 1890 institutions are confronted with small staffs and limited budgets; however, these women administrators did not let this hinder quality programming. While they could not provide their staff members with a large pool of financial resources, they compensated for it by encouraging creativity and risk-taking in program implementation and delivery. They provided support through an attitude of pitching in and helping when needed.
   
   
6. The six female administrators appeared to be comfortable with their own leadership styles, which encompassed a spirit for teamwork and open lines of communication.
   
   
7. During their early childhood, each of the female administrators was influenced by a high degree of spirituality that influenced their current leadership style. Their parents were a guiding force in their spiritual development. Most of the fathers were viewed as more influential than the mothers in the women's professional development and career success.
   
   
8. During the data collection for this study, the existence of chauvinistic behavior and dominance displayed by some African American men at these 1890 institutions became apparent. The female administrators demonstrated extraordinary resiliency in dealing with these behaviors.
   
   
9. Because all six female administrators were "the first females" in their administrative role, they did not have access to female Extension administrator role models. These six females are now willing, and see it as a responsibility, to serve as mentors for aspiring leaders.
   
   
10. Because these women are unique in their positions, they have "reached out" to each other, resulting in the formation of an informal support group. They look to each other for problem solving and programming collaborations.
    
    
11. The current African American female administrators indicated no interest in being an administrator in an 1862 Institution. This may result from their strong allegiance to the historically black land-grant institutions. However, the 1862 Institutions are in need of diversifying their administration. As positions become available, current 1890 female administrators could be viable candidates.

Recommendations

The review of literature, findings, and conclusions led the researcher to formulate recommendations for the Cooperative Extension System, aspiring African American female leaders, and further research.

Cooperative Extension System

It is recommended that:

1. The system identify women currently in the organization who aspire to future leadership positions.
2. The system continue to support training programs for aspiring leaders. These programs can be in the form of a mentoring program, informal networks, leadership intern programs, and leadership programs such as NELD (National Extension Leadership Development Program).
3. 1890 institutions offer internships for aspiring female administrators so they can learn from the current administrators' knowledge and experiences before the retirement of the current female administrators in the next five to seven years.
4. The system create a formal mentoring program for both current and aspiring African American female leaders.
5. The system provide a sensitivity training on "teams in transition."  This training could be used when a new female administrator joins a team.
6. The 1862 system consider 1890 administrators as a viable pool of applicants when searching for new administrators.

Aspiring African American Female Leaders

It is recommended that:

1. Aspiring leaders attain a terminal degree in an appropriate area of study that will prepare them for an administrative role.
2. Aspiring leaders develop capacities and competencies for decision-making, communicating, conflict resolution, leading, motivating, staffing, and planning.
3. Aspiring leaders become part of a network of current "female or male" administrators to develop a personal mentoring relationship with a current leader.
4. Aspiring leaders develop their own leadership philosophy and begin to demonstrate their unique leadership style.
5. Aspiring leaders develop a dossier that reflects diverse experiences, academic achievements, professional development participation, and serving in leadership roles in professional associations.

Further Study

It is recommended that:

1. A study be conducted to determine why African Americans in 1890 institutions have had more success breaking through the concrete ceiling than females in 1862 institutions.
2. A study be conducted to probe further into the differences and similarities among the six African American females, through the use of leadership and personality assessment tools (e.g., Myers Briggs Type Indicator).
3. A study is conducted to determine how personnel perceive the leadership of these six females.
4. A longitudinal study be conducted to follow the accomplishments, activities, and career path of the current six female administrators in the 1890 institutions.
5. A study be conducted to compare the characteristics of these six females in the study with African American females in CES who are not in administrative positions.

If Extension increases leadership development opportunities for minorities, the organization should experience an increase of minorities in leadership positions. This helps the potential minority employee realize that there is possibility for advancement in an Extension career. There is also a correlation that, as the number of minority leaders increases, so will the number of minorities in county program positions, and thus, an increase in minority clientele.

References

Ayman, R. (1997). Leadership and the glass ceiling. In K. Cushner & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Improving intercultural interactions: Modules for cross-cultural training programs, (vol. 3, pp. 74-87).

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine.

Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1997). Naturalistic and rationalistic inquiry. In J. P. Keeves (Ed.) Educational research, methodology, and measurement: An international handbook(2^nd ed., pp. 86-90). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Maddy, D. J. (1992). Women who shattered the glass ceiling: Postpositivist inquiry into the aspirations, values, motives, and actions of women serving as CEOs of Cooperative Extension Systems (Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, M32.

Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Sturman, A. (1997). Case study methods. In J. P. Keeves (Ed.), Educational research, methodology, and measurement: An international handbook(2^nd ed., pp. 61-66). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

U.S. Department of Labor. (1997). The glass ceiling initiative: Are there cracks in the ceiling?Washington, DC: Employment Standards Administration, Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs.

Hispanic American Volunteering

Introduction

The United States is a country where giving and volunteering is a pervasive characteristic of the total society (O'Connell & O'Connell, 1989). A study conducted in five central Ohio cities indicated that the typical adult volunteer was white and both middle-aged and middle-class (Safrit, King, & Burscu, 1994). According to Peterson et al. (1992), many of the critical issues facing contemporary urban communities directly affect non-white, limited resource, and both younger and older adult populations. Therefore, volunteer agencies and organizations are encouraged to make concerted efforts to identify and locate individuals within these population segments for targeted recruitment as program volunteers.

The 2000 census recorded a total 35.3 million people under the designation Hispanic (U. S. Bureau of the Census, 2000). Although Hispanics live in every state, California, Texas, and New York have the largest concentrations, followed by Florida, Illinois, New Jersey, New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado (Longres, 1995). According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (2000), Ohio has a total of 217,123 Hispanic residents, and the largest concentrations live in Cuyahoga, Lucas, and Lorain counties.

Fisher and Cole (1993) suggested that despite Hispanic Americans' long traditions of involvement in volunteer groups, including trade and professional associations, and women's and men's clubs and unions, their numbers are underrepresented in contemporary volunteer programs. "Mainstream volunteer programs have not reached out sufficiently to include as diverse a volunteer pool as possible" to accommodate cultural differences in such programs (Ellis & Noyes, 1990, p. 361). Similarly, Gallegos and O'Neil (1991), recommended that in this era of rising needs and limited resources Hispanics' talents should be mobilized through the aggressive recruitment, training, and stimulation of volunteers.

Even with the increasing emphasis on, attention to, and valuing of cultural diversity in Cooperative Extension organizations during the past decade (Buck, 1997; Ewert & Rice, 1994; Gear, 1992; Ludwig, 1995; Williams, 1992), non-Anglo volunteers are still a largely invisible minority in Extension programs. Hobbs (2000) suggested that in order to effectively and efficiently target and engage volunteers from the Latino community, volunteer programs must find ways to build relationships with and establish trust within the community.

However, even more fundamental research and insights are needed into the motivations of Hispanic Americans who actively contribute their personal leadership skills and abilities as volunteers. The purpose of the study reported here was to identify the attitudes, motivations, and barriers of Hispanic Americans toward participating in volunteer programs in Cuyahoga County, Ohio.

Methodology

Research Design

This study used a qualitative methodology to portray potential patterns of volunteerism among Hispanic Americans. Qualitative methods are especially useful in the generation of categories for understanding human phenomena and for the investigation of the interpretation and meaning that people give to events they experience (Polkinghorne, 1991). According to Miles and Huberman (1994), qualitative data are a source of well-grounded, rich descriptions and explanations of processes in identifiable local context.

Population

The researchers identified 20 residents of the Cuyahoga County (Cleveland) Hispanic American community to participate in the study. Lincoln and Guba (1985) agreed that a naturalistic qualitative design is more likely to favor purposive "sampling" because the participant thereby increases the scope of range of data exposed as well as the likelihood that the full array of multiple realities will be uncovered. Eight males and 12 females participated in the interviews. They ranged in age from 20 to 70 years.

Instrumentation

The researchers developed an interview schedule consisting of 15 open-ended questions with appropriate probes. The schedule focused on the following six categories:

• Attitudes towards volunteerism;
• Level and type of volunteer activities;
• Degree of involvement in present, past, and potential future volunteering activities;
• Motivations for volunteering or not volunteering or volunteering more, barriers towards volunteering; and
• Benefits experienced from volunteering.

The questionnaire was written in Spanish, translated into English, and back-translated into Spanish in order to establish its validity, and for analysis purposes.

Data Collection and Analysis

Face-to-face interviews were conducted in Spanish and tape- recorded with the participants' knowledge and consent. Following the interviews' transcription and translation into English, the tapes were destroyed to preserve the participants' confidentiality. Interviews averaged 30 minutes.

The researchers analyzed the study data using the inductive, constant comparative method (multiple raters) described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) to identify reoccurring themes from the study data. This method uses two essential processes (unitizing and categorizing) and the continual revision, modification, and amendment until all new units can be placed into an appropriate category and the inclusion of addition units into categories provides no new information.

Three professionals familiar with either volunteerism and/or Hispanic American culture served as raters and carefully read each transcribed interview. They submitted identified themes to the researchers, who collapsed the respective themes into overarching themes and resubmitted them to the raters. The raters reviewed the researchers' collapsed themes and suggested revisions based upon their individual original ideas. The process was repeated twice until both raters and researchers agreed upon the resulting themes unanimously. The researchers also calculated frequencies and percentages to better investigate the occurrence of individual issues within the overarching themes.

Results

The six major recurring themes (and the issues that formed the focus of each theme) identified from the data are shown in Tables 1 to 5. Participant opinions and quotations important to the interpretation of a theme are included after each table.

Theme 1. The Influence of Family and Friends on Volunteering

• "A Hispanic friend invited me to volunteer, and we organized a group of 600 women who advocated for our rights."
  
  
• "I volunteered the first time with my father raising funds for the muscular dystrophy."
  
  
• "I have family obligations that keep me from give more time."
  
  
• "I want my children to grow up with the same feeling I have towards serving our community."
  
  
• "The first time I volunteered was in my child's school helping out the teacher."

Theme 2. The Importance of Volunteering to Benefit Youth

No related issues emerged.

• "Now I am going to teach Hispanic children who were born here about their own culture."
  
  
• "The first time I became involved in volunteering was developing activities for children who have been abused."
  
  
• "I will keep volunteering for youth in activities against gangs and youth violence"

Theme 3. The Importance of Church and Religious Beliefs in Volunteering

• "Most frequently I have given time to Saint Michael's Parish."
  
  
• "I see my work as a calling, as a mission."
  
  
• "I think as a Christian I should help my neighbor"

Theme 4. Volunteering as a Requirement of Employment or Education

• "I don't think that it should be required, but the opportunity to volunteer should be provided."
  
  
• "Employees should volunteer in order to understand the needs in that community."
  
  
• "That will keep students busy and involved in the development of their community; they will see the changes their own work has produced."

Theme 5. The Connections Between Volunteering and the Community

• "In this life we are interdependent of one another, we have to help one another mutually."
  
  
• "The more together we work, the more united and stronger we become, and more likely to be able to change things around."
  
  
• "Now I understand that my community has more needs than I thought, I feel that I still have to give more time."
  
  
• "People in the community think that because they are not professionals, or do not have formal education they cannot volunteer."

Theme 6. Personal Satisfaction and Growth Experienced Through Volunteerism

• "Now giving my time, I am not shy anymore, and it has improved my people skills."
  
  
• "I am blessed serving the organization I have volunteered for."
  
  
• "The desire to give time to serve comes from inner being and I think it's cultural, we like to serve other people."
  
  
• "I have been recognized by the state, the city, and the local community because of my volunteer work"

Conclusions

Based upon the findings, the researchers suggest the following conclusions for Hispanic Americans in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, as supported by the authors identified.

• The involvement of family and friends in volunteering can be a positive influence, but also a barrier (Nestor, 1984).
  
  
• Youth activities and services are especially appealing to the Hispanic Americans interviewed.
  
  
• Religious affiliation is both a motivation and setting for volunteering because Hispanic Americans are driven together by their religious beliefs (Swenson, 1990).
  
  
• Companies and employers should support and encourage volunteering among employees but not actually mandate it.
  
  
• Participants pointed out that service-learning would provide students with experience and skills, and enhance their self-esteem (Kennedy, 1991).
  
  
• The community became stronger through volunteering, and special links between participants and the community were created (Fisher & Cole, 1993).
  
  
• Participants improved their self-esteem and interpersonal skills as a result of volunteerism.
  
  
• Participants in this study were more likely to volunteer without being asked; however, they were willing to participate whether or not they were asked.

Implications and Recommendations

• Extension programs should establish and strengthen relations with Hispanic American serving agencies, especially religious organizations. Collaborations with nonprofit organizations and volunteer centers could result in creative ways for entire Hispanic American families to volunteer. Extension and other community agencies should actively develop aggressive volunteer recruitment efforts to enhance the participation of Hispanic Americans as volunteers in their communities.
  
  
• Extension professionals administering volunteer programs must actively seek opportunities to learn about, learn from, and engage Hispanic Americans in the community. Safrit and Merrill (2000) identified the ability to "develop the personal capacity to value" diversity and pluralism as a capacity critical to the future of the volunteer administration profession.
  
  
• Churches and religious and spiritual leaders in the community should find ways to recognize and promote volunteerism among their members.
  
  
• Schools in Cuyahoga County, Ohio should find ways to promote and implement service-learning in their curricula, potentially in partnership with 4-H Youth Development programs.
  
  
• Extension should sponsor and/or conduct community-based "leadership academies" that should take place in cities with large Hispanic American populations to take advantage of their community motivations for volunteering.
  
  
• Additional research should be conducted to investigate Hispanic American volunteerism within Extension programs at the state and national levels, especially in geographical areas with larger concentrations of Hispanic Americans (Longres, 1995).

References

Chambre, S. M. (1982). Recruiting Black and Hispanic volunteers: A qualitative study of organizations' experiences. Journal of Volunteer Administration, Fall, 3-9.

Ellis, S. J., & Noyes, K. H. (1990). By the people: A history of Americans as volunteers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Fisher, J. C., & Cole, K. M. (1993). Leadership and management of volunteer programs: A guide for volunteer administrators. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Gallegos, H., & O'Neil, M. (1991). Hispanics and the nonprofit sector. New York. The Foundation Center.

Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine/Atherton.

Hobbs, B. B. (2000, March). Recruiting and supporting Latino volunteers(EM 8754). Corvallis: Oregon State University Extension Service.

Kennedy, E. M. (1991). National service and education for citizenship. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(10), 771,773.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Longres, J. (1995). Hispanics overview. In Encyclopedia of social work(19th ed., Vol. 1-3). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. B. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Nestor, N. L. (1984). Hispanic Americans: Tapping a new volunteer market. Voluntary Action Leadership, 3, 19-24.

O'Connell, B., & O'Connell, A. B. (1989). Volunteers in action. New York: Foundation Center.

Peterson, G. E., & others. (1992). Confronting the nation's urban crisis: From Watts (1965) to South Central Los Angeles (1992). Washington, DC: Urban Institute. (ERIC No. ED 359310).

Polkinghorne, D. E. (1991). Two conflicting calls for methodology reform. Counseling Psychologist, 19(1), 103-104.

Safrit, R. D., & Merrill, M. (2000). Personal capacities for volunteer administrators: Drawing upon the past as we move into the future. Journal of Volunteer Administration, XVII (4) & XVIII (1), 28-43.

Safrit, R. D., King, J. E., & Burscu, K. (1993). A study of volunteerism in Ohio cities and surrounding communities: Final Report. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, Department of Agricultural Education.

Swenson, C. A. (1990). How to speak to Hispanics. American Demographics, 22(2), 40-41.

U. S. Bureau of the Census. (2000). Statistical abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Differences Between Parent and School Personnel Observations of Extension Service Literacy Program's Impact with Children

Margaret W. Miltenberger
Extension Agent, Extension Instructor
4-H and Youth, Family and Adult Development
West Virginia University
Keyser, West Virginia
Internet Address: mmiltenb@wvu.edu

Purpose

The purpose of the Energy Express Qualitative Research Study was to understand the program's impact with the children served from the perspective of their parents and school personnel. The research questions were:

1. Did the parents observe a change in children's reading as a result of participating in Energy Express?
2. Did the school personnel observe changes in children's reading as a result of participating in Energy Express?
3. Were there differences between the parents' and school personnel's observations?

Energy Express Description

Energy Express is a six-week literacy program designed to promote the school success of children living in low-income communities by maintaining their reading skills over the summer months. It aims to meet the twin challenges - erosion of skills that makes summer time costly for new readers and the nutritional decline faced by students accustomed to school meals (USDE, Every Child a Reader, 1999). College student mentors work with small groups of eight children, who attend five days a week for three and half-hours. A site coordinator, who is a schoolteacher, manages the Energy Express site.

Access to quality reading material should continue throughout a child's school years (USDE, Raising Readers, 1999). Using an integrated, literature based language arts curriculum focused on reading, the mentors guide the children through enriching experiences to make reading meaningful in their lives. Activities include shared reading, individual reading, writing, drawing, and creative arts projects.

Children stay in their small groups for family-style breakfast and lunch, practicing social skills and learning good nutrition. The meals help to maintain their growth over the summer and ensure that the children are ready to learn. The West Virginia University Extension Service coordinates this statewide program, and local collaborative partners coordinate and implement the program in Mineral County.

Quantitative Evaluation Results

Reading is the foundation for all learning. In West Virginia, 4 of every 10 fourth-grade students experience difficulty in reading, and among the remaining 6, only 40% are above a functional reading level (NAEP, 1998). Eighty-eight percent of children who have difficulty reading at the end of first grade display similar difficulties at the end of fourth grade (Juel, 1998). Children's school success is greatly diminished if they cannot read well by the end of third grade. Poor readers at the end of fourth grade comprise an overwhelming percentage of school dropouts, juvenile delinquents, and prison inmates (Kingery, 1999). Energy Express was designed to address these issues and the challenge of children losing ground during the summer.

Energy Express has exceeded its goal of children maintaining reading skills over the summer months. Significant differences in the reading achievement of participating Energy Express children were documented using pre- and post-Woodcock-Johnson Reading Achievement Subtest scores. Seventy percent of the children tested maintained or improved their scores, with the average "hypothetical child" gaining 1 month in word identification and 3 months in comprehension skills, at a time when nonparticipating peers may lose reading skills (Butera & Phillips, 1998).

A reading attitude pre- and post-survey with Energy Express youths found significant positive differences in children's attitudes about reading. Children experienced gains in how they feel about reading a book during free time, how they feel about reading a story with other students, how they feel about writing stories, and how they feel about making art project based on a story in a book (Butera, 1998).

Gains in reading scores justify the program's continuation, but what do the parents and school personnel think about the benefit to the children? Did they observe changes with the children that the quantitative data could not capture? Sustainability of Energy Express is dependent upon acceptance of the program among parents and school personnel within the community. A research study was conducted to learn about Energy Express's impact with the children from the perspective of their parents, teachers and principals.

Research Design

A qualitative evaluation research design was implemented. Data collection involved conducting interviews with a sample of parents and school personnel from each of the three Mineral County Energy Express sites, Elk Garden, Keyser Primary Middle, and Wiley Ford Schools. The Elk Garden School site serves a small school population of 180 students who are a part of the same school for grades K-8. Both the Keyser and Wiley Ford school sites serve much larger populations, 1100 and 764, respectively, with students coming from different feeder schools. A combined 160 children participated in the Mineral County Energy Express sites.

The sample represented the population of children and was 8% of the persons who could have been interviewed. Eight parents, eleven teachers, and two principals were interviewed, for a total of 21 persons from three sites.

The qualitative analysis method used involved the division of the data into relevant and meaningful groups while maintaining a connection to the whole (Gredler, 1996). A set of codes was developed to help identify initial categories of responses. The frequency of the code's occurrence helped to identify patterns and relationships emerging across the data. A matrix design was used to organize and analyze the information to make general statements about the data. 

Errors in the data translation may have occurred. Typed transcripts from hand-written notes could have had simple typing errors, and there may have been gaps in the information when the writer was unable to keep up with the speaker. Typed transcripts from audiotapes could have had errors from poor taping quality, the clarity of a speaker's diction, or unfamiliarity with a speaker's accent or speech patterns.

Major Research Findings

Parents' Perception of Program Impact

All of the parents interviewed felt Energy Express had positive influences with their children. Some of the parents noticed improvement in their child's reading that they attributed to Energy Express. One parent said it definitely helped my daughter read this year, and another said, "it helped to bring her son's reading up and that he is doing better in school this year than last year." Several parents said that their children were reading more independently, and one parent said that her daughter was reading longer books.

One parent noticed a change in the amount of the son's reading at home, indicating an increased motivation to read. "I noticed my son reading hunting magazines or he will grab the newspaper and go to the sports section and read the sports section. He is a West Virginia fan. He's got to read about West Virginia!... So he is now reading more than he did before."

One parent's goal was met in that her daughter had opportunities to read and maintained her skills. She said, "As far as I could tell her grades, from one year to the next year, they stayed about the same. That's what I was hoping for. Her not getting tired out from having that dry spell during the summer. Just to keep her grades up and her mind going... because in the summer time, if she wouldn't have been in the program, she wouldn't have wanted to read at all."

A parent mentioned her child's need to gain confidence in his ability to read. "Any extra reading that I can get him where he can get confidence (is important) and it has helped. (It is) important that he now realizes he can read. He really picked it up and is doing a lot better."

Several parents mentioned the social benefits for their children learning how to play together, read together, and create together in a positive small group environment. A parent said, "(It) helped her playing with other kids, (provided a) chance to play and have fun."

All parents interviewed felt that Energy Express was a good experience for their children. None of the parents described a negative impact of the program. "(I) loved the activities they did," said one person. A number of parents commented that the activities integrated with the reading were very good. One parent said, "They did a lot of projects based on the booksÖ" and another parent said, "(I) liked the interactive learning, (the program) involves so many things - hands on, music, and reading."

School Personnel's Perception of Program Impact

"Students loved the program!" said one teacher. Overall, teachers and principals were very positive about Energy Express and the program benefits. "It's a very different way of schooling. It's so much fun! It's so much hands on along with the literature." Another teacher said, "I've just been impressed with the whole idea of the program when I heard about it. ... I just think this is a wonderful program. What an opportunity for the children whether they are having reading difficulties or not."

Some teachers were aware that Energy Express goes beyond social development to help support a child's reading skills. "They do incorporate some skill lessons...which I thought was more appropriate because we have such low-test scores and it needed to be done." One principal said, "It (Energy Express) is a balance between cognitive, social and cultural (learning)."

A teacher observed increased confidence among children who were familiar with a story used in the classroom. "Whenever I've read When I was Young in the Mountains, or it could be any book, one of the kids will say 'I got that book when I was in Energy Express,' so they've already read it and they have something to talk about and that's good for self confidence and self-esteem."

Each of the teachers was shown a list of the students who attended Energy Express and, with one exception, knew at least one child on the list; most knew approximately three children who participated.

School Personnel's Observations from the Smaller School

School personnel from the smaller school noticed and discussed seeing changes among the children who attended Energy Express. Three of the teachers noted that the children either maintained or gained academic skills. "It seems that those students who attended Energy Express either maintained where they are, or they may even have moved up on the Johnsons (standardized reading test) because they have been reading ... all summer with instruction."

In comparing those students who attended Energy Express to those who did not, one teacher noted an increased interest in reading, and another teacher observed that Energy Express children seemed more eager to learn. "The achievement of academic skills (is one difference). Reading is fun (to them). They do a lot of reading. If they are finished they will find something to do. They don't just stare off into space."

School personnel noted improved social skills among children who participated as compared to those who did not attend Energy Express. "They are very social. I think they enjoy other people more than some others do," said one teacher. Another person said, "I noticed that the children who attended are very social, and cooperate more with others than some that did not participate."

A teacher mentioned that one child had shown great improvement, especially in working in a school environment. "He's improved a lot. More maturity wise. I know last year in first grade he had a lot of trouble with (a) structured environment and just basically getting into the gusto of school and going through the summer, even though it wasn't an instructional, sit down type situation, as opposed to school. It has helped him a lot in that and skill wise I think he is interested in achieving more."

Another person summarized, "Social and general behavior (changes were) shown most. (They) interact and work with their peers better. Reading and academic gains were slight, ...but (the) program (is) good for peer interaction."

Teachers from the smaller school stressed the value of having Energy Express available for children who live in geographically isolated areas. "Students here live so far away from one another, it certainly is good for them to get together and practice those social skills . . . and those kids have access to library books and books all summer long."

School Personnel's Observations from the Larger Schools

Most teachers and principals from the two larger school communities, while they responded to the questions, found it difficult to address whether there were differences among children who participated in Energy Express. There is very little opportunity for teachers to observe the same student from year to year. "I don't think that you ever know the difference ... related to the fact that you don't know them before," said one teacher. Another teacher said, "(It is) hard to tell, (I) don't see children again. (I) would like to think it helps. (One boy's) skills were still very low, now in February he is able to do words ... it could have helped him get ready to learn ... he did come in very low." Another teacher said, "(I) think those who did participate were in a position to benefit both academically and socially."

Some stated that the students who attended needed the program. "Most of the ones who participated here were ones who need an academic boost." Three students, one teacher noted, had severe learning issues, and all three really struggled. "I can't personally say that there was (a difference). But I've seen some of the ones I did have last year, they needed something to help carry them over. I'm sure they benefited from it because they would be the ones that as soon as they walked out the door it would be gone. . . . (I) would tend to believe that it would help them maintain."

A reading support instructor observed improvement in some children, and attributed the change to both programs. "Now some of them I do recognize they are in the first grade now and they are doing fairly well. A few are going to be brought up for learning disabilities. They would have those anyway. A couple of them I do recognize that are excellent readers now and that I have dropped them from my reading program because they have done so well." She also observed a specific benefit to one child. "His mother probably had to fight with him to get him to go. I see now that there's a difference. It has helped with him being positive."

Comparison of Indicators Between Parents and Teachers

Table 1 summarizes the difference and similarities in perception among the two groups and serves to answer the research questions.

Research Question 1: Did the parents observe a change in children's reading as a result of participating in Energy Express? Parents did observe positive changes in their child's reading skills and more interest in reading.

Research Question 2: Did the school personnel observe a change in children's reading as a result of participating in Energy Express? School observed some changes in a child's reading and an increased interest in reading.

Research Question 3: Were there differences between the parents' and school personnel's observations? Parents observed more increases in reading skills and increases in self-confidence, whereas most teachers did not observe changes in these areas. Both groups discussed an increased interest in reading and more independent reading. Both noticed improved socialization; however, teachers noticed significant improvement including better group skills.

Conclusions

The major findings were that the parents value Energy Express and that some observed improvements in their children's reading. School personnel value Energy Express more for the program's holistic approach to child development and less for the program's impact on reading scores.

Based on Parent's Perception

Parents attribute a variety of changes to participation in Energy Express: improvement in reading, maintained reading, more reading at home, increased confidence in reading, and better social interaction skills. Some stated that Energy Express contributed to their child's improved school success.

Based on School Personnel's Perception

School personnel from the smaller school felt that Energy Express reached the goal of helping children to maintain their reading scores over the summer months, and they observed gains among some of the children. Because the school is smaller and the community close knit, teachers and students tend to be better connected. School personnel from the larger schools, and the more disconnected communities, had little opportunity to observe changes in children because they do not see them in consecutive years. Connections and relationships between teachers and children are significantly weaker in larger school environments.

Among school personnel, the greatest gains observed were improved socialization and increased interest in reading. Teachers were more apt than the principals or parents to note improvements in social skills and reading interest. Because teachers work with children in a classroom setting, there are more opportunities for them to observe group interaction skills and reading motivation. Some teachers noted a significant difference between children who had been a part of the Energy Express small groups compared to those who were not in the program. Those who had the small group experience could function better in group settings.

Implications

The following are implications for the Extension Service and school partners.

• Qualitative research is a complement to quantitative data collection, because it captures increased interest in independent reading at home and in the school environments.
• The qualitative research is consistent with the quantitative data. Parents and school personnel confirm a positive impact on children's reading.
• Future Extension studies should collect data from different groups. Parents and school personnel have different opportunities to observe children's development. Parents are more likely to observe a child's individual response to the program, whereas teachers have the opportunity to observe a child's response in the context of a group of children.
• Socialization and group skills are a benefit from summer reading programs that use a small-group approach.
• There are significant differences among teachers' connections with children in larger schools as compared to smaller school communities. Teachers from larger schools have little contact with the same children from year to year.
• Future Extension programming could be particularly valuable in larger school communities. If the teachers are disconnected from the children over time, Extension programs could provide this connection.
• Program implications are that Energy Express should be continued and expanded to other states as a holistic literacy model that contributes to children's academic success.

References

Butera, G., & Phillips, R. (1998). Energy Express program indicator report on pre and post Woodcock-Johnson Reading Achievement Subtest scores. West Virginia University Extension Service, Morgantown, WV.

Butera, G. (1998). Garfield reading attitude survey - Keyser Primary Middle School results. West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV.

Gredler, M.E. (1996). Program evaluation: Data analysis and interpretation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 15, 295-307.

Juel, C. (1998). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of fifty-four children from first through fourth grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 437-447.

Kingery, B. (1999). Reading, English and language arts. Charleston, WV: West Virginia Department of Education.

Miltenberger, M. (1999). Energy Express evaluation research study Mineral County report. West Virginia University Mineral County Extension Service, Keyser, WV.

NAEP. (1998). The NAEP 1998 reading report card for the nation. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Educational Statistics.

National Institute for Literacy. (1998). Fast facts in literacy & fact sheet on correctional education. Washington, D.C.: National Institute for Literacy.

U.S. Department of Education: America Reads Challenge. (July 1999). Every child a reader: How citizens, public leaders, and communities can help [Online]. Available at: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/startearly/ch_4.html.

U.S. Department of Education: America Reads Challenge. (July 1999). Raising readers: The tremendous potential of families [Online]. Available at: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/startearly/ch_1.html.

The Food Stamp Nutrition Education Program's (FSNEP) Impact on Selected Food and Nutrition Behaviors Among Texans

Jenna Anding
Assistant Professor & Extension Nutrition Specialist
Texas Agricultural Extension Service
Internet Address: j-anding@tamu.edu

Rickie D. Fletcher
Research Associate, Public Policy Research Institute
Texas A&M University
Internet Address: r-fletcher@tamu.edu.

Peggy Van Laanen
Professor and Extension Nutrition Specialist
Texas Agricultural Extension Service
Internet Address: p-vanlaanen@tamu.edu

Cheryl Supak
LaGrange Independent School District
La Grange, Texas
(Formerly Director of Better Living for Texans, Texas Agricultural Extension Service)

College Station, Texas

• Improvements in the U.S. economy,
• Stricter requirements for eligibility,
• Lack of information about program eligibility,
• The stigma attached to receiving public assistance, and
• The perception that the perceived amount of time and effort that must be spent applying for Food Stamp benefits are not worth the amount of benefits received (CPPP, 2000; Dodds, Ahluwalia, & Baligh, 1996; United States General Accounting Office, 1999)

Because participation in the Food Stamp program is low, FSNEP, which is conducted through the Texas Agricultural Extension Service, is offered to both food stamp and food stamp eligible individuals and families. To make the program more marketable to Texas consumers, FSNEP is known as the Better Living for Texans (BLT) program. Individuals in the BLT program participate in a minimum of five lessons that focus on knowledge and behaviors relative to the Food Guide Pyramid, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, food safety, and food resource management.

In order to evaluate the effectiveness and success of the BLT program, the need to examine selected food and nutrition behaviors of participants was identified. The purpose of the study reported here was to evaluate participant changes in selected food and nutrition behaviors as a result of completing the BLT program.

Methodology

Subject Recruitment for Participation in the BLT Program

Between September of 1998 and July of 1999, 165 counties in Texas offered the BLT program. County agents and assistants recruited participants through radio and newspaper advertisements, and by distributing informational fliers at specific areas, including public housing authorities, subsidized health clinics, and food banks/pantries. Local DHS (Department of Human Services) offices and health departments also referred individuals to the program.

Subject Recruitment for Participation in the BLT Evaluation Survey

At the request of the BLT program director, county Extension agents were asked to submit names and telephone numbers of individuals who had participated in the BLT program during the 1998 fiscal year. One hundred of the 165 counties submitted a total of 3,027 potential subjects for the study. Because of incorrect phone numbers, duplicate numbers, the inclusion of deaf language calls, and unqualified respondents (under the age of 18 or not a participant in the BLT program), the number of usable names and phone numbers was decreased to 1,307. From this set of usable names and numbers, 481 potential subjects were randomly selected to participate in the survey.

Survey Development and Administration

The major portion of the survey instrument focused on 20 selected food, nutrition, and food resource management behaviors both before and after attending the BLT program. Most of the questions were asked in an "always, most of the time, sometimes, seldom, and never" format (Table 1). In addition, participants were asked to estimate the number of servings consumed daily from each section of the Food Guide Pyramid. The survey was administered by trained, bilingual interviewers to randomly selected BLT participants via the telephone by the Public Policy Research Institute during August and September of 1999.

Statistical Analysis

Using the SAS system (version 6.2), paired t-tests were performed on the 20 sets of items to determine if the differences between before and after self-reported behaviors were statistically significant. The level of significance was set at p < .05.

Results

Subject Characteristics

Of the 481 individuals selected, 459 agreed to participate in the survey (95% cooperation rate), representing 76 of the 165 counties that offered the BLT program. As reported in Table 2, a majority of respondents were female, married, and Hispanic. One-third of the interviews were conducted in Spanish. More than one-half of the respondents were under the age of 40. More than 30% of respondents reported household sizes of five or more, while 40% of the participants had three or fewer household members. At least one child under the age of 18 was indicated to be present in 71% of the households. More than one-third (37%) of the respondents had not completed high school. Household incomes of $15,000 or less were reported by nearly one-half (47%) of the respondents.

Only 23% of the subjects reported that they were currently participating in the Food Stamp program. By comparison, 29% of the subjects reported receiving benefits from the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), and 43% of the households stated participating in the National School Lunch/Breakfast program. Only 7% of households reported receiving benefits from the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program. At the time this survey was conducted, 10% of the households reported using food banks and food pantries as means of obtaining food.

Self-Reported Changes in Selected Nutrition, Food Safety, and Food Resource Management Behaviors

In comparison to food consumption habits prior to the BLT program, subjects reported increasing their intakes of foods from four sections of the Food Guide Pyramid after completing the program. (Table 3). The consumption of the number of servings of fruits, vegetables, and dairy products was significantly higher after subjects completed the BLT program in comparison to before entering the program. There was also a trend towards a higher consumption of breads, cereals, rice, and pasta after participating in the program, although the increase was not significant.

# Servings Consumed p-value Food Before After breads, cereals, rice & pasta 2.8 + 1.8 2.9 + 1.8a NSb fruits 2.1 + 1.4 2.9 + 1.4 .001 vegetables 2.1 + 1.4 2.8 + 1.4 .001 milk/dairy products 2.2 + 1.7 2.6 + 1.7 .001 a mean + standard deviation, rounded to the nearest tenth b NS = not significantly different

On average, participants made self-reported changes in a number of behaviors that are in agreement with the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (Table 4). The percentage of respondents who reported that they never used lard for cooking rose from 58% before the BLT program to 74% after the BLT program. Nearly 21% of the subjects reported that before the BLT program they seldom or never added salt to foods; after the BLT program, the percentage rose to 41%. Prior to the BLT program, 31% of respondents reported that they read food labels for nutrition information always or most of the time. After completing the BLT program, the percentage of respondents reading food labels always or most of the time rose to 71%. In addition, 68% of the subjects reported that after participating in the BLT program, they were reading food labels to help them choose foods with less fat always or most of the time, up from 26%.

Participants also reported engaging in behaviors that reflect improvements in safe food handling practices. Before participating in the BLT program, subjects reported that they let cooked foods sit out for an average of 1 hour and 10 minutes. After the program, cooked foods were left out for an average of 68 minutes, a reduction by only 2 minutes. However, the percentage of subjects who allowed cooked foods to sit out for longer than 2 hours decreased from 9.4% to 2%. The percentage of subjects who reported washing their hands for 20 seconds always or most of the time increased from 89.3% to 95.9%.

Self-reports of practicing proper food resource management skills also improved among participants (Table 5). The percentage of respondents planning meals always or most of the time increased from 27% before BLT to 57% after BLT. More than 70% of the subjects shopped with a list always or most of the time, up from 47% before completing the BLT program. Two-thirds (66%) of the subjects reported that they compared prices when shopping before participating in the program, while 87% reported doing so after the program. For the households of respondents receiving food stamp benefits, 70% reported that their food stamps were lasting longer since completing the BLT program. In addition, the percentage of subjects who reported running out of money, food stamps, or food before the end of the month always or most of the time decreased from 17% to 7%.

Table 5
Mean ^a Self-Reported Food Resource Management Behaviors, Before and After the BLT Program

Discussion 

For educators who work with limited resource audiences, this study demonstrates that Extension programs and educators are effective in reaching this audience and making a difference in selected food and nutrition behaviors. Subjects who participated in the BLT program reported significant changes in selected nutrition, food safety, and food resource management behaviors. Because increased consumption of fruits and vegetables and decreased consumption of dietary fat are thought to promote good health and prevent disease (USDA, 1992; USDA, 2000), the reported changes in these food consumption behaviors, along with the reported increase in calcium-rich dairy products, are encouraging.

Breads, cereals, grains, and pasta are also important for a healthful diet, but the upward trend in the consumption of these foods was not significant. It is possible that participants in this survey did not have a clear understanding of the suggested portion sizes for foods within this section of the Food Guide Pyramid. Due to the fact that more than 52% of participants identified at least one overweight person in the household, it is also possible that some individuals in this study were attempting to follow one or more variations of low-carbohydrate diets as a means of managing their weight. Unfortunately, this survey did not measure the subject's knowledge of portion sizes or weight management practices; therefore, only conjectures about the low consumption of breads, grains, cereals, and pasta can be made. Perhaps assessing participant knowledge about specific food and nutrition behaviors would be helpful in explaining future survey findings.

The self-reported improvements in selected food safety behaviors are also encouraging given the current national attention to this issue. An estimated 19% of foodborne illnesses originate in the home (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1996); therefore, adopting safe food handling practices is critical for all people, including limited resource individuals who cannot afford to lose food due to spoilage or improper handling or who often lack health insurance or employee benefits to accommodate time loss from work due to a personal or family illness.

A major objective of the BLT program is to provide education and guidance in the area of food resource management to prevent food insecurity. According to the Life Sciences Research Office (1990), "food insecurity exists whenever the availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or the ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways is limited or uncertain." In a recent survey published by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA, 1999), the percentage of food-insecure households was nationally estimated at 9.7%. In Texas, however, approximately 12.9% of families were food insecure. Furthermore, 5% of the food-insecure households in Texas demonstrated signs of hunger (USDA, 1999).

These statistics, which show a need for food resource management education, along with the finding that subjects in this study stretched their food dollars and reduced the need for assistance from emergency programs like food banks and food pantries, reinforce the importance of teaching food resource management skills through programs like BLT.

The findings of the telephone survey and the reported changes in the selected behaviors compare favorably with previous studies (Romero, Medeiros, & Melcher, 1988; Amstutz & Dixon, 1986). However, there are three limitations to this study that should be addressed.

First, the manner by which this survey was administered may have excluded participants who did not have easy access to a telephone. Participants who moved and changed phone numbers after completing the program might also have been excluded. Unfortunately, the geographical area (165 counties throughout Texas) from which our subjects were recruited, the need to use trained, bilingual interviewers, and financial limitations prohibited face-to-face interviews.

Second, it is possible that the reported changes in behavior were not due solely to the BLT program but instead to other educational programs, including those offered by Extension. Although we do not know the extent to which participants engaged in other educational activities, more than 46% of the subjects reported that the BLT program was their first experience with Extension.

Third, the study relied on retrospective self-reported data. Again, the extensive geographical area in which this program was offered plus the desire to use trained interviewers prevented the collection of pre and post behaviors. Furthermore, because of the possibility that some of our participants had limited literacy skills, we administered our survey via an interview. Having Extension agents interviewing the participants individually would have been extremely difficult to do at the county level because of the time involved to interview each participants and would also have introduced more variability in the data.

Conclusion

Results of this survey indicate that the Food Stamp Nutrition Education Program (BLT in Texas) is effective in teaching limited resource individuals and families food and nutrition skills that mirror the Dietary Guidelines for Americans and the Food Guide Pyramid. Additionally, the skills learned in the area of food resource management are helping individuals and families stretch their limited food resources and are reducing the need for emergency food. Further investigation is needed to determine the level of understanding that program participants have with respect to portion sizes--especially breads, grains, cereals, rice, and pasta--that are recommended by the Food Guide Pyramid. 

References

Amstutz, M. K., & Dixon, D. L. (1986). Dietary changes resulting from the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program. Journal of Nutrition Education, 18, 55-60.

Bean, N. H., Goulding, J. S., Lao, C., & Angulo, F. J. (1996). Surveillance for foodborne-disease outbreaks - United States, 1988-1992. CDC Surveillance Summaries, October 25, 1996. MMWR 1996; 45 (No. SS-5): 1-30.

Center for Public Policy Priorities. (2000, January). Hunger in a time of plenty: Food stamp declines in Texas since welfare reform. Austin, Texas.

Dodds, J. M., Ahluwalia, W., & Baligh, M. (1996). Experiences of families using food assistance and welfare programs in North Carolina: Perceived barriers and recommendations for improvement. Journal of Nutrition Education, 28, 101-108.

Life Sciences Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. (1990). Core indicators of nutritional state for difficult-to-sample populations. Journal of Nutrition, 122 (suppl): 1559-1600.

Nord, M., Jemison, K., & Bickel, G. (1999). Measuring food security in the United States: Prevalence of food insecurity and hunger, by state, 1996-1998 (Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Report Number 2) Food and Rural Economics Division, Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

Romero, V. A., Medeiros, D. M., & Melcher, L. (1988). Use and effectiveness of Wyoming EFNEP's lesson series. Journal of Nutrition Education, 20, 15-19.

United States Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration. (1999). Poverty in the United States, 1998 (U.S. Census Bureau publication P60-207).

United States Department of Agriculture. (2000). Nutrition education planning guidance, fiscal year 2001, Food and Nutrition Service, Food Stamp Program, Program Accountability Division.

United States Department of Agriculture, Human Nutrition Information Service. (1992). The Food Guide Pyramid(Home and Garden Bulletin No. 252). Hyattsville, MD.

Unites States Department of Agriculture, United States Department of Health and Human Services (2000). Nutrition and your health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 5^th edition (USDA, USDHHS Home and Garden Bulletin No. 232). Hyattsville, MD.

United States General Accounting Office. (1999). Food stamp program: Various factors have led to declining participation(GAO/RCED Publication No. 99-185). Washington, D.C: U.S. General Accounting Office.

What Do You Know About Your Clients?  Implications for Extension Financial Management Training

Don Breazeale
Extension Educator, University of Nevada Cooperative Extension
Lovelock, Nevada
Internet Address: breazealed@unce.unr.edu

Gordon Myer
Farm Management Specialist (retired)
Internet Address: gmyer@email.uophx.edu

George Hill
Associate Professor of Educational Leadership
Internet Address: gchill@unr.edu

University of Nevada
Reno, Nevada

Introduction

Financial management and record keeping are sought-after topics by farm and ranch owners, particularly beginning farmers (Trede & Whitaker, 1998). Education in the use and application of computers is a related topic of importance to these same people. In the early 1980's, many people felt that computers would be used by more than 80% of the farm and ranch owners by the 1990's. While this predication may not have been completely accurate, computer usage has certainly increased (Schmidt, Rockwell, Bitney, & Sarno, 1994).

While Bowen, Miller, and Escolme (1989) found that few farmers named Extension personnel as the primary source for microcomputer instruction, it was apparent that Extension was still playing an important role. In the case of Nevada, financial management and computer training is often combined (Nevada Cooperative Extension, in-progress). As with other Extension Services, Nevada Cooperative Extension strives to bring relevant educational programs to its clientele.

Seevers, Grahm, Gamon, and Conklin (1995) reported that client satisfaction with Extension programs was of significant importance. According to Warnock (1992), Cooperative Extension should follow the example set by private businesses and ask their customers, "How are we doing?" Information relative to the beliefs, needs, and behavior of clients can provide valuable input concerning the effectiveness of the programs they attended (Martin and Rewerts, 1988). If possible, input should also be sought from those not participating in current programs. Are they getting their information from others?  Would they be willing to participate in future Extension programs?

Both groups can also provide insight concerning topics for future programming as well as the format for receiving this information. Answers to these types of questions can improve current instructional efforts and provide insight into developing new learning situations (Parrett, Faulkner, & Varner, 1988).

Purpose

Given the emphasis being placed on farm financial management and computer training by Nevada Cooperative Extension (NCE), it was necessary to determine producer perceptions related to this training. The study reported here was designed to determine the financial management and computer educational needs of two groups of agricultural producers in Nevada and to determine if there were differences between the two groups. This information would allow NCE to adjust and adapt current topics, teaching methods, and delivery formats to more closely meet producer needs.

Research Methodology

Data were collected from a total of 69 producers. "Participants" included 33 respondents who previously participated in an Extension tax management program conducted by correspondence. The 33 respondents represented 44% of the tax course participants. The second group, "non-participants," consisted of 36 respondents who were randomly selected for telephone interviews. These 36 had originally been notified about the tax program but chose not participate.

A closed-form questionnaire consisting of 20 questions was used. The format of the questionnaire included five - point Likert-type scales, multiple choice selection, and two open-ended questions. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to describe the two groups and to determine if there were any differences between them.

The participant group received the questionnaire through the mail, and the non-participant group responded by telephone interview. Topics covered included:

1. Knowledge and use of economic and financial management techniques,
2. Knowledge and use of computer technology,
3. Desired format for receiving future programming,
4. Topics for future programming, and
5. Demographic information.

Many of the questions contained multiple sections. Cronbach's alpha was calculated for both groups. The coefficient for the "participants" was .78 and .82 for the "non-participants." Considering the small N of both groups, the coefficients indicated that the instrument's scales were internally consistent.

Findings

Demographics

Respondents represented 13 of Nevada's 17 counties. Multiple choice selection type questions were used to gather the data for this section. There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups when comparing six demographic characteristics.

Combined, the two groups reported that 40% had graduated from college, 34% had attended college, 21% had graduated from high school. and 5% had attended high school. Sixty-four percent of the respondents reported that farming and/or ranching was their principal occupation. Sixty percent listed their major agricultural activity as livestock, 38% crop production, and 2% some type of agribusiness enterprise. Thirty-two percent reported working 200 days or more off-farm, while 68% worked less than 200 days off-farm. Gross income from farming and/or ranching activities was also reported. Forty-four percent of the respondents reported gross earnings of less than $50,000, 22% between $50,000 and $100,000, and one-third had gross earnings in excess of $100,000. Forty-four percent of the respondents had owned their farm or ranch for 4 years or less, 28% between 5 and 9 years, and 62% for 10 years or more.

Knowledge and Use of Economic and Financial Management Techniques

This section (Table 1) revealed the respondents' perceptions concerning their level of expertise in economics and financial management and whether their level of expertise was a limiting factor when analyzing the financial performance of their operation. Also measured were the respondents' knowledge and skill level with several financial management procedures. The data were gathered using five-point Likert-type scales (1=not at all and poor, and 5=definitely, excellent, and almost always).

The respondents reported that they had come to rely on financial management techniques and that they had a moderate level of expertise with these techniques. They did not report having many problems in analyzing the business performance of their operations because they did not feel that their level of expertise was a limiting factor. They did report relying on others for help. The only statistically significant differences between the groups in this section was the fact that the participant group tended to rely more heavily on others for help than did the non-participant group.

Table 1
Respondents' Perceptions Regarding Their Knowledge and Use of Economic and Financial Management Techniques

Respondents were also asked to indicate their familiarity with certain financial statements. To measure this variable, respondents were asked to indicate their level of use of the financial statements shown in Table 2 (1=don't use, 2=use, but not with computer, 3=use with computer). While there were several individuals using computers with these procedures, the majority were using the statements without a computer. There were statistically significant differences between the groups concerning their level of knowledge and skill associated with enterprise budgets and farm/ranch accounting.

Table 2
Respondents' Perceptions Regarding Their Knowledge and Level of Skill in Utilizing Business Management Tools