Content

Editor's Page

Editor's Page

Headings and subheadings help readers and writers of journal articles and other expository prose so much that it's a shame more writers don't take advantage of them.

Commentary

Leave Home! International Sabbaticals as Unfreezing Experiences

Lev, Larry
International sabbaticals provide exceptional opportunities for Extension educators to "unfreeze" and transform themselves personally and professionally. But relatively few ever take this type of sabbatical because of the numerous obstacles that must be overcome. This paper discusses why international sabbaticals are so valuable and provides tips and additional resources for the sabbatical planning process. The "leave home" message is that the gains will far exceed the costs.

Feature Articles

Diversifying the Volunteer Base: Latinos and Volunteerism

Hobbs, Beverly B.
Latino adults represent a significant source of potential volunteers for Extension. Gaining their involvement, however, has proven to be a challenge. In 1999, the Oregon 4-H program conducted a series of focus groups to increase understanding of the Latino culture as it relates to volunteerism and to identify practices that would encourage Latino adults to volunteer with mainstream organizations such as Extension. Volunteer managers drawn from a cross section of community organizations composed the focus groups. This article shares the findings gained from the focus group process and discusses the implications of those findings for Extension.

Public Issues Education: Exploring Extension's Role

Patton, David B.; Blaine, Thomas W.
Extension educators in all program areas have become increasingly involved with controversial public issues in recent years. Given the nature of these issues and the expectations placed on agents and specialists by the public and by university officials, Extension's continued involvement seems inevitable. This article provides a conceptual framework that identifies potential roles for public officials, the general public, and Extension professionals in dealing with public issues. The article concludes with some specific advice for Extension educators involved with programming that addresses controversial topics.

The World Wide Web: A Training Tool for Family Resource Management Educators

Muske, Glenn; Goetting, Marsha; Vukonich, Merrylee
Cooperative Extension has actively explored new technologies as a means to provide education to its own staff and the general public. The study reported here concerned the development of a Web site used for Extension family resource management training. The study found that Extension educators use the Web for information and support using it for training. Educators appreciated having links that could be considered reliable and accurate. The data also suggest that such sites can provide a "refresher" to the in-service material, thus reinforcing the learning experience.

Simple Written Resources and Neighborhood Demonstrations Help Amish Adopt Buggy Safety Recommendations

James, Randall E.
Highway accidents between automobiles and horse-drawn buggies are a major, life-threatening concern in and near Amish settlements in the United States and Canada. In 1996, Extension worked cooperatively with the fourth largest Amish settlement in the world, on a multi-faceted educational program urging Amish families to add reflective tape to their buggies to improve highway visibility. A 1999 study documented a 78% rate of practice adoption for this specific recommended buggy safety innovation in this community. This study demonstrates that Extension can have meaningful educational impact even in strict religious communities like the Amish.

Consumer Understanding of the Food Guide Pyramid
and Dietary Guidelines

Tuttle, Cynthia Reeves
The Food Guide Pyramid and the Dietary Guidelines are tools commonly used in nutrition education. The Pyramid has become a highly visible marketing tool, and related consumer awareness is quite high. The study reported here compared perceived consumer awareness of these tools with consumers' ability to relate the information they impart. The results indicate that, although awareness and perceived knowledge of the content of the tools is high (100%), the ability to identify food groups, appropriate number of servings, and dietary guidelines is surprisingly low and not consistent with their perceptions. These findings indicate important areas of emphasis for Extension nutrition education efforts.

Bringing Leadership Experiences to Inner-City Youth

Boyd, Barry L.
Leadership skills are essential for young people to feel satisfaction and contribute to society. But how do you teach leadership skills to teens who only have a vague concept of leadership? Service learning offers teens the opportunity to practice leadership skills and reflect on the experience. 4-H Youth for Community Action (4-HYCA) is an after school leadership development program targeting teens in inner-city middle schools. The purpose of the program was to provide opportunities for inner city youth to learn and practice leadership skills in a service-learning environment. 4-HYCA participants actively engaged in problem-solving activities that taught decision-making, communication, and cooperation skills.

Building Your Youth Development Toolkit: A Community Youth Development Orientation for Pennsylvania 4-H/Youth Programs

Mincemoyer, Claudia C.; Perkins, Daniel F.
Pennsylvania Extension youth and family educators participated in an experiential inservice program that provided research findings, resources, activities, and teaching strategies to enhance positive community youth development programming in their counties. Participant evaluations showed significant gain in knowledge and understanding of community youth development concepts and the desire to apply these concepts in youth programs. Data from the evaluation provide strong evidence of the importance of developing a common framework and language for youth and family educators related to youth development. An inservice model that includes "booster" information to reinforce concepts after the inservice has application to other program areas.

Research in Brief

Supporting Professional Growth Through Mentoring and Coaching

Kutilek, Linda M.; Earnest, Garee W.
This article focuses on approaches for mentoring and coaching employees within Extension. Through presentation of research and discussion of current applications, the authors explore mutual benefits and differences between coaching and mentoring. Several examples are shared of processes that have been implemented within the Ohio State University Extension to support these concepts.

Learning How to Connect the Dots: An Assessment of a Community Development Program

Rebori, Marlene K.
Program development models often stress the science of developing programs such as identifying needs, establishing program goals, and measuring outcomes. Although these components are essential for successful programming, educators can easily overlook important connections that require the art of program of development. Understanding the art of program development is critical when designing community development programs. This article offers a conceptual approach for connecting the science and art of program development. An actual community development program is used to illustrate that learning how to connect the dots is a critical component to successful community program development.

Profiling Indiana's 4-H Horse and Pony Leaders

Rusk, Clinton P.; Kerr, Carla A.; Talbert, B. Allen; Russell, Mark A.
This article profiles Indiana's nearly 600 4-H horse and pony leaders, describes their motives for becoming a leader, and documents the understanding these leaders have of running a 4-H club, teaching various aspects of the horse and pony project, and training hippology, horse bowl, and horse judging teams. The majority (>70%) of Indiana's 4-H horse and pony leaders are white, married women between the ages of 31 and 50. Eighty-eight percent volunteer as leaders because they enjoy working with youth. Over half (54%) of the leaders would like to receive additional training on how to conduct showmanship and horsemanship clinics.

Differences in District Extension Leaders' Perceptions of the Problems and Needs of Tennessee Small Farmers

Ekanem, Enefiok; Singh, Surendra P.; Muhammad, Safdar; Tegegne, Fisseha; Akuley-Amenyenu, Anonya
A survey questionnaire was used in collecting data used in examining differences in Extension leaders' perceptions of problems faced by small farmers in Tennessee. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used in analyzing questionnaire responses. Capital, credit, and appropriate technology were some of the problems facing small farmers. Fear of acquiring additional debt; inability to run large operations; lack of machinery and equipment; and scarce cash constrained expansion of small farms, according to surveyed Extension leaders. Although there were differences across districts, most frequently cited research and educational needs of small farmers were those related to production, marketing, and management.

Colorado Professionals' Concerns, Abilities, and Needs for Land Use Planning

Seidl, Andrew
Colorado professionals with agriculture and natural resource managing responsibilities were surveyed on issues of growth. Their greatest concerns were water quality, water quantity, and agricultural profitability. Of least concern were large lot, low-density development, affordable housing, and forestland conversion. Respondents reported the greatest knowledge of fee simple land purchases, zoning, and conservation easements, and the least knowledge of water banking or trusts, "bargain" lands sales, and moratoria. They indicated the greatest interest in an overview of land management tools, conservation easements, and public-private partnerships, and the least interest in educational programming related to moratoria, development timing, and housing land trusts.

Using Land Evaluation and Site Assessment (LESA) for Farmland Protection Planning: A Case Study

King, Robert N.; Lamb, John
The Land Evaluation and Site Assessment (LESA) system was used in developing a farmland protection plan that identified and described land use variables and agricultural operations associated with development. Using automated property tax data, a baseline model was established that identified field crops, vacant lands, truck cropland, and population as variables positively associated with development, whereas fruit crops had a negative association. Variables associated with development were lowest in profit per acre, whereas fruit crops were higher in profit. LESA and the model provided an objective and innovative approach to identify and recommend agricultural lands for farmland protection planning and implementation efforts.

Ideas at Work

The County Fair--What Has It Done for You, Lately?

Diem, Keith G.; Rothenburger, Lisa
Nearly every county has a county fair, in which staff, volunteers, and families invest a great deal of time and money to organize, promote, and run every year. After decades of habit, it's easy to forget or ignore why you're doing it in the first place. Now could be the time to stop and ask, "What has your county fair done for you, lately?" Our question is not a call to turn back from tradition, but to reflect on history and current status and to set a course for the future.

The Family Storyteller: A Collaborative Family Literacy Program

Weigel, Dan; Behal, Patricia; Martin, Sally
Children who begin school with limited literacy skills are struggling uphill from the first day they set foot in school. The University of Nevada Cooperative Extension initiated a collaborative family literacy effort to improve the literacy skills of both parents and their children. A series of six weekly workshops have been provided across Nevada to over 500 families. Pre-post interviews with families have revealed significant increases in the amount of time parents read with their children, their enjoyment of reading time, and their use of specific parent reading techniques. Children have made significant gains in their enjoyment of reading with parents and their understanding of print concepts.

Multi-County Approach to Master Gardener Program in Rural Areas Yields Results

Mechling, Mark; Schumacher, Steve
Training and developing Master Gardeners (MG) on a multi-county basis benefited Extension personnel and clientele in an Appalachian region in Ohio. Rural clientele increasingly expect credible, research-based information on horticultural issues. Agents within an Extension district in eastern Ohio organized the first rural-based MG program in the state and developed a curriculum specific for the region. Cooperative development of MG allowed a number of counties to benefit from trained volunteers responding to horticultural questions. Since 1994, 10,000 hours of volunteer time have been documented with over 20,000 individual contacts made. The first Master Gardener of the Year in Ohio was a member of the first rural MG group.

Developing a Program Evaluation Instrument for Texas 4-H: A Work in Progress

Howard, Jeff W.; Boleman, Chris T.; Alvey, Amy; Burkhum, Angela B.; Chilek, Kevin D.; Stone, Cody C.; Howard, Jr., Ron A.; Cummings, Scott R.; Couch, Martha E.
The Texas 4-H Program is a continuously growing organization that has identified a major need to implement a standardized evaluation instrument to measure its impact and effectiveness. This article summarizes the development of the evaluation instrument by describing factors that surfaced to measure effective 4-H programs. This instrument will be available from the Texas 4-H Web page for all program coordinators to download and implement. Ultimately, this instrument will allow the Texas 4-H and Youth Development Program to become a more accountable organization, adding substance to an increasingly growing program.

Food Entrepreneur Assistance Program

Burney, Arlis B.
The Food Entrepreneur Assistance Program is a nationally renowned program at the Food Processing Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, which helps entrepreneurs introduce food products to the marketplace. The first phase is a one-day From Recipe to Reality seminar that addresses many marketing, business, and technical issues. Following the seminar, affordable fee-based services are available to those participants who decide to launch their own food business. During phase II, From Product to Profit, entrepreneurs receive individualized, step-by-step assistance tailored to their specific business venture.

Tools of the Trade

Small Farm/New Farm: One Agent Meeting Other Agents' Needs for Research-Based Information Through the WWW.

Polson, Jim; Gastier, Ted
One Ohio Extension agent created a Web site to help Extension Agents, Agriculture, quickly find research-based information to answer the questions of people with new and/or small farms. The site currently contains over 1,300 links to .edu, .gov, and .org sites. Readers with a rural clientele should find the site useful. Others may find inspiration, motivation, and instruction from reading how the site evolved from a group of agents discussing a lack of available resources to a state-of-the-art means to access up-to-date resources. Small Farm/New Farm http://newfarm.osu.edu officially debuted in December 2000 and is being well received by agents, specialists, and administrators.

Delivery Systems--Is the "Latest" Technology the Greatest?

Rodewald, Amanda D.
High-tech delivery systems, such as distance-based learning and on-line resources, are increasingly popular among Extension organizations, but are they preferable to traditional delivery systems? In the study reported here, the author surveyed Extension agents (with agriculture and natural resources responsibilities) and natural resources professionals in state agencies to determine which delivery systems were most preferred for wildlife management information. Regardless of the respondent group, printed fact sheets and bulletins were among the most preferred sources of information for wildlife-related topics. These findings illustrate the importance of including traditional printed delivery systems into our high-tech programs.

How to Diagnose Soil Acidity and Alkalinity Problems in Crops: A Comparison of Soil pH Test Kits

Stevens, Gene; Dunn, David; Phipps, Bobby
Extension agronomists are often asked by farmers to determine why crop plants are stunted or have abnormally colored leaves. Soil acidity and alkalinity are common fertility problems that can cause these symptoms. In a study to measure the accuracy of in-field pH test kits, hand-held pH meters and pH color indicator kits provided fast and reliable results. Soil pH probes gave poor measurements of soil acidity and should not be used by Extension agents. Results by untrained personnel with hand-held pH meters varied by individual. Agents using pH test kits should read instructions carefully before using these instruments.

The Southwest Ohio Perennial Flower School–A "Perennial" Winner

Gao, Gary
The Southwest Ohio Perennial Flower School (The Perennial School) is a successful 1-day seminar on plant selection, garden design, and garden maintenance of herbaceous perennial plants. The Perennial School has been offered each year since 1995 and has featured top local growers and sellers of perennial flowers as exhibitors since 1997. The Perennial School has been a "perennial" winner for 6 years and serves as a great model program for other agricultural and horticultural Extension Agents.

Questions & Answers for Authors

Q&A for Authors

Submission Instructions

Instructions for Submitting Articles

Review and Evaluation Process

Review and Evaluation Process

Editorial Committees and Board

Board

Editorial Committee

This month, I'm going to abandon my usual practice of devoting a section to the articles in the issue. I hope it suffices it to say that, once again, they're all good, interesting, and relevant to at least some of us in Extension.

I'm jettisoning my usual practice to spend more of your time and my space on the importance of headings, subheadings, and heading hierarchy.

Headings and subheadings help readers and writers of journal articles and other expository prose so much that I'm surprised more writers don't take advantage of them.

I'm not talking about the title of your article here. I'm talking about those "mini titles" within your text that strengthen your article and increase the chance that it will get a favorable reception from reviewers.

Headings Help Article Readers

Headings and subheadings give your readers a break by relieving the "textual tedium" that comes from long, unbroken sequences of paragraph, after paragraph, after paragraph.

This is particularly important--and particularly helpful--in a Web-only journal like JOE.

Even more important, headings and subheadings "digest" your information for your readers. They're signposts that help readers navigate through your text and that spell out the relationships among your ideas. They direct readers' attention to your most important points and tell them "how to read" what you have written.

And who are your first readers? Your reviewers.

Headings Help Article Authors

Headings and subheadings help you, as writers, ensure that your article is organized logically and clearly.

You can tell whether or not you have a logical and clear organization by "pulling" your headings and subheadings out of your article. If, arrayed by themselves, they look and function like an outline of your article, you're in business. If they don't, you have some revising to do.

Perhaps you don't have enough headings and/or subheadings to do justice to all of your material, or perhaps you've forgotten to discuss something.

You might find that something you regard as one of your most significant points is "buried" and that you need to recast or reorganize your article to give that point more prominence.

It could be that your sections are not arranged in the best order and that what you discussed later should appear earlier in your article.

Or maybe your hierarchy of headings and subheadings should be adjusted. That is, something that you have treated as a primary- or first-level heading is "really" a second-level subheading (or vice versa).

A word to the wise when it comes to second- and third-level subheadings. You should provide at least two sections with subheadings when you "divide" a larger section, because the result of division must logically be more than a single unit. If you can't come up with a second subheading, maybe subheadings are, in that case, inappropriate, and you should consider recasting your higher level heading, instead.

Whether you're writing a journal article or an Extension bulletin, headings and subheadings will help you put your points across more effectively. It only makes sense to use them and to use them well.

Laura Hoelscher, Editor
joe-ed@joe.org

Leave Home! International Sabbaticals as Unfreezing Experiences

Sabbatical year: A year during which land remained fallow, observed every seven years by the ancient Jews. A leave of absence, often with pay, usually granted every seventh year, as to a college professor, for travel, research, or rest. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language.

Introduction

Driving through the streets of Montpellier, France, the voice of my first grade daughter broke though my thoughts "I poop, you poop, we poop, they poop." "Elana, what's going on back there?" "Dadduh, I'm conjugating the verb 'to poop.'" Three weeks into our family sabbatical to France and already the changes were profound. They didn't let up in the 49 weeks that followed, as we learned how the French conduct economic research, make friends, stand in line, and do 1,001 other things.

Extension educators, well known for their action-orientation, may resist the concept of rest or fallow. But taking guidance from the principle that "a change is as good as a rest," a sabbatical year can more properly be viewed as the professional equivalent to crop rotation. Both provide unique opportunities for generating more vigorous growth in the next cycle. And in many instances the post-sabbatical "crop" represents quite a striking departure from what was there before.

Academics in general, and Extension educators in particular, take only a small percentage of their eligible sabbaticals. This is because taking a sabbatical, especially an international one, means overcoming numerous obstacles. Some of the key ones include:

• Approval from your home institution (including how your work will be covered),
• Funding and/or an invitation from a host institution,
• Spousal job considerations,
• Schooling for your kids, and
• Housing (both what to do with your own and what you can find).

If you set your mind to it, YOU CAN OVERCOME THESE BARRIERS! Some excellent resources are available to help. The web site "Sensational Sabbatical Suggestions" by Alastair Morrison (a Purdue University professor in Tourism Education) provides an excellent starting place. Among several books on the topic, Six Months Off, by Dlugozina, Scott, and Sharp (1996) is easily available and worth reading. A JOE article by Rogers (1993) discusses international job exchanges.

Why Go?

This paper steps back from those details to focus on the more basic question of why you should consider disrupting your well-ordered life. What can you or your institution gain?

A simple three-step change model proposed 50 years ago by the psychologist Kurt Lewin (1951) provides the basis for my argument. Lewin noted that individuals resist change even when presented with favorable new opportunities. He concluded that because they are "frozen in place," some sort of disruption or "unfreezing" (step one) is necessary before changes (step 2) can occur. The third step in the process is a "refreezing" in a new and different state.

International sabbaticals offer an ideal opportunity to unfreeze and change. Your home institution reaps the benefits of a revitalized individual who returns with new ideas and new ways of doing things.

In 1996 I was able to leave behind my position as a State Extension Marketing Specialist and take up two part-time positions in Montpellier, France. I had decided that for my sabbatical I would fully immerse myself in French projects rather than use the 1-year period as a time to read and work on my own.

Two-thirds of my time was spent with CIRAD, the French International Development Research Agency, and one-third was spent with INRA, the French research equivalent of the USDA. By the end of the year, it was clear that my last minute, negotiated-on-the-fly position at INRA was the key element in the professional success of the sabbatical. My INRA project focused on the market for locally produced agricultural products in Southern France and has transformed my work activities back in Oregon in the 4 years since my return.

Would I now be working on farmers' markets and other direct marketing issues without the sabbatical? Very unlikely. I needed a good shove to close out old projects and move on to something new.

The sabbatical year greatly expanded my sense of the possible, both for myself and for my discipline of Agricultural Economics. I came back full of enthusiasm for agricultural marketing methods that I had a chance to examine in France. A College of Agricultural Sciences seeking to better meet the needs of smaller-scale growers was here to greet me. It has been an excellent match. I have been having plenty of fun designing new research methods that work in the challenging environment of U.S. farmers' markets (Lev & Stephenson, 1999).

My career pattern provides a perfect template for what Lewin discussed. Since 1997 my work has focused ("refrozen") in a dramatically different area. Just a few more years and I will undoubtedly need another major shock to get the creative juices flowing again.

During our sabbatical year in France, the rest of my family faced similar challenges and also achieved great results. The kids flourished when they were thrown into the very different environment of the local French school. As recounted above, the French actually teach grammar to first graders. My international sabbatical could probably be justified solely on the long-term benefits provided to my kids.

My wife demonstrated that in the Internet age, telecommuting is an increasingly viable option. She was able to handle at least some of her job responsibilities from France. She also proved to be incredibly adept at adapting to the high-touch French society and spurred us to make many strong and lasting friendships. Her primary regret was that 12 months "wasn't quite long enough."

Making It Work

Here are seven pointers for having a successful international sabbatical.

• If foreign languages don't agree with you, choose an English speaking country. Those of you who are brave enough to venture into the non-English speaking world should recognize that language skills will dramatically influence your experience, so you should try to allocate time for language study.
• Plan way ahead because it will take much more time than you think to make the necessary arrangements. In my case, the French administrator who offered to host me took a position in Africa and didn't leave his replacement with any information about our "agreement." I had to start over again.
• Do your homework on how things work in your new country. Although I had previously lived in France for a year as a college student and had visited there several times as an adult, the books I read still proved invaluable for a wide range of interactions, from getting the kids enrolled in school to getting directions in the street.
• Make use of any contacts you can. Before we arrived we had rented a furnished house (very difficult to find in France), bought a used car, and enrolled our kids in the local elementary school. We walked off the plane, bought some food, and were off and running on a new life.
• Think carefully about how you want to interact with your host institution(s). Because they will be as uncertain as you are about the proper relationship and expectations, it may be up to you to design something that will work for everyone.
• Be flexible, and have fun. You will be surprised on a daily basis by your sabbatical life, so you might as well learn to enjoy the unexpected.
• Be prepared for the final surprise. The culture shock on your return may well be greater than anything you experienced during your sabbatical! This will demonstrate how much you have changed.

Extension educators are bright and motivated people who can become trapped by inertia. Given the freedom to explore in a new and different environment, most will make wonderful transformations. From our experience, living in a different culture gets you out of your comfort zone and into a whole new mode of experimentation.

References

Dlugozina, H., Scott, J., & Sharp, D. (1996). Six months off. New York: Henry Holt.

Lev, L. & Stephenson, G. (1999). Dot posters: A practical alternative to written questionnaires and oral interviews. Journal of Extension [On-Line]. 37(5) Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999october/tt1.html

Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper & Row.

Morrison, A. (2001). Sensational sabbatical suggestions. Available: http://omni.cc.purdue.edu/~alltson/Sabbat.html

Rogers, B. (1993). Gaining international experience through job exchanges. Journal of Extension [On-Line]. 31(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1993spring/intl2.html

Diversifying the Volunteer Base: Latinos and Volunteerism

Introduction

Communities across the United States are becoming more culturally and ethnically diverse. Indeed, demographers predict that by 2050, most Americans will be from a minority group (Hodgkinson, 1996). This increasing diversity changes the nature of the population served by volunteer-based organizations and, likewise, also should change the make-up of the volunteer base.

Capturing the volunteer potential of diverse community members will enrich organizations by expanding the number of volunteers, by making services more culturally appropriate, and by bringing diverse viewpoints to inform practice (Chambre, 1982). However, many organizations are finding it difficult to attract volunteers from diverse backgrounds (Rodriguez, 1997).

Beginning in the spring of 1997, the Oregon 4-H program intensified its efforts to involve more Latino youth and adults in its programs. A 1999 evaluation of outcomes revealed an increase in the number of Latino youth participants, but no significant change in the number of Latino 4-H volunteers. It was evident that 4-H had to redesign its approach to volunteer recruitment in light of the cultural context presented by Latinos.

Methods

As a first step to developing new strategies, a study was undertaken in 1999 to increase understanding of the Latino culture as it relates to volunteerism and to identify practices that would encourage Latino adults to become volunteers in community-based organizations such as 4-H. Three focus groups were conducted, each composed of individuals who had experience in recruiting and working with Latino adult volunteers. Participants were identified through phone contacts made to volunteer-based programs. Those initially contacted were also asked to suggest other potential participants.

A total of 18 individuals took part in the focus groups. Thirteen of the participants were Latino, and five were Anglo. Sixteen were female, and the two male participants were Latino.

The data collected were in reference to Latino adults who are first or second generation and of Mexican origin. These are characteristics shared by most of Oregon's Latinos.

Four key questions were used with the focus groups:

• How do Latino adults volunteer within their cultural community?
• What motivates Latino adults to volunteer?
• What factors hinder participation of Latino adults as volunteers in the greater community?
• What steps might mainstream organizations take to encourage the involvement of Latino adults as volunteers?

Discussions were audio taped and subsequently transcribed. The transcriptions formed the database for the qualitative study. The analysis and interpretation of the data proceeded inductively using a content analysis strategy whereby the data were organized and scrutinized through the development of a coding scheme and data displays (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Conclusions were then drawn and verified based on a preponderance of evidence.

Findings

Do Latinos Volunteer?

Focus group participants unanimously agreed that Latinos do indeed volunteer, but noted that the extent of their contributions is not reflected in the various statistics gathered on volunteerism. The reason for the discrepancy is that Latinos do not volunteer in the traditional American pattern. Latino volunteerism occurs first in the context of family and secondarily in the neighborhood and church as opposed to mainstream community-based organizations.

Another complicating factor that was identified is that Latinos do not think of their contributions as volunteering. In many Latin American countries, volunteering refers to activities carried out by the wealthy on behalf of the poor. For most of the immigrants coming to the United States, volunteering is not part of their history. Once in the United States, Latinos associate volunteering with the broader community, involving mainstream organizations with which Latinos have little if any connection. Being a volunteer, then, isn't within the realm of their experience.

"Helping" others, on the other hand, was noted as being second nature to Latinos. It isn't viewed as something you do at a particular time, for a particular group. Caring and helpfulness occur every day as needs arise. Whether it's giving time, money, or other resources, Latinos willingly volunteer to help family, friends, and community members. "Helping isn't so much a thing to do…as it is, that's how we do it."

Given that Latinos readily demonstrate helpfulness, the question then becomes, How can mainstream organizations tap this potential volunteer resource? What must organizations do to connect with and involve the Latino community?

Connecting with the Latino Community

Repeatedly, participants emphasized the importance of establishing a presence and building trust with the Latino community as the foundation for all future interaction. Entry to the community is based on the development of personal relationships. To build the connection, one has to be ready to proceed slowly, respectfully, and unobtrusively.

Steps identified by participants as key to building a trusting relationship included the following.

• Spend time learning about the community and the individuals within.
• Become involved with community organizations and events.
• Enlist the support of elders, other community leaders (informal as well as formal leaders), and established community organizations.
• Choose outreach staff who can relate with and be accepted by community members and whose personal and professional goals support the mission and goals of your organization.
• Demonstrate respect for the Latino culture in all that you do.
• Be patient.

Participants emphasized that while we may speak of Latinos as a group, we can only know the group if we know the individuals. Time spent in the community listening and learning is critical. It leads to an understanding of the differences that exist among individuals as well as an understanding of the cultural context in which people live.

Spending time in the community also allows the community to get to know the outreach staff and to gain a better understanding of the organization. Community members must be convinced that the organization's work is worthwhile and meaningful for their family and community, otherwise they will not value its potential. Community members must also be convinced that the organization is making a long-term commitment. Several respondents pointed out that a new organization may be treated with suspicion because, in the past, organizations had come in, asked people to become involved, and then left abruptly when funds ran out.

Surprisingly, participants did not feel that outreach staff must be Latino. More important was that staff be bilingual and bicultural, and that they be able to empathize with the community. Even for Latinos, their class, place of origin, and educational level may present barriers to relationships if they differ substantially from those of community members. Staff must be able to overcome any such differences that exist and be accepted. For both Latino and Anglo staff, the factor of utmost importance is the ability to earn the trust of the community.

Strategies for Volunteer Recruitment

Identifying Potential Volunteers

Participants repeatedly commented on the many talents and skills Latino adults have to contribute as volunteers. However, their ability to contribute is often constrained by the need to work, lack of transportation or childcare, and limited English skills.

Across all age groups, people with higher levels of education, better English language skills, and some degree of financial security were seen as the most likely candidates. These included students in need of community service experiences, senior citizens, and established professionals. One group noted that stay-at-home mothers frequently are overlooked as potential volunteers. They do have skills to offer and often will help out if any needs they have for transportation, childcare, or language assistance are addressed.

Motivations for volunteering that were identified were similar to those found among volunteers in general, namely:

• A desire to give back for what they themselves have received,
• A desire to help their community,
• An opportunity to learn skills and gain experience that will help them find better jobs,
• A chance to meet new people and be personally challenged, and
• A way to share their cultural traditions with youth or with members of the greater community.

Inviting Participation

A notice in the newspaper or a flyer sent home with school children will not attract many volunteers from the Latino community. Neither will meetings that do not reflect cultural characteristics and the daily lives of the people. When asked what steps mainstream organizations should take to successfully recruit volunteers, focus group members suggested the following.

• Personally extend invitations to volunteer through visits or phone calls. Go to the people rather than wait for them to come to you.
• Supplement personal invitations with bilingual print information (flyers, posters, newspaper articles). Always present information as an invitation rather than an announcement.
• Use Spanish radio. It is very popular and conveys a certain amount of credibility to the information broadcast.
• Hold meetings in locations where the people will be comfortable. If a school or church is used, choose one that is familiar and comfortable for the people. Don't assume, for instance, that all people are Catholic.
• Offer food, door prizes, and possibly music as a part of meetings. Make the meeting an event for families.
• Consider the daily schedule of potential volunteers when setting meeting times. No one time will meet everyone's needs, but awareness of where they are employed and the associated time schedules will help determine the best times.
• Accommodate language preferences. Translating for an English speaker is one alternative for conducting meetings, but monolingual Spanish speakers will be more apt to speak up if the meeting is conducted in Spanish. Even attendees who are bilingual appreciate the comfort level accorded by using Spanish.
• Explain how the organization and the work of volunteers will benefit families and community. Specifically, show how volunteers' talents and skills will be applied and how they will make a difference. Respondents reflected that many Latinos feel they have nothing to contribute. Empower them by conveying belief in their ability to contribute.
• Emphasize the organization's long-term commitment to the community.
• Initially recruit for short-term assignments. Sometimes what works best is to ask an individual directly to carry out a task rather than wait for someone to step forward and volunteer.
• Don't become discouraged by limited response. All focus group participants struggled with attempts to recruit more Latino adult volunteers. There message to others was "Don't become discouraged if people don't respond to your invitations. Keep asking."

Supporting Volunteers

As with any volunteers, organizational support for Latino volunteers is critical to their retention. Focus group participants identified 13 ways to support their involvement.

• Review organizational structure, policies, and practices. Change those that inhibit the participation of Latino volunteers. Current volunteers and staff should be informed of changes so they don't feel threatened by new ways of doing business.
• See that meeting and workspaces reflect a diversity of cultures, including the Latino culture. This can be accomplished by such simple things as the choice of prints hung on the wall, the artwork on calendars, and the decorative objects on tables and shelves.
• Greet volunteers individually when they come in, and thank them when the leave.
• Provide food, even if it's simply a cup of tea. Hospitality increases their feeling of acceptance.
• Have Spanish-speaking staff available to answer questions, explain duties, etc., for those who don't speak English.
• Assist with childcare and transportation as needed.
• Avoid out-of-pocket expenses for volunteers.
• Simplify paperwork. It can be an intimidating task to fill out forms. Clearly explain why the information is needed and how it will be used.
• Treat volunteers as co-workers, not free help. Make them feel a part of the team. Prepare a package that explains the organization and its programs, procedures, and policies. Write a job description for them.
• Give volunteers a choice of assignments where possible. This will enable a match between the skills and motivations of the volunteer and the tasks that need to be done.
• Provide quality training. Be very specific as to what they are expected to do and how they should do it. Without this information, some volunteers will be discouraged from participating.
• Empower volunteers; involve them in planning as well as delivering services. Ask for input, and really listen to their ideas. Let volunteers be creative.
• Don't overwork volunteers. Balance the work with informal opportunities to socialize.

Recognizing Volunteers

The importance of understanding the cultural context and knowing volunteers individually was once again emphasized when participants were asked about ways to appropriately recognize the work of volunteers. This information is the best guide to developing meaningful recognition. Focus group participants, however, felt that generally recognition is best given in ways that minimize attention to the individual in front of a large group. Latinos are modest people, and some volunteers may well be embarrassed when attention is focused on them individually.

Participants did feel strongly that recognition is important and identified a number of ways to recognize volunteers less formally.

• Invite volunteers and their families to a small celebration, and present certificates of appreciation.
• If volunteers have worked with youth, have youth present certificates of appreciation to them.
• Sponsor a weekend camping trip or other leisure activities for volunteers and their families.
• Identify volunteers by name in the program's newsletter.
• Provide ongoing recognition to individuals (e.g., many thank you's, praise, etc.).
• Provide an opportunity for additional training.
• Advance the volunteer to a position of greater responsibility.

Discussion and Implications

Latino adults are potentially a significant source of volunteers for Extension. If Extension is to gain their participation, however, we must reassess traditional ways of doing business and make needed adjustments. Three issues that immediately surface when outreach is undertaken are the time demands of outreach efforts, staffing needs, and steps that must be taken to create a more supportive environment for Latino volunteers.

Time Commitment of Extension

Extension must first commit to a long-term relationship with the Latino community. As focus groups observed, the Latino community is often wary of new organizations coming in and offering programs and/or services because, in the past, these organizations often left after a short time, betraying the trust of community members. Extension must emphatically convey that it is making a long-term commitment of involvement.

Often, Extension outreach efforts are initially supported by grant funds. A long-term commitment requires that Extension be prepared to replace soft funding with base programming dollars. Involving culturally diverse audiences must be a part of what Extension does, not a separate program that is undertaken only when extra funds are available.

A second time factor is that outreach work is time intensive. It takes time to build relationships and trust with community members, time to connect with established community organizations and explore ways to collaborate, and time to learn what the needs of the community are. It also takes time to support volunteers.

Extension field staff have voiced concern that administrators do not understand how much time is required to build a foundation for Latino participation. They fear initial low levels of Latino participation will not be valued for their significance. It is imperative that Extension rethink expectations of how outreach staff will spend their time and how long it will take to reach targeted program outcomes.

Staffing for Outreach

The focus groups data clearly identified bilingual and bicultural skills as key to successfully engaging the Latino community. This means that Extension must make language skills and cultural understanding a top priority for positions that involve outreach efforts. Beyond these, the match between personal characteristics of candidates and the characteristics of community members must be assessed to determine whether or not an individual will be accepted by the community. It is important that community members, including youth for 4-H positions, have a voice in hiring outreach staff.

Finding candidates who have the necessary bilingual/bicultural skills and possess the expertise in subject matter and Extension methods usually required of job candidates is often very difficult. To attract such candidates, position announcements should be distributed beyond traditional networks, in ways that tap Latino professionals.

Extension must also begin to "grow its own." In Oregon, Extension is a major participant in the Oregon State University Promise Intern Program. Each summer, six to eight Latino students work in county and state level offices, experiencing and learning about careers in Extension.

Hiring a culturally diverse staff is one thing, retaining them is another. Extension must look at how it supports its staff and what steps might be taken to facilitate their comfort level within the organization and success in their work.

Creating a Supportive Environment for Volunteers

The focus group data identified many steps that might be taken to create a welcoming and supportive environment for Latino volunteers. At the local level, Extension programs must look at current practices and assess how compatible they are with the insights gained from the data and with what is known about the local Latino audience. What needs to be done differently to make Latino volunteers feel welcomed as a part of Extension?

Another critical aspect of building a supportive environment is gaining the support of Extension's traditional audiences. All clientele must come to recognize the importance of Extension's services to the community as a whole, not just to those who traditionally have been served. This can sometimes be difficult, especially if there is the perception that scare resources for programming are now being further stretched by service to new audiences.

Conclusion

Gaining the participation of Latinos as Extension volunteers will increase our understanding of the Latino culture. In turn, it will strengthen the programs Extension provides, expand the audience programs reach, and provide a personal growth experience for all volunteers and staff.

The success of Extension efforts to recruit and retain Latino adults as volunteers depends on awareness of and sensitivity to the cultural differences between the majority society and Latinos. It also depends on how willing Extension is to accommodate those differences. Outreach to Latinos must be the mission of the organization, not the personal mission of one individual.

Through it all, patience is key. Building relationships with the Latino community, developing trust, and learning how to work together all take time. Progress will be incremental. The outcomes, however, justify all the hard work.

References

Chambre, S. (1982). Recruiting Black and Hispanic volunteers: A qualitative study of organizations' experiences. The Journal of Volunteer Administration, 1 (1), 3-9.

Hodgkinson, H. (1996). Bringing tomorrow into focus. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership.

Miles, M. and Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Rodriguez, S. (Spring,1997). Diversity and volunteerism: Deriving advantage from difference. The Journal of Volunteer Administration, 15(3), 18-20.

Public Issues Education: Exploring Extension's Role

Introduction

Extension agents and specialists throughout the U.S. have been actively involved with public issues education for years (Kraft, 1999; Frederick, 1998; Boyle & Mulcahy, 1993; Fulleylove-Krause, 1991; Hahn, 1990). Current examples include: community development programs on land use conflicts, family and consumer sciences programming on food safety and on welfare reform, and agricultural programs focused on the environmental and social impacts of large-scale livestock operations.

Educational programs focused on public issues, when compared to those addressing the technical problems Extension normally deals with, are more likely to involve disagreement and controversy. Because of this, many Extension professionals are reluctant to get involved lest they become embroiled in the controversy. This article explores the difficult aspects of public issues and suggests an approach to public issues education that increases the likelihood of successful involvement.

Extension's Commitment to Public Issues Education

While public issues education (PIE), under one name or another, has long been a part of Extension's mission, it received new prominence in 1992, when the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP) issued a position statement titled Public Issues Education: The Cooperative Extension System's Role in Addressing Public Issues. The position statement set forth a new, broad definition of PIE as "educational programs that have the objective of enhancing the society's capacity to understand and address issues of widespread concern." This ECOP statement set out a bold vision of PIE as a focus that will make Extension "the most visible component of the land grant university of the twenty-first century."

In an article that appeared at approximately the same time, Boyle and Mulcahy (1993) argued that public policy education is Extension's "path to political support." They articulated a concern about the continuing public perception "that Extension programs are the same today as they were in the early years, focused on a dwindling population of farmers and rural homemakers and no longer necessary in the rapidly changing society we live in today." They sought to promote public policy education as the type of programming that will make Extension more relevant in the future.

The Complex Nature of Public Issues

Dealing with public issues requires recognition of the difference between an issue and the related underlying problem. A public issue is a "matter of widespread [public] concern" (Dale & Hahn, 1994). Normally, it reflects a public recognition that something isn't the way it should be and that a public remedy is called for. The concern is usually related to an identifiable problem. Sometimes, however, public issues are based on perceptions that may or may not be accurate.

For example, a local community expresses concern about excessive teen pregnancy. When local health officials are consulted, it turns out that the teen pregnancy rate is comparable to that of other communities. Does the community concern call for a new effort to deal with teen pregnancy? Community leaders and educators might decide that the best way to deal with the issue would be an information campaign describing the success of existing programs designed to reduce teen pregnancy. Such a campaign would be intended to deal with the public issue, not the underlying problem.

Sometimes public issues encompass a complex set of underlying problems. A prime example is the current widespread concern about urban sprawl. Different segments of the public have dramatically different ideas about what the problem really is, or whether there is a problem at all. This total lack of agreement on the underlying problem does not stop various constituencies from demanding a public response to the "problem" of urban sprawl. Given these circumstances, the fact that few public officials have been able to solve this problem is not surprising.

Another confusing aspect of some public issues is that they arise from the private actions of individuals. Normally, when an individual does something that isn't criminal but which someone else objects to, we have a private dispute, not a public issue. Private disputes occur all the time and are resolved by a wide variety of means such as civil actions in court.

However, when one of the parties to a private dispute finds a way to involve a public agency or to generate widespread public concern, the private dispute has become a public issue. A prime example of this sort of issue would be the proposed siting of a large livestock facility. As with the teen pregnancy example, the community will need to do something to deal with the public issue even if the individual can legally site the facility.

A Public Issues Typology

One way for government officials and Extension educators to approach public issues that reduces the uncertainty of how to respond is to start by doing an issue analysis to determine whether the issue has a clear underlying problem and, if the problem is clear, whether there is a generally accepted solution. The proposed typology, shown in Table 1, is an adaptation of a typology developed by Heifitz and Sinder (1988) in their article on political leadership. The related Table 2 is an application of the typology to the principal roles of public officials and the public itself in dealing with public issues.

	Type I	Type II	Type III
Underlying Problem	Clear	Clear	Unclear
Solution to Problem	Clear	Several alternatives	To be discovered
Examples	Potholes in streets	Inadequate school funding	Urban sprawl

For Type I public issues, the underlying problem is clear. A good example would be public outcry about potholes on Main Street. The best solution to the problem is also clear, because in most jurisdictions we might assume that there is an established procedure for repairing potholes. As shown in Table 2, finding a solution to the problem of potholes would not require involving the public in a problem-solving process. It is reasonable to leave it to public officials.

For Type II public issues, the problem is also clear, but there are several possible solutions. An example might be inadequate public school funding. Just about everyone would agree that this is a problem, but it is likely that there are competing solutions being proposed by various individuals and groups. To get public acceptance of any proposed solution, government officials would be well advised to allow the citizens to play a major role in determining the solution.

For Type III public issues, there is an issue, but there is no consensus on what the underlying problem really is. An example of such an issue would be urban sprawl, as discussed above. When there is no agreement on what the problem is, logically there can be no consensus on what the solution should be. In such situations, however, there will be no shortage of proposed solutions, each addressing the problem as seen by the group proposing the solution. As Table 1 indicates, the eventual solution to such an issue is still "to be discovered."

	Type I	Type II	Type III
Government officials	Implement solution.	Publicize alternative solutions.	Encourage public discussion.
The public	None	Consider proposed solutions.	Increase understanding of the issue. Consider approaches.

Type III public issues have become largely insoluble in many American communities. Most public officials realize that they can't solve such issues on their own, but they have not devised effective ways to involve the public (Matthews, 1999). The attempt to hear what the public wants through public hearings has become counter productive. Citizens have decided that public hearings are contests to see who can bring the most partisans to the meeting. Once there, the game is to loudly express a given position and seek to discredit the other side. It is not surprising that public officials now shy away from seeking public guidance on complex public issues.

In order to re-engage the public, government officials will need to call on public issues educators from Extension or other sources to assist them by designing and facilitating a public involvement process. Such a process needs to go beyond the registering of individual opinions. The public will need to deliberate, i.e., listen to each other's views and seek common ground for action. Such processes are not easy, and will require committed public officials, skillful facilitators, and an engaged citizenry.

The Public Issue Typology and Extension Public Issues Education

Public issues education requires Extension professionals to play two different types of roles: "content expert" and "process expert." A great deal of what most Extension professionals do fits neatly into the content expert role. However, a major component of public issues education requires a different professional role. While outside the university this role is generally referred to as that of "facilitator," public issues educators prefer the term "process expert." Table 3 differentiates between the possible roles for content experts and process experts for each of the three types of public issues.

	Type I	Type II	Type III
Content experts	Provide information.	Analyze proposed solutions.	Conduct issue research & analysis.
Process experts	None	Facilitate public deliberation	Frame the issue in public terms. Facilitate public deliberation.

Type I public issues are very similar to the kinds of private problems Extension professionals deal with all the time. If relevant information is available, the professional's role would be to provide it to public officials. Depending on the issue, the public will also have an interest in the information. Process experts have no role to play for these issues.

Type II public issues call for a larger Extension response. A key role for content experts is to explain to public officials and the public what the various possible solutions to the problem would entail, especially the possible consequences of each proposed solution. Process experts need to work with public officials to develop opportunities for citizens to come together to discuss the proposed solutions and to devise ways for the people to express a preference for the best solution. Within Extension, this has been referred to as the "alternatives-consequences model of public policy education" (Barrows, 1993)

As mentioned above, Type III issues require public involvement from the beginning if there is to be a public/government response to the issue. Content experts will need to do research on both the issue (what people are concerned about) and the underlying problems. Process experts have an even larger role to play. They need to involve the public in framing the issue in public terms. This means developing a framework for public discussion that acknowledges the numerous (sometimes confused) possible approaches to the issue that are in public circulation. With this accomplished, process experts will need to work with public officials to organize community forums where citizens can participate in deliberative discussion. Process experts would also need to be moderators for those community forums.

The Wide Range of Professional Activities Involved in Public Issues Education

As discussed above, there are both content expert and process expert roles in public issues education. Some Extension professionals will restrict themselves to content roles, some to process roles, and some will try to do both. Depending on the issue, public issues education could involve any or all of the following professional activities.

Content Expert Roles (focus on research and teaching)

• Issue monitor - identifying emerging public issues
• Issue researcher - conducting applied research (e.g., public opinion polls)
• Information provider - providing objective information (written or oral) on an issue
• Technical advisor - interpreting information for stakeholders
• Policy analyst - analyzing policy alternatives with their likely consequences

Process Expert Roles (focus on facilitating resolution of the public issue)

• Stakeholder analyst - meeting with stakeholder groups to understand their views on the issue
• Meeting convener/facilitator - bringing stakeholders together exchange views and build understanding
• Issue framer- finding a way to describe the issue in public terms to increase the chances of public participation
• Public forum convener - developing a process to involve the public in seeking solutions for a public issue
• Forum moderator - facilitating a public discussion to produce deliberation and shared understanding
• Designer/facilitator of a formal dispute-resolution process - functioning as part of a trained Extension team in dealing with polarized disputes

Most Extension professionals will feel they have the ability to perform the content expert roles when dealing with a public issue involving their area of expertise, although even here there are potential pitfalls. In some cases, simply raising public awareness of an issue can get an agent into a controversy. For example, community members seeking to maintain the status quo may resent Extension educational programming that has the effect of increasing public interest in change.

A thorough grounding in process expert roles would be unlikely for anyone in Extension who has been hired for a particular content expertise. While these roles do not necessarily require formal training, they do require the development of a neutral disposition, and, most important of all, they require "learning by doing." Learning by doing requires opportunities to observe other professionals in action and the establishment of mentoring arrangements. In summary, process roles require both knowledge of group processes and the sound judgment needed to use these processes appropriately in politically charged settings.

Effective Public Issues Education in the Future

One underlying problem for Extension public issues educators derives from the difference between the academic and public views of useful information. For academics, research-based information is supreme. For many public issues, especially those that involve value-based conflicts, this type of information may address only a small part of the issue. The public needs information that addresses the positions advocated by all stakeholder groups. To fulfill this goal, public issues educators need to become familiar with information originating outside of academia.

Another challenge arises in situations where Extension state faculty have ongoing research and outreach programs which support a position that later becomes one side of a local public issue. A good example of such a position would be the economic rationale for expanding farm size.

For a community experiencing a controversy over large (mega) farms, the economic imperative of the producer is just one side of the issue. Unfortunately, a county agent attempting to help his/her community deal with this issue is frequently viewed as biased because the university has only published information that favors one side of the issue. The fact that the information is research-based will not overcome this local perception of the university as having a bias.

A related problem can arise for Extension professionals who provide ongoing advice and support to client groups (economic development groups, commodity groups, etc.). When public issues emerge involving the interests of these groups, it is particularly difficult for those closely allied Extension professionals to avoid the appearance of bias.

Consequently, in such situations they will have to excuse themselves from playing a process expert role. Ideally, public issues education in Extension will involve a core team of process experts who, depending on the issue, bring in appropriate content experts. Several Extension services throughout the U.S. have established public issues education teams for this purpose in recent years. A list of some of the Web sites associated with these efforts is provided at the end of this article.

Some Extension traditionalists may question whether the process expert role is "education." It is true that this role is quite different from the traditional Extension role of providing technical information to clientele. However, as the framework presented in this article proposes, this role is an essential part of effective public issues education.

Finally, an understanding of the principles described in this article will enhance Extension's ability to conduct educational programs that address controversial public issues. This is an important goal in that the involvement of Extension educators in public issues education will almost certainly increase in the future, given the expectations of clientele and university officials alike.

References

Barrows, R. (Reprinted 1993). Public policy education. North Central Regional Extension Publication No. 203.

Boyle, P.G. & S.H. Mulcahy (1993). Public policy education: a path to political support. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 31(4). http://www.joe.org/joe/1993winter/tp1.html

Dale, D.D., & A.J. Hahn (editors) (1994). Public issues education: increasing competence in resolving public issues. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin - Extension, Cooperative Extension.

Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (1992). Public issues education: The cooperative extension system's role in addressing public issues. Washington, DC: Extension Service, USDA.

Frederick, A.L. (1998). Extension education opportunities with policymakers. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 36(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998april/comm1.html

Fulleylove-Krause, F. (1991). National issues forums: a public policy education tool. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 29(4). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1991winter/tt2.html

Hahn, A.J. (1990). Issues-oriented public policy education. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 28(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1990spring/a3.html

Heifetz, R.A. & R.M. Sinder (1988). Political leadership: managing the public's problem solving. In R.B. Reich (Ed.)The power of public ideas,. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Kraft, G. (1999). Education reform as public policy: a role for extension. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 37(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999june/comm1.html

Matthews, D. (1999). Politics for people: finding a responsible public voice. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

Selected University Public Issues Education Web Sites

North Carolina State: http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/agecon/PIE

Oregon State: http://www.osu.orst.edu/dept/pie/

Colorado State: www.colostate.edu/Depts/CoopExt/EDUCPGMS/PUBPOL/pubpmenu.html

Ohio State: http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~pie

The World Wide Web: A Training Tool for Family Resource Management Educators

Introduction

The mission of the Cooperative Extension Service is to provide education beyond the walls of the land grant universities. In performing that mission, the traditional Cooperative Extension System (CES) model has been to provide face-to-face programs. This method, however, is costly in terms of time and travel, especially when facing decreasing or static resources.

Over time, the Cooperative Extension Service has taken advantage of other technologies, such as films, slides, conference calls, video programs, satellite links, CD-ROMs, and computer-aided programs, as methods of educational programming. The exploration of new technologies continues as CES now explores the use of the World Wide Web or Web or Internet as a potential educational tool (Buck, 1995; Fasulo & Koekler, 1995; Fulton, 1992; Kelsey & Mincemoyer, 2001: Tennessen, PonTell, Romine, & Motheral, 1997).

In addition to educating the general public, CES must provide inservice educational programs to equip educators to meet the changing demands of their positions. In doing so it has used the same tools that have been used with the general public. Again since its introduction, Extension professionals are evaluating the possibility of using the Web for inservice training (Kelsey & Mincemoyer, 2001; Levine, 1995; Lippert, Plank, Camerato, & Chastain, 1998: Risden, 1994).

The purpose of the study reported here was to determine the usefulness of the Web as an effective learning experience for inservice training. The study also explored whether Extension educators would use a Web training site for on-going support and reinforcement. The study also considered if such information would also be useful to the general public. Issues regarding the resources necessary to undertake such a project are discussed at the conclusion of this article.

Background

Distance education is an important issue being evaluated on most university campuses. Congress defines distance education as łan educational experience where the delivery of information or instructional programming is made to geographically dispersed individuals or groups˛ (U.S. Congress, 1992). Current and prospective students are interested in the use of such technology as a means to receive initial and continual life-long learning. This technology is appealing because it allows students to proceed through courses at their own pace without the expense of time and travel. With the increasing need for skill and knowledge updating, the expanded use of distance education can be anticipated (Krendl, 1998; Porter, 1997).

Distance education is certainly not new. The oldest form, correspondence courses, began in 1892 (Robertson & Stanforth, 1998). As technology has changed, the ways in which distance education is offered have also changed (Miller & Scholsberg, 1997). The problem with earlier distance educational methods was that the classes were somewhat inflexible and that they were synchronous in nature, with all students watching or listening to the class at the same time. Another criticism of distance education has been the limited amount of interaction allowed (Robertson & Stanforth, 1998).

As new telecommunication tools arise, educators have explored how they can respond to students' desires in terms of offering education when and where the student wants it. Today, the Web is viewed as the distance educational tool for the new millennium. It represents a new pedagogy of learning. It is the fourth major communications medium after word-of-mouth, the printed word, and broadcast media (O'Neill, 1999). Whether used to supplement existing courses or as the primary communication medium for an entire course, Web-based courses are receiving great interest (Halal & Liebowitz, 1994; Kerka & Wonacott, 2000; Lippert, et al., 1998; Miller & Schlosberg, 1997).

The Web offers asynchronous learning meaning that students can interact with each other as well as the instructor. The Web also allows the student to take the course when and where they want. Being an asynchronous tool allows for an educational experience that is self-paced by the students, meeting at times convenient for them, and potentially "just-in-time" to meet their needs (Tennessen, et al., 1997).

The Cooperative Extension System, as part of the land grant university system, has used distance education tools when they have been introduced. These tools were critiqued on their ability to effectively provide information in a timely, cost-efficient manner (Fitzpatrick, Duncan, Williamson, & Smith, 1997). Such tools were used not only for educational programs with the general public but also were evaluated as possible inservice education methods (Lippert, et al., 1998).

Today, Cooperative Extension is using the Web with increasing regularity for providing general information and is slowly beginning to use it as a method to provide seminars and workshops. Effective use of such interactive media allows the student to access data from a wide variety of resources now available on line (Mayadas, 1997). This includes traditional written material plus video, audio, and full-color pictures (Halal & Liebowitz, 1994).

Web-based training sites help with one of the problems developing with the Web, that of information overload. With an estimated 800 million pages on the Web and over one million pages added per month, users find it difficult to know what information can be trusted. Even those who are comfortable using search engines become overwhelmed with data and uncertain of the information's reliability (O' Neill, 1997; Weber, 1998). Through the development and maintenance of an educational site with screened links, the Cooperative Extension Service can provide accurate, reliable, and research-based information.

The development of a Web site may also help overcome two problems associated with many training events. First, Web training is interactive. With active training, the student does not have to wait to return to his or her job before trying the new material. Students use the information gained as they learn it. Often students hear new ideas and intend to use them as soon as they return to the office, but then the person's regular routine and backlog of calls often take precedence and the new material gets put aside (Tennessen, et al., 1997).

The second issue is the loss of information that occurs between the time the training is done and the information is used. Even if the person can begin to use the material the next day, some of the tips and ideas may be lost. With an accessible Web site, the student can return again and again to refresh his or her memory and to can actually go through the training again (Tennessen, et al., 1997).

This study continues the work of Lippert, et al. (1998) with a different audience and different subject material. Three new research questions are asked.

1. Can a Web site itself be the medium to train the educator on how to use the Web?
2. Can a Web site be used as for on-demand in-service training as opposed to being used only in a more traditional setting?
3. Can the training site later also serve as a reference site for trainees and the general population?

Methodology

Existing written educational materials developed and refined over the past several years were used as building blocks for the family resource management (FRM) site http://www.okstate.edu/hes/fci/mbro/frm. The materials were modified in content and design to make them interactive and to fit into a self-paced, learner-directed experience.

The intended design of the FRM site was that it would be simple to use, interactive, and student-centered, and would be useful as both an educational site and as a support site once the training was over (Dooley, Van Laanen, & Fletcher, 1999). The design also included attempts to make it visually appealing with color and graphics (Lippert, et al., 1998). The site design was kept simple to make it less confusing for new Web users, to minimize download time, and to reduce the time spent in its development and maintenance. Before it was used, a variety of individuals were asked to test the site to ensure its completeness and smooth operation.

The FRM site offers two different curriculums. Because it was anticipated that some educators might have had little experience with Web navigation, the first curriculum, a self-directed set of pages, guides users through the tools used to move within and between Web sites.

The second curriculum guides/tours educators through existing family resource management Web sites, including those developed by Extension, government, non-profits, and commercial entities. These sites were prescreened for usefulness, accuracy, and ease of use. Hundreds of such sites exist. It is unnecessary to duplicate these efforts. The purpose of the site was to select those considered the best in each category. These Web sites are introduced with a short (2-3 sentence) description. For some sites, additional information is provided suggesting how to use the site.

The initial use of the site occurred in a controlled environment in December 1998. Although the site can be accessed from any computer in the world having Web access, Extension educators were brought to central computer labs in two states, Montana and Oklahoma, for three in-services. After being guided to the first page of the site, the educator was then allowed to proceed at his or her own pace. The centralized site allowed the developers to be prepared to respond to remaining design issues. It also allowed the educators to exchange comments regarding the site itself and the usefulness of the other Web links. This allowed the researchers additional understanding about the use of Web sites as a potential training method.

Results

During the three in-services, 55 Extension educators received training on the FRM site. Sixteen educators, or 29%, completed the on-line feedback survey. In the next 3 months, five additional Extension educators provided feedback, as did three individuals from the general public.

As anticipated, the majority of respondents, 21, were county/area professionals. All but two of the visitors' were female. The ages of the visitors ranged from 29 to over 55.

The Web was already used by all the respondents as a source of information. Daily use was acknowledged by 76% of the respondents. The rest indicated they used the Web two to three times per week. Everyone indicated that their use of the Web was 100% business related. All respondents used the Web for e-mail, and 80% indicated they also used it for both research and education. One-third indicated they used the Web to make purchases, and one person used it to make travel reservations. The primary site to access the Web was from respondents' work office (76%) as opposed to the home (8%) or the general office area (4%).

All but one individual indicated that they planned to bookmark the site for future reference. Comments about the site indicated that educators appreciated it because: it was "information you could trust"; the site was "very helpful, organized" and had "frequently used information" and was "easy to follow." Also, the site provided links that were: " wonderful" and " easy to use." One participant noted that the site would be "basic information to refresh my memory." Another noted that the site should be required for every Extension educator.

In responding to what they looked for in a Web site, educators wanted useful information that was easy to use and read. One person commented that the site must "load quickly." This comment recognizes the fact that not all county locations have access to high-speed data lines and instead must use regular phone lines and slower modems. Care must be taken to limit large file size, usually images, graphics and pictures.

Discussion

The study supports the finding of Lippert et al. (1998) that Web sites can be a "feasible method of training." The respondents in this survey were highly favorable about this method. They recognized the Web as a new communication medium, one that could save them travel time and keep them abreast of updated information practically instantly. They appreciated the links being already tested and available. Another positive comment was the permanent nature of the site. They no longer had to remember all of the links but could go to one spot to retrieve them when needed. As noted, every respondent already used the Web in his or her job. While limited by the small response rate and respondent in-service self-selection, the strength of the numbers seems to suggest that future Web-based training sites could be found useful and supportive.

Several respondents supported the concept of using the site as a training refresher. Over 90% of the respondents planned on bookmarking the site for future use. Because the site can be accessed anywhere, its continuation makes it an easy way for continuous reinforcement of the training. Everyone who has ever attended a workshop knows that, while intentions are good, when faced with the realities of the job it becomes easy to forget what was said or how to use what was learned.

The Web sites offer other advantages. They can be considered "just-in-time" education and can provide assistance around-the-clock, 7 days a week. Web sites allow educators to tap the tremendous amount of existing worldwide information. By screening the links, Cooperative Extension sites can continue the tradition of providing reliable and accurate information.

Limitations

There are several limitations in the study. The size of the respondent pool was small, and no information is available to determine if people did actually bookmark the site as they indicated. At the time the site was developed, the ability to track actual use was a technology limitation. Thus, no reliable data exists for the total number of site visitors. The only data about site contacts came from those who filled out the on-line survey and from comments made during the sessions.

These limitations make it difficult to offer more than brief comments about the site's ability to provide on-demand in-service training. As noted, the majority of the information gathered came from three planned in-service sessions. While the limited data received from Extension educators who visited the site on their own would suggest that it can, additional data is necessary before any strong support can be acknowledged. Also, any recommendation on such a site's usefulness to the general public is impossible with only three respondents. One individual from a financial institution commented that the site would "allow me to see what sites are being recommended in higher education." This same individual saw the sight as a support site to supplement training for the bank's internal training program.

Conclusion

Recognizing the level of resources necessary to develop such a site is important as one might plan to offer training via the Web. In this study, two state specialists and one county educator committed approximately 160 hours over an intensive 6-week period, typically during the evenings and on weekends and holidays. The time spent to build and test the site was in addition to the time already used to develop the original written materials and to search for all of the linked sites.

In addition, two other resource issues must be considered. The first, site storage, would not be an issue for most university-based professionals. However, the second, site maintenance, is a serious consideration. In this project, maintenance has proven to be a greater task in terms of hours expended. Not only is it necessary to continually update links, the developers of the site must search for new links and provide some change in the site. Today's Web consumer expects a site to reflect changes in the resources available and to renew visual appeal (Mayadas, 1997).

Several final notes are necessary for the educator thinking of using Web-based training. First, not everyone will have his or her educational needs met by a Web site. People learn in different ways, thus a Web site will not meet the needs to the entire population. Also, although Web-based learning can defray travel costs and time, there are the costs associated with acquiring technology. Finally, the speed with which one can connect to the Web must be taken into account in the site design stage.

References

Buck, S. (1995). The impact of the poultry industry on the environment" national satellite videoconference. Journal of Extension [On-line] 33(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995april/tt1.html

Dooley, K. E., Van Laanen, P. G., & Fletcher, R. D. (1999). Food safety instructor training using distance education. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 37(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999june/a5.html

Fasulo, T. R., & Koehler, P. G. (1995). Developing computer-verified training tutorials for urban pest control training. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 33(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995april/tt1.html

Fitzpatrick, J. N., Duncan, S. F., Williamson, S. A., & Smith, T. A. (1997). An evaluation of two modes of self-paced agent inservice training. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 35(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997february/rb5.html

Fulton, J. R. (1992). Microcomputers in distance education. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 30(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992summer/a6.html

Halal, W., & Liebowitz, J. (1994), November-December). Telelearning: The multimedia revolution in education. The Futurist, p. 21.

Kelsey, T. W. & Mincemoyer, C. C., (2001). Exploring the potential of inservice training through distance education. Journal of Extension {on-line]. 39(2). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/2001april/rb7.html

Kerka, S. & Wonacott, M. E. (2000). Practioner file. ERIC, ericave.org/docs.pfile03.htm.

Krendel, K. A. (1998, January 3). Distance learning: It's an appropriate way to serve modern students. Stillwater News Press, p. A4.

Levine, S. J. (1995). Taking advantage of new technology for education. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 33(4). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995august/comm2.html

Lippert, R. M., Plank, O., Camerato, J., & Chastain, J. (1998). Regional extension inservice training via the Internet. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 36(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998february/a3.html

Mayadas, F. (1997). Asynchronous learning networks: A Sloan Foundation perspective. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 1(1).

Miller, I. & Schlosberg, J. (1997). Distance learning. New York: Simon & Schuster.

O'Neill, B. (1999). Teaching consumers to use the Internet to make consumer decisions. Journal of Extension [on-line]. 37(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999june/iw4.html

Porter, L. R. (1997). Creating the virtual classroom: Distance learning with the Internet. New York: J. Wiley & Sons.

Risden, P. (1994). Transfering technology through the Internet channel. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 32(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994june/a1.html

Robertson, L. J. & Stanforth,N. (1999). College students interests in web-based distance education. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences.

Tennessen, D. J., PonTell, S., Romine, V., & Motheral, S. W. (1997). Opportunities for Cooperative Extension and local communities in the information age. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 35(5). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997october/comm1.html.

U.S. Congress. (1992). Linking for learning - U.S. Office of Technology Assessment. Washington, D.C: U.S. Dept. of Education

Weber, T. (1998, April 3). Web's vastness fails even the best search engines. The Wall Street Journal, p. B1, B5.

Simple Written Resources and Neighborhood Demonstrations Help Amish Adopt Buggy Safety Recommendations

Introduction

There are over 135 accidents per year involving horse-drawn vehicles in Ohio (Ohio Department of Public Safety, 1994-1998). Approximately one third of all Amish in the United States reside in Ohio. The Geauga County settlement, which includes portions of two adjacent counties, is the second largest settlement in Ohio and the fourth largest in the United States (Hofstetler, 1993). There are now approximately 1,850 Amish households in the Geauga settlement (Miller, 1998), along with an estimated 3,700 Amish buggies (Eicher, Bean, & Buccalo, 1997).

In 1993, an Extension Agent in Ohio received a request from the local Amish community to explore improvements in buggy marking and lighting. A group of Extension agents from six Ohio counties, an Extension Specialist in farm safety, and members of his staff began to look at buggy modifications that would increase safety and yet be consistent with the religious and cultural beliefs of the Amish (Eicher, Bean, & Buccalo, 1997).

Gaining acceptance of changes in the outward appearance of the buggy would be problematic because the changes would be highly visible, which conflicts with Amish beliefs in simplicity and in not being prideful. The markings and lighting would also tamper with the buggy itself, which is a symbol of ethnic identity for the Amish community (Kraybill, 1989).

A research project was funded by the Ohio Department of Public Safety and the Ohio State University Extension in July 1994 to determine methods of improving buggy safety, compatible with the religious beliefs of the community. Two of the many safety recommendations that came from this study included the use of the slow moving vehicle sign and the use of reflective tape to outline the rear of the buggy. (Eicher, Bean, & Buccalo,1997). The use of the slow moving vehicle sign on buggies in the Geauga County settlement was widespread; however, the practice of outlining the back of the buggy with reflective tape was almost unknown in 1994. The challenge for Extension was to find ways to gain acceptance and adoption of this safety practice within the community.

Extending the Research

An Extension fact sheet outlining the new safety recommendations for Amish buggies was written and distributed to counties throughout Ohio (Ohio State University Agricultural Engineering, 1996). In the Geauga settlement, an Amish buggy maker was hired on a part-time basis for 3 months in 1996. He was given copies of the fact sheet as well as a prepared kit of materials on retrofitting buggies for safety. The buggy maker then made individual visits to teach other buggy makers in the community about the safety improvements.

In addition, a full-sized buggy was fitted with the recommended lighting and safety markings by the OSU Department of Food, Agriculture & Biological Engineering and made available as a teaching tool for Amish communities in Ohio. The buggy was in Geauga County for approximately 2 months in 1996. During this time it was moved to various buggy shops in the county. Local buggy makers printed a schedule of when the buggy would be in each neighborhood in the local newspaper and in the Germinderbiev (church newsletter). This procedure allowed local buggy drivers to study the innovations and discuss possible buggy modifications with the buggy makers.

Through these methods, it was believed that a high level of awareness of these suggested buggy safety recommendations had been accomplished. However, there was no documentation of the level of practice adoption within the Amish community.

Evaluation Methodology

In October of 1999, a study was undertaken in which 404 buggies in the Geauga Amish settlement were directly observed to determine the extent to which the practice of outlining the back of the buggy with reflective tape had been adopted by the community. This number of observations exceeded the minimum number necessary to statistically extrapolate the findings to the entire population of 3,700 buggies in the community (Zemke & Kramlinger,1986). On parts of 3 consecutive days, the researchers slowly traveled roads in different areas of the community to observe buggies that were parked in lawns, barns, or other out-buildings at Amish residences.

While over 800 buggies were actually seen, only buggies that were parked so that the rear of the buggy could be clearly observed by the researchers to accurately assess the presence of the recommended reflective tape were included in the 404 observations. A buggy was considered to display the recommended reflective tape pattern only if the top and two sides were clearly outlined in tape. Buggies with no reflective tape or other tape patterns were considered non-adopters of the practice.

There was a slight possibility that a particular buggy might be double counted. However, in order to be counted twice, an individual buggy would need to have been moved to a separate area of the community and parked so that the rear of the buggy was visible by the researchers each time.

There was almost no possibility of a buggy from another Amish settlement being included in this study. The nearest Amish settlement with similar buggies to the Geauga settlement is approximately 90 miles away, a distance that would take several days to accomplish by buggy. (When Amish people visit another settlement they hire a taxi or use some form of public transportation.)

There is a small group of Amish families that have migrated from Pennsylvania to within buggy distance of the Geauga settlement, but the buggies used by these families have a very different design and are readily distinguishable from the buggies in the Geauga Amish settlement. None of these non-Geauga buggies were observed during the study.

Results and Discussion

Three hundred and fifteen of the total 404 observed buggies had the rear of the buggy outlined with reflective tape as recommended. This represents a 78% rate of practice adoption, which translates to almost 3,000 buggies in the Geauga Amish settlement.

The educational materials and methods used, along with the safety recommendations themselves, are generic in nature and could readily be used by Extension professionals anywhere in the United States and Canada who are interested in working with local Amish settlements to improve buggy safety. Because the Amish church has no national or international structure, each church district decides whether or not a particular innovation is acceptable. Ultimately, all of the districts and individual households throughout the United States and Canada will need to review and decide how these safety innovations fit with their religious beliefs. Extension workers can have an important role in introducing these buggy safety innovations to each Amish settlement.

References

Ohio Department of Public Safety Traffic Crash Facts. (1994-1998)."Animal with Buggy" crash data.

Hofstetler, J. (1980). Amish society. Baltimore, Maryland: The John Hopkins University Press.

Miller, P. (1998). Ohio Amish directory, Geauga County and Vicinity. Sugarcreek, Ohio: Carlisle Printing.

Eicher, C., T. L. Bean, & S. Buccalo. (1997). Amish buggy highway safety in Ohio. Ohio State University Extension.

Kraybill, D. (1989). The riddle of Amish culture. Baltimore, Maryland: The John Hopkins University Press.

OSU Agricultural Engineering. (1996) Buggy highway safety tips for you and your family. AEX 596.3 Extension Fact Sheet. Ohio State University Extension.

Zemke, R. & Kramlinger, T. (1986). Figuring things out: A trainer's guide to needs and task analysis. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. P. 161.

Consumer Understanding of the Food Guide Pyramid and Dietary Guidelines

Introduction

The Food Guide Pyramid and Dietary Guidelines are the foundation tools of nutrition education provided by Extension professionals and others across the United States. The Food Guide Pyramid has now been adapted for vegetarians and preschoolers, and modified to represent popular Chinese, Italian, and Mexican foods in this country, and further adaptations of it have become foundation dietary tools for many other countries, as well. The Food Guide Pyramid is also highly visible as a marketing tool for the food industry. It is seen in television advertising and is often prominently displayed as part of food packaging.

Awareness of the Food Guide Pyramid rose from 33% to 43% between the 1994 and 1995 Health and Diet Surveys, and it was recognized more frequently than either the Dietary Guidelines or the 5-A-Day program of the National Cancer Institute. In addition, 58% reported awareness of the Food Guide Pyramid according to the 1995 Nutrition Trends Survey of the American Dietetic Association.

The Dietary Guidelines are probably not used as frequently in nutrition education as the Food Guide Pyramid, but they are also a foundation tool and are reviewed and revised by a committee of nutrition professionals every 5 years. With such wide use and visibility of these popular nutrition education tools, educators may be tempted to assume that consumers are intimately familiar with the concepts being promoted. Do consumers really understand how to apply these concepts to their own eating behaviors?

Methods

Observational data collected during a nutrition promotion class for a group of university administrative staff indicated a lack of understanding among these participants, a disconnect between their awareness of these tools and their perceived ability to apply them to their own lives.

Although this was a basic nutrition class, the intent was not to spend a great deal of time on topics that were already familiar to the target audience, so a pretest was devised to determine their current knowledge of the Food Guide Pyramid and the 1995 Dietary Guidelines. (The 2000 version of the Dietary Guidelines was not yet available at the time of this study.) The assumption was that participants would have had multiple exposures to both of these nutrition education tools due to their wide availability and use in the media, and more recently as a part of food packaging and promotion.

All participants were asked the following questions at the beginning of the session.

• "How many of you know the food groups and serving sizes of the Food Guide Pyramid?"
• "How many of you know the Dietary Guidelines?"

One hundred percent of all participants raised their hands in response to each question, indicating that awareness was high. Although the author recognizes that peer responses may have influenced the responses of some participants, most people seemed to be very familiar with both tools.

After these initial questions, each participant was given a piece of paper that contained a series of seven blank lines with the title "Dietary Guidelines" at the top and a blank triangle titled "Food Guide Pyramid" divided accordingly, at the bottom of the page. Participants (Consumers) were then asked to fill in food groups and their serving sizes within the Food Guide Pyramid and to list the Dietary Guidelines. Using methodology similar to Guthrie and Derby, any answer within the serving range for each food group was accepted as correct. Only 10 of the 18 participants submitted the pretest form, resulting in an approximate 60% response rate.

The same pre-test, including the initial questions, and a subsequent post-test were then conducted during a mandatory nutrition training for EFNEP Assistants in Maryland. These paraprofessionals provide nutrition education to low-income families throughout the state on a daily basis, and the curriculum they use relies heavily on teaching concepts related to both the Food Guide Pyramid and the Dietary Guidelines. EFNEP Assistants often have minimal formal education, are peers of the people to whom they are providing services, and are generally trained in nutrition by supervising Extension Educators and Specialists.

Results

The results for the Food Guide Pyramid were decidedly better than for the Dietary Guidelines among both groups. In the first group of consumers, 70% of respondents were able to correctly identify at least four food groups. However, none of the respondents were able to provide correct number of servings for the food groups, and only one respondent correctly identified where the food groups were located within the pyramid. Forty percent simply listed the food groups at the side of the pyramid and didn't attempt to try to categorize them within the pyramid itself (Table 1). None of the Consumer respondents were able to name any of the Dietary Guidelines (Table 2).

Food Groups* (N=10)	No. Identified Correctly N(%)	No. with Correct Servings N(%)
Fat/Sweets	4 (40)	0
Dairy	7 (70)	0
Meat/Protein	6 (60)	0
Fruit	8 (80)	0
Vegetable	7 (70)	0
Grain	8 (80)	0

Among the EFNEP group, 100% of the 26 participants also responded positively to both questions when asked verbally at the start of the session. Awareness was quite high because these tools are very familiar to the EFNEP Assistants.

However, when asked to complete the pretest, only 27% of the EFNEP Assistants were able to correctly list four or more of the Dietary Guidelines. Fifteen percent listed two of the guidelines, 19% identified only one, and 38% of the participants were unable to list any of the Dietary Guidelines on the pretest.

No. Guidelines Identified Correctly*	Consumer Pretest N (%)	EFNEP Pretest N (%) N=26	EFNEP Post-Test N (%)N=27
7	0	0	3 (11)
6	0	2 ( 8)	6 (22)
5	0	3 (11)	6 (22)
4	0	2 ( 8)	5 (18)
3	0	0	3 (11)
2	0	4 (15)	2 ( 7)
1	0	5 (19)	1 ( 4)
0	10 (100)	10 (38)	1 ( 4)

On the Food Guide Pyramid, approximately 92% of the respondents were able to correctly identify the dairy, fruit, and vegetable food groups; 88% correctly identified meat and grains/cereals; and 76% correctly identified the fats/sweets group. Identification of the correct number of servings was 50% for the dairy group, 69% for the meat group, 31% for the fruit group, 53% for the vegetable group, and 65% for the breads and cereals group.

The participants were also asked to specify serving sizes for preschool children, because the training session focused on this age group. (A preschool child-size serving for the bread, vegetable, or fruit group is 2/3 of an adult-size serving and for the milk or meat group is 1/2 of an adult-size serving.). None of the respondents were aware of differing serving sizes for this age group.

Following the training on the use of these dietary tools with preschool children and their parents, the post-test results indicated some improvement. The number of posttests submitted was 27. (One person arrived late and was unable to complete the pretest.) Fifty-five percent were now able to correctly list five or more of the Dietary Guidelines, 38% were able to list between two to four, and only 7% listed zero or one of the guidelines.

On the Food Guide Pyramid, approximately 88% of the respondents were able to correctly identify the dairy, fruit, and meat food groups; 85% correctly identified vegetables and grains/cereals; 77% correctly identified the fats/sweets group; and 7% did not complete the pyramid. Identification of the correct number of servings was 63% for the dairy group, 74% for the meat group, 52% for the fruit group, 59% for the vegetable group, and 74% for the breads and cereals group.

Even though the participants had a copy of the children's food guide pyramid with the correct number of servings and comparable serving sizes to refer to at the time of the posttest, only 26% of the respondents were able to correctly identify the number of servings for preschoolers for the dairy, meat and grain groups. Four percent correctly identified the preschool serving size for the fruit and vegetable groups.

Food Groups*	No. Correct Groups (Pre) N=26 N (%)	No. Correct Groups (Post) N=27 N (%)	No. Correct Svgs. (Pre) N(%)	No. Correct Svgs. (Post) N(%)	No. Correct Child Svgs. (Pre) N(%)	No. Correct Child Svg3. (Post) N(%)
Fats/Sweets	20 (77)	21 (77)	-	-	-	-
Dairy	24 (92)	24 (88)	13 (50)	17 (63)	1 (4)	7 (26)
Meat/Protein	23 (88)	24 (88)	18 (69)	20 (74)	1 (4)	7 (26)
Fruits	24 (92)	24 (88)	8 (31)	14 (52)	0	1 ( 4)
Vegetables	24 (92)	23 (85)	14 (53)	16 (59)	0	1 ( 4)
Grains	23 (88)	23 (85)	17 (65)	20 (74)	0	7 (26)

Discussion

Extension nutrition educators are often called upon to provide a variety of informative nutrition classes, but the exposure may be limited to one session with limited time available for conducting pre- and post-tests. As a result, educators may be providing these sessions without adequate knowledge of the skills, behaviors, or knowledge of their target audiences. Many educators may assume that certain knowledge, especially that which has existed for some time or is widely disseminated via the media, such as the Food Guide Pyramid and the Dietary Guidelines, is universally known.

EFNEP Assistants often see their clients several times during the course of their program, and therefore have a greater opportunity to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of their participants and tailor their sessions accordingly.

The Maryland EFNEP program currently uses the Eating Right Is Basic 3 (ERIB3) curricula, with supplementary materials, to provide nutrition education to low income families in this state. The 24-hour dietary recall is effectively serving as the pre- and post-test. In addition, there is a 10-question pre- and post-behavior checklist administered upon entrance to the program and again at the end of the program, which is generally 8 to 12 months later.

The 24-hour recall tries to gauge improvement in dietary practices as a result of the EFNEP nutritional intervention program. The behavior checklist is designed primarily to assess the participants' behavior changes over the course of the program, but not actual changes in their base knowledge or understanding of the concepts presented during the lessons. There is a clear opportunity for the development and use of additional evaluation tools within the Maryland EFNEP program in order to better assess the changes in knowledge, attitudes and behaviors of the participants.

The Food Guide Pyramid appears to be familiar to most people; however, when asked to provide detail on the food groups and appropriate number of servings, the skills of the consumer group of office administrators and the EFNEP paraprofessionals were not equal to their perceived knowledge of the dietary tool. Anecdotally, this also seemed to be a surprise to the respondents.

Although a high percentage were able to correctly name at least four food groups, for many in the consumer group, the pyramid design didn't seem to be associated with this knowledge, and it may even have been confusing. A large percentage of the respondents listed the food groups outside of the pyramid, and there was no apparent connection made between the shape of the pyramid and the increasing number of servings in each group from the top to bottom of the pyramid. Indeed, listing of appropriate numbers of servings appeared to be beyond the ability of all of the consumer respondents.

In 1998, Guthrie and Derby reported the results of their analysis of changes in consumers' knowledge of Food Guide Pyramid recommendations. Table 4 compares their results obtained from the 1994-95 Diet and Health Knowledge Survey with those reported by the EFNEP Assistants (post-tests).

Food Groups	DHKS 94-95 % Serving Correspondence	EFNEP Asst. % Serving Correspondence
Dairy	59	63
Meat/Protein	60	74
Fruits	74	52
Vegetables	55	59
Grains	8	74

The difference in the consumer response could have been due to the small sample size, but may be indicative of a lack of knowledge among certain groups, nonetheless. Results listed in Table 4 are comparable for all food groups except Grains, where there appears to be a much greater awareness of the number of servings among the EFNEP Assistants than among average consumers.

The EFNEP Assistants were more knowledgeable of the food groups within the Food Guide Pyramid and their associated numbers of servings than the consumers in this study, although training is still needed as to how numbers of servings and serving sizes may differ for specific target groups.

On the surface, knowledge of the Dietary Guidelines was virtually nonexistent among the consumer group and minimal among the EFNEP Assistants. Anecdotally, many participants in both groups actually recognized the individual guidelines as they were discussed during the sessions. For example, most were aware of the recommendations to reduce fat and sodium in their diets; however they did not seem to associate the title, "Dietary Guidelines," with the recommendations themselves.

Conclusions

Although awareness of the Food Guide Pyramid and the Dietary Guidelines appears to be high among consumers and EFNEP Assistants, greater emphasis needs to be placed on conveying the content of these tools and helping people to apply them to their own eating behaviors. This study was limited both by the small sample size and the ability to translate the result to a population other than that studied. Nonetheless, it raises questions as to consumer awareness of these dietary tools versus their understanding and ability to apply them in their own lives.

EFNEP Assistants have a unique opportunity to provide ongoing nutrition education to their clients, but these results illustrate the need for ongoing training and support around the basics of both the Food Guide Pyramid and the Dietary Guidelines for our "frontline" nutrition paraprofessionals. More research should be conducted to determine whether these results may be representative of the larger population. But it appears that there is a strong disconnect between awareness of these popular nutrition tools and the ability to actually understand and apply the information contained in each tool to an individual's dietary knowledge and subsequent behaviors.

The results of this study may have further implications for teaching of the recently released 2000 Dietary Guidelines because there were a number of changes from the 1995 edition. The number of guidelines increased from seven in 1995 to 10 in 2000. Two of the 1995 guideline