Contents

Editor's Page

Editor's Page

Commentary

Extension: On the Brink of Extinction or Distinction?

King, David A.; Boehlje, Michael D.
Extension is rapidly being drawn into a competitive knowledge marketplace. This article looks at why and proposes a way to meet the resulting new audience expectations. Technology and escalating audience demands for anytime/anyplace access conspire to place Extension--a large, traditional organization--at a disadvantage. The authors propose a new and distinct virtual Extension competitor designed to meet dot.com's head on: e-CES. As Tom Peters says, "Become distinct, or become extinct."

Value-Free Extension Education?

Blaine, Thomas W.; Patton, David B.
We address the current Extension concern with the issue of education versus advocacy, using a framework derived from the philosophy of science. Questioning the appropriateness of Extension's persistent use of terms like "research based," "science," and "unbiased" to defend programming in controversial areas, we argue that because all knowledge inherently contains values, or bias, this is an inappropriate position to adopt. It would be more intellectually defensible for Extension educators to recognize the inevitable impact of their values and beliefs on their programming efforts. Instead of appealing to "scientific objectivity," educators should be judging the appropriateness of their work in relation to Extension's mission and the values of the communities in which they operate.

Feature Articles

Employers' Perceptions of Welfare Reform: Implications for Cooperative Extension Personnel

Wilson, Bernice, B.; Stewart, Daisy L.
Federal legislation passed in 1996 mandated that each state establish welfare-to-work programs and required that recipients work or lose benefits after 2 years and a life-time limit of 5 years. This article discusses the perceptions of selected employers who were interviewed regarding factors contributing to their participation in welfare reform and affecting welfare recipients' entry into the workforce. Conclusions from the interview data related to willingness of employers to hire welfare recipients and to the importance of providing support for new employees, fostering cooperation among employers and agencies to provide education and training, examining welfare policies, and providing affordable child care. Implications for Cooperative Extension professionals are described.

Farm Growth Next to A Large City: Opportunities for Extension Education

James, Randall E.; James, Barbara H.; Blaine, Thomas W.
Land use issues and farmland preservation have continued to be prominent topics, particularly in communities bordering cities. Extension educators in a county adjacent to Cleveland, Ohio undertook a study to determine how urban pressures might be impacting the agricultural community. The findings revealed the number of farms in the portion of the county located closest to the urban center is increasing, even though land values and housing starts are increasing there as well. The number of farms in the most rural areas is decreasing, in spite of lower land values and fewer housing starts. The farms closest to Cleveland tend to market products and services directly to the consumer, as opposed to the wholesale agricultural operations located in the more remote sections of the county. These findings demonstrate that agriculture, even in high-growth areas, can adapt to compete with other uses for land. Assisting community members in making these adaptations is likely to challenge Extension educators in the future.

Research in Brief

Delivering Short Seminars and Workshops to Farmers and Ranchers with Low Bandwidth On-Line Technologies

Beaudin, Bart
One hundred fifty-three designers of on-line instruction completed a 35-item on-line questionnaire and recommended the following top three low bandwidth technologies to use when delivering short seminars and workshops: 1) Web page (text and < 50K graphics) with asynchronous discussion. 2) Web page only, and 3) Web-based training (user submit and feedback) with asynchronous discussion. There were no significant differences between how females and males rated the various technologies or when the data was controlled for age of the respondents. Experience designing on-line courses produced a significant finding at the .05 level for the rating of "Web Page with Asynchronous Discussion" (p = .032 and df = 145).

The Use of Focus Group Interviews to Evaluate Agricultural Educational Materials for Students, Teachers, and Consumers

Nordstrom, Patricia A.; Wilson, Lowell L.; Kelsey, Timothy W.; Maretzki, Audrey N.; Pitts, Charles W.
In Pennsylvania, surveys were used to identify and rank public concerns regarding animal agriculture. Educational materials were developed to address the identified concerns, primarily food safety and environmental issues. To evaluate the materials developed, focus group discussions were conducted. The objectives were to determine if these materials adequately address the concerns, to identify target audiences, and to assess possible methods of dissemination. Participants included members of the public, teachers, and livestock producers. The discussions resulted in data that more than adequately met the stated objectives. They also provided valuable insight into the perceptions and attitudes of both livestock producers and non-farming participants.

Ideas at Work

Helping Children Succeed After Divorce: Building a Community-Based Program in a Rural County

Johnson, Diane E.
The devastating effect of divorce on children has led to the development of parenting programs across the country. Extension in rural Darke County, Ohio, played a key role initiating and conducting such a program by working in collaboration with the courts and mental health agencies. Through exit evaluations, more than 1,400 participants in 5 1/2 years indicated that they learned how to focus on their children through the grieving process and learned the importance of a low-conflict relationship with their child's other parent.

User Analysis and Future Directions of the Web-Based Aquaculture Network Information Center

Swann, LaDon D.; Einstein, Mark
Trends revealing increasing Internet access in the U.S. provide an excellent opportunity for educators to deliver educational programs over the Internet. The Aquaculture Network Information Center (AquaNIC) Web site was established in 1994 to serve as the gateway to the world's electronic resources for aquaculture. From September 1999 through August 2000, 705 unique visitors per day viewed approximately 5,000 pages per day. The top five domain types were commercial (56%), network (30%), education (10%), government (1.6%), and organizations (1.2%). The five most commonly accessed directories were jobs (39%), publications (28%), multimedia (22%), beginners (6%), and Internet sites (4%). We propose increased collaboration between Extension and Sea Grant aquaculture educators to deliver on-line educational programs responsive to the needs of the global aquaculture community.

Tools of the Trade

Justin S. Morrill--Father of the Land-Grant Colleges: A Book Review

Astroth, Kirk A.
Coy F. Cross's biography, Justin Smith Morrill: Father of the Land-Grant Colleges, is a short but informative look at the life and many accomplishments of its subject. Although the author's style is sometimes disconnected, the book would make a valuable addition to any library on Extension. It is particularly valuable for its recounting of Morrill's persistent efforts to establish the Land-Grant System in the face of vehement opposition, but the book also covers other facets of his long and distinguished career.

The Evolution in Using High-Tech Teaching Tools in Outreach Programs: From Stone Age to High Tech

Marrotte, Edmond L.
This article discusses some ways a teacher has successfully used video cameras, projection equipment, and computers as teaching aids in Master Gardener classes and other outreach programs. It covers the trials and evolution of teaching techniques to improve learning levels, describing the use of the video cameras (regular and microscope mounted) and viewing equipment tried and explaining reasons for discarding or keeping them. The use of laptop computers and Microsoft's PowerPoint program and the integration of live video images into the presentation are also covered.

Brambles--Production, Management, and Marketing: Ohio State University Extension Bulletin

Gao, Gary
Ohio State University Extension Bulletin 782-99, Brambles - Production, Management, and Marketing, is a comprehensive guide on raspberries and blackberries. This article describes those features of the bulletin that make it particularly useful as a reference and tool for county horticultural Extension Agents, as well as for commercial berry growers and serious backyard gardeners.

Maine Support Staffers Unite!

Buckley, Donna
In 1997, support staff at the University of Maine Cooperative Extension felt a need to formally unite. They had an overwhelming presence in their organization but no voice. Eight members volunteered to form the Extension Support Staff Committee (EssC) with the hope of bringing a unified voice to the organization. This article describes their successful and ongoing efforts to achieve their goal.

Questions & Answers for Authors

Q&A for Authors

Submission Instructions

Instructions for Submitting Articles

Review and Evaluation Process

Review and Evaluation Process

Editorial Committees and Board

Board

Editorial Committee

This month, as I usually do, I talk about several articles in this month's issue, and then I make a few more comments about Commentaries.

October JOE

I can't make note of all the articles in the October issue, although all are noteworthy. But there are two things that I can't let pass.

Voices Not Always Heard

The Tools of the Trade article "Maine Support Staffers Unite!" explains that support staff in the University of Maine Cooperative Extension (UMCE) had "an overwhelming presence in their organization but no voice." The author describes how, with the support and encouragement of their administration, they found their voice and used it to address issues that concern them and the UMCE team to which they belong.

Gosh, maybe there's a lesson in there somewhere that other Extension teams can learn.

Surprise of Science

Two of October's articles, "Farm Growth Next to a Large City: Opportunities for Extension Education" and "The Use of Focus Group Interviews to Evaluate Agriculture Educational Materials for Students, Teachers, and Consumers," are notable in part because they discuss results that the researchers did not expect.

Research does not always confirm. It sometimes surprises. It suggests new ways of looking at things and new directions. Both articles illustrate this truth.

Some Comments on JOE Commentaries

Well, I guess people do read the "Editor's Page."

In the August issue, I explained that "JOE is looking for a few (more) good commentaries" http://www.joe.org/j oe/2000august/ed1.html. I called for "provocative" Commentary submissions that "offer a challenge." I got them, and two of them appear in this month's issue.

"Extension: On the Brink of Extinction or Distinction?" tells us that Extension is all but falling down around our ears and proposes a solution that some of us will find hard to take. "Value-Free Extension Education?" makes us confront one of our most cherished beliefs about Extension and suggests that it might be doing us more harm than good.

Food for thought? Grounds for debate? We hope so.

Several other provocative Commentary submissions are waiting in the wings, challenges to our hearts and challenges to our heads. But we want more.

I'll say it again. How about it?

Laura Hoelscher, Editor

Extension: On the Brink of Extinction or Distinction?

David A. King
Executive Director, Indiana Higher Education Telecommunication System
Communications Consultant, Office of the Dean of Agriculture
Purdue University
Internet address: dave_king@aes.purdue.edu

Michael D. Boehlje
Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics
Purdue University
Internet address: boehlje@agecon.purdue.edu

The sky is falling. The sky is falling.

Yeah, right. We've heard that before. People have been saying that about Extension for years.

Well, if we carefully analyze the pieces we find landing all around us, the evidence indicates Chicken Little may be right this time about the future of Extension.

Why do we say that, and what can we do? Read on.

The Evidence

Information & Value

Information now has real, measurable value. Private-sector information providers such as crop advisors, business consultants, and private education and training providers are cropping up everywhere. The attraction is the revenue garnered by refining information to meet specific audience needs.

No Longer Sole Source

Extension has spent decades as a sole-source provider in the information and outreach market. Technology has created the opportunity to provide and promote access that wasn't realistic before. Because of this, the traditional education market is also more easily accessible for competitors--other universities, private education developers, and commercially based education and training organizations.

Technology combined with open access to the rapidly expanding knowledge marketplace entices private information providers to step up the competition for learners who previously were dependent on Extension as a sole-source education provider.

From Distribution to Access

A "provider mentality" focuses on the process of distribution, meaning it is driven by what we want to distribute. A "user mentality" focuses on access and the customer, meaning we now need to anticipate customer needs and provide them access to our knowledge base.

Reach vs. Richness

The richest form of interaction with Extension educators has always been face-to-face (F2F). But reaching a mass audience with F2F richness requires more resources than Extension could ever generate. But now think about Amazon.com, which uses technology to remember what individuals have ordered before and suggests other books they might find interesting, thus enhancing the richness of their interaction with the countless customers they reach.

Navigators in the Lead

Evans and Wuster (2000) also say reach, even when it carries F2F richness, is just clutter without some form of navigation. Navigators can be software (Quicken), evaluators (Consumer Reports), or search engines (Yahoo).

However, Navigators can also be people. They say private-sector Navigators are driving fundamental power shifts among the other players. Given the ongoing privatization of information, Extension must respond, or the private sector obviously will dominate.

Navigation is not a new concept to Extension. Sorting information and helping people navigate to effective answers has been the foundation of the Extension system from the beginning. However, with the number of Web sites doubling every 100 days, the amount of information to navigate through is phenomenal. Are we up to it?

Disruptive Technologies & Innovations

Christensen (2000) says, "Many of the most powerful innovations that disrupted other industries did so by enabling a larger population of less-skilled people to do, in a more convenient, less expensive setting, things that historically could be performed only by expensive specialists in centralized, inconvenient locations."

Compare the distribution of traditional Extension educational programs to the access model of other providers, where you can obtain what you want, when you want it, in the convenience of your own home or business. Clearly, we can legitimately be described as having "relatively expensive specialists in centralized, inconvenient locations."

The Consequences

Extension will continue to have difficulty coping with the transition to a marketplace environment where we are not the sole-source provider of educational opportunities. Christensen's examples clearly demonstrate that large, traditional organizations are unable to effectively compete in smaller, rapidly expanding new markets created by disruptive technologies.

Time is of the essence. Economists say the first competitor in a newly defined market niche could maintain as much as 50% market share, leaving others to fight over the remaining available customers.

Extension's 100 years of experience may give us a head start toward a successful entry into a newly defined niche of technology-mediated outreach for broader audience segments, but if we don't move quickly, others will.

Turning 100 years of inertia? Good luck.

Our Proposal

Rather than reinvent from the inside, we propose creating from scratch a new virtual Extension Service: e-CES.

Reinventing from the inside doesn't work--it is typically bound by incrementalism. As technology maven Nicholas Negroponte from MIT says, "Incrementalism is innovation's worst enemy."

We're proposing a new e-CES in classic, new-market-entrant, start-up mode. Initial goals will be to match and surpass Extension's current supply-oriented distribution system with a demand-oriented anytime, anyplace, any-source access system.

Working with a virtual foundation on the World Wide Web and other technologies, e-CES will attract new customers, new sources and providers of information, and new talent able to overcome the traditional barriers to which incumbents appear blind or by which they are constrained.

How Will We Do It?

We'll leverage our brand identity from the larger parent organization into these new markets. The value of science-based objectivity has dropped in relative importance lately, with access and timeliness moving up as higher priorities for outreach audiences. But objectivity will reemerge as a high priority--and as our competitive advantage--when access and timeliness are offered by everyone.

As a new competitor, e-CES, with its brand-based credibility, will resonate with new customers growing cynical in the commercial churn of the virtual marketplace.

Brand identity will be maintained as Land-Grant faculty and specialists build and offer new educational modules focused intensely on identified customer needs. Faculty and specialists will be reimbursed for their involvement, just as the private sector is currently doing, using consulting agreements.

Grassroots contacts will help us identify issues. We'll follow up with extensive and ongoing audience analysis pinpointing the needs of "communities of interest" well beyond traditional audiences. Having effective sensors in every community could give us a leg-up on private-sector competitors.

While attempting to cherry-pick off the best revenue-generating customers in multiple markets, private providers may not have enough foundation in any one market to gain access to the customer intelligence we can develop--if we have the right people in the field.

Also, we'll attract development talent from the dot.com-startup world. The rush to mine the virtual gold of e-commerce has chewed up and spit out some highly talented people that could find the long-term societal value (and the revenue) created by e-CES to be the next great challenge.

How Will We Fund It?

To create a seed-money, venture capital fund, we'll approach major philanthropic foundations and corporations with national scope and presence. Corporate partners will be required to have a broad understanding of the value of science-based objective information and must not expect to "own" or control the flow of educational programming.

We'll use initial funding during the startup and transition until we can establish a competitive user-fee structure that covers all operating expenses. e-CES will be a separate, public/private joint venture, but with clear public accountability and identity. It will have an "Extension inside" image and branding, much like "Intel-inside" in the computer industry.

Are We Up to It?

We'd better be. If we aren't, in the very near future we won't have a professional foundation from which to work. Anyone assuming they will be working in Extension in the same way they do today beyond the next 5 to 10 years is just not paying attention.

React On-Line

Okay, now it's your turn.

Take a look our extended discussion of these issues, available in three on-line documents at http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/EXTonBrink:

• Boehlje, M. D., & King, D. A. (1998, October)."Extension on the brink--Meeting the private sector challenge in the information marketplace," Journal of Applied Communications, Vol. 82, No. 3.
• King, D. A., & Boehlje, M. D. (2000). "Extension's future: A conversation about what lies beyond the brink" CES-324-W. Purdue Extension.
• King, D. A., & Boehlje, M. D. (2000). "So you want to have a job in 2005? Bringing Extension back from the brink" CES-325-W. Purdue Extension.

Then, log on to our Brink of Extension Discussion Forum, also available at http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/EXTonBrink. React to our proposal. Scan the reactions of your colleagues. Return, and react some more.

We'll use your input to help formulate the next steps in this effort to frame and implement e-CES.

References

Evans, P., & Wuster, T. (2000). Blown to bits: How the new economics of information transforms strategy. Harvard Business School Press.

Christensen, C., Bohmer, R., & Kenagy, J. (2000, September-October). "Will disruptive innovations cure health care?" Harvard Business Review.

Value-Free Extension Education?

Thomas W. Blaine
Extension District Specialist, Community Development
Ohio State University Extension, Northeast District
Wooster, Ohio
Internet Address: blaine.17@osu.edu

David B. Patton
Program Leader, Public Issues Education
Ohio State University Extension
Columbus, Ohio
Internet Address: patton.4@osu.edu

In recent years, Extension agents and specialists have become increasingly involved in programming in topical areas that address controversial public issues. This often puts these professionals in uncomfortable situations.

Many clientele look to Extension to provide information on topics that are important in their lives, but often Extension professionals fear that, in addressing controversial issues, they will be seen as promoting one side of an issue or as crossing the line from education to advocacy (Barrows, 1993).

Within Extension, agents and specialists have developed numerous key words in response to this dilemma. Often we hear that a program is based on "technically correct" information or that it is "research based." Another term that has been employed is that the programs are "unbiased" (Massey, 1994). These terms are all clearly defensive, designed to protect Extension educators from charges that they are, in fact, "biased" or advocating a particular policy.

It is our opinion that Extension educators who employ this type of stance, whether proactively or in response to criticisms from clientele or peers, are missing an opportunity to accomplish further educational objectives. They also are probably jeopardizing their own credibility.

We believe that the attainment of purely "unbiased"--or, to use a less pejorative, more contemporary term, "value free"--education is impossible. All education--no matter the topic, no matter the form of presentation-- carries values (or bias).

Philosophers of Science & Values

The current Extension dialogue can perhaps be informed by a brief examination of what philosophers of science have had to say about the nature of knowledge. The common Extension rhetoric of unbiased education-- the presentation of scientific facts only--hearkens back to the early part of the 20^th century.

That was when the well-known statistician-turned philosopher of science, Karl Pearson, argued that the essence of science is the accumulation and classification of "facts." Pearson was attempting, just as current Extension professionals are prone to do, to lay down a separation between scientific knowledge and opinion, or values.

The logical positivist movement of the 1930's was even more explicit. It attempted to demarcate all statements into two broad categories: positive and normative. Positive statements are statements of fact, while normative statements are statements of opinion.

Thus, the statement "Large-scale agricultural operations offer economies of scale in production" is positive in that it may be supported or refuted by an appeal to evidence. The statement "Farmers should expand the scale of their operations" is a normative statement because it advocates a position. It reflects an opinion, or value judgment.

One of the key philosophers to shatter logical positivism as well as the positive/normative distinction was Karl Popper. Popper argued that there are no pure statements of value-free or "positive" facts, that all facts are actually value laden.

After all, how many potential facts are there to report? An infinite number. We could report on farm-by-farm weight of cattle, the percentages of fat calories in various foods, the number of youths involved in various 4H programs, the number of new businesses in various regions, and so on. But who in Extension presents any series of random facts?

When anyone reports a finding, that person is generally trying to make a point. When we choose to cite a particular fact or the conclusion of a particular study, we are expressing a preference (a bias, if you will) that this fact is worth reporting.

It's the same for programming. When we choose to undertake a program, we are in fact declaring that this program is worth our while, consistent with our goals, and appropriate for Extension education. We are implicitly stating that the specific information contained in the program is important for our clientele to know. In other words, we are guided by our values from the beginning of our endeavor.

In expanding on Popper's work, Carl Hempel attempted to classify value judgments themselves. According to Hempel, characterizing value judgments are the type that we are faced with when we choose what problems to investigate--what particular facts to report or what programs to undertake. In these decisions, we seldom explicitly state that these efforts are "good" or appropriate, etc. But as we saw above, and as Hempel emphasized, they are value judgments nonetheless.

Appraising value judgments, on the other hand, are explicit statements of values or opinions. They include the types of statements we typically try to avoid in Extension, that a particular policy is "good" or "bad," should or should not be adopted, and so on.

The recent proliferation in the number of controversial items published by various individuals and groups on the Internet helps to illustrate the distinction in these two types of value judgments. One of the most stark examples involves the publication of instructions for making various types of explosive devices, including pipe-bombs.

Apologists for those responsible for publishing these instructions argued that they were not advocating that anyone engage in violence. Critics, however, insisted that this material was inappropriate. So, in this case, the perpetrators had made the characterizing value judgment that this material was worthy of being made public, but had abstained from the appraising value judgment that someone should engage in violence or indeed even make explosives.

Examples of issues where scientists and the public confront the interface between characterizing and appraising value judgments include recent debates over cloning, genetically modified foods, and research using fetal tissue.

Implications for Extension

So what is the implication of all of this for Extension educators?

First, we should all recognize that it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish clearly between education and advocacy. Philosophers of science have demonstrated that the line is too blurred to allow for such a clear demarcation.

Extension examples include the following scenarios:

• A family and consumer sciences educator teaching smoking cessation techniques may be labeled as anti-smoking.
• An agricultural agent teaching about economies of scale in large livestock operations may be seen as promoting these operations to the detriment of small "family farms."
• A community development agent who teaches principles of zoning may be viewed by some as opposing the free market in land use.
• A 4H/Youth agent teaching about principles of character education in school and community could be deemed to be encroaching on material best kept within the family and thus to have an anti-family bias.

Each of the above examples includes the characterizing value judgment that these topics are important but avoids making an appraising value judgment--as long as the educators involved do not openly advocate a position (anti-smoking, pro large livestock operation, etc). However, an awareness that our choices do reflect values that may be exaggerated by some members of the public will probably help us be more effective.

In other words, by acknowledging that our programs reflect our values, rather than by simply retreating behind the verbiage of "scientific objectivity," we will be in a position to defend our approaches in a credible manner, should critics seek to question them.

Second, we need a framework to make explicit all the potential roles Extension educators might adopt in dealing with controversial public issues.

Because these issues are often so complex and the public is often divided, a standard formula for delivering programs based on "value-free," "scientific," or "technically correct" information will be insufficient to ensure effective programming/education. If we understand these various approaches, we may find that numerous unique challenges will present themselves as specific issues come and go.

Third, it seems obvious that Extension's involvement in controversial public issues will increase in the future. The expectations of clientele and university administrators alike will ensure that.

We believe that as agents and specialists grapple with what issues they wish to address and how they wish to address them, they need to be aware of the "values" that they are carrying into the fray. We have a hunch that experienced Extension professionals already are aware of this, at least implicitly.

But perhaps it would be better if a more explicit recognition of this idea were in evidence in Extension discussions. Less emphasis on "value-free," "scientific," or "unbiased" information and more discussion of how Extension's programs are consistent with the values expressed in its mission statement as well as those of the community would be a good place to start.

References

Barrows, R. (Reprinted 1993). Public policy education. North Central Regional Extension Publication No. 203.

Hempel, C.G. (1965). Aspects of scientific explanation. New York: Free Press.

Massey, R.E. (1994). Extension education and unbiased research. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 32(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994october/comm1.html

Pearson, K. (1900). The grammar of science. London: Black.

Popper, K. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. London: Hutchinson.

Employers' Perceptions of Welfare Reform: Implications for Cooperative Extension Personnel

Bernice B. Wilson
Extension Urban Specialist, Resource Management
Alabama Cooperative Extension System
Alabama A&M University,
Normal, Alabama
Internet address: bbwilson@acesag.auburn.edu

Daisy L. Stewart
Associate Professor
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia
Internet address: daisys@vt.edu

Welfare in America is based on a system that was brought to this country from England during the colonial period. English colonists brought with them their Poor Laws (Trattner, 1975), which were used by the governing body of England during that time. Between 1900 and 1950, private employers and public officials at both the state and federal levels created the modern American social welfare system.

In formulating this system, employers and government officials interacted and produced strategies for maintaining people's income in times of unemployment and disability and delivering social services (Berkowitz & McQuaid, 1988). Thus, employers' involvement with welfare reform has a long history.

Cooperative Extension's foundation has relationships to the welfare system. Welfare in America began as a reform that involved an end to orphanages and the beginning of direct aid to "parents of worthy character," which allowed children to remain in their homes, or, in time, foster homes (Moyniham, 1996).

On January 25, 1909, President Theodore Roosevelt convened a White House Conference on the Care of Children. This meeting has been credited as the first conference of its kind in American history. Booker T. Washington, president of Tuskegee University at that time, attended the conference. Three years earlier, in 1906, upon Washington's recommendation, T. M. Campbell was appointed the first Negro Farm Demonstration Agent in the United States (Mayberry, 1989).

Both the White House Conference on the Care of Children in 1909 and the agriculture-based programs that had existed since 1906 had implications for Cooperative Extension programs that followed in 1914. Each had emphasis on services for limited-resource individuals and many implications for improving the lives of children.

Welfare reform is an issue that has regularly reappeared since the initiation of public assistance programs. Public pressures resulted in the passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996. The goal of this federal legislation was to make positive changes in the nation's welfare system in order to promote economic stability and self-sufficiency of welfare recipients through education and adequate employment.

In order for welfare reform to be successful, participation and cooperation of many groups is necessary. Cooperative Extension, state and local social service agencies, employers, and educators all have critical roles to play. The findings of this study have implications for each of these stakeholders as they seek ways to help families become self-sufficient and improve the quality of their lives.

Overview of the Study

The purposes of this study were to examine employers' perceptions of factors related to their participation in a welfare reform program, Initiative for Employment Not Welfare (VIEW), and to identify factors that they felt affected the entry of welfare recipients into the workforce.

Employers have a key role in that by employing former welfare recipients, they can provide economic security and contribute to family stability. Cooperative Extension, through its programs in workforce preparation and financial education in particular, could be supportive in welfare reform by helping individuals to secure employment and effectively use their income to contribute to family well-being.

Method

The methodology for this research consisted of personal interviews with 12 Virginia private-sector employers who participated in VIEW. These employers were located in two counties and one small city in rural Southwest Virginia. The key interview questions that were used as a basis for discussion were the following.

• What information and/or materials about welfare reform did you or your staff hear or read that influenced your decision to participate in Virginia's Initiative for Employment not Welfare (VIEW)?
• What were your reasons for hiring VIEW participants?
• What specific incentives do you receive for hiring a welfare recipient?
• What are some things that you think would affect the entry of welfare recipients into the workforce?
• Do you require a person to have a high school diploma or GED before applying for employment in your business?
• Overall how would you describe the job skills of welfare recipients you have hired or considered hiring?
• How would you describe the previous work experiences of welfare recipients you have hired or considered hiring?
• What job training do you provide for your employees?
• How do factors such as childcare and transportation affect employment success of former welfare recipients?
• In what ways do you think VIEW will assist with helping welfare participants enter the workforce?

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

The data in the study were compiled using a categorical aggregation analytic strategy. Categorical aggregation is the process of piecing together bits of information gathered about an issue and organizing it into an orderly research interpretation. A coding procedure was used to mark or denote recurring topics. NUD.IST, a qualitative research computer program, was used in the data coding process.

The data were organized and sorted as gathered to facilitate progress and coherence based on each issue. The data were analyzed using analytic categories in keeping with McCracken's (1988) philosophy, which allows the investigator to account for all of the formal characteristic of the topic under discussion. The results are reported using assertions.

Discussion of the Findings

The findings from this study suggested that most of the factors that emerged from the data were similar to those identified in the review of literature. Interviewing 12 employers who had participated in welfare reform provided insight into their perceptions of factors that encouraged them to participate in VIEW and factors that affected the entry of welfare recipients into the workforce.

Because this study was conducted with only 12 employers, all of whom had participated in VIEW, the findings cannot be generalized to other employers who participate in welfare reform. They are even less relevant to those who have not chosen to participate.

Factors Encouraging Employer Participation

The first section of the interviews related to factors that encouraged employers to participate in a welfare reform effort. The themes that emerged from employers' responses were:

• Mass media,
• Social services agencies,
• Virginia Employment Commission (VEC), and
• Other relevant observations by employers.

The methods most often used to notify employers about welfare programs were coordinated by the federal and state governments. In this study, employers indicated that they learned about VIEW through state and local agencies, but also from other sources.

Mass Media

Most of the employers in this study became familiar with VIEW through mass media, which had a major influence in encouraging employers to participate in VIEW. Most often, employers learned of the VIEW program via television, radio, or newspapers.

Social Services Agencies

Positive interaction between social services agencies, the Virginia Employment Commission, and temporary agencies, and the desire to be supportive of welfare reform efforts played an important role in encouraging employers to participate in VIEW.

Virginia Employment Commission (VEC)

Respondents indicated that the VEC sometimes distributed information to them about VIEW. Knowledge gained by reading this information motivated the employers to participate in this welfare reform program. Previously, employers were not familiar enough with VIEW to employ welfare recipients through this program.

Other Relevant Observations by Employers

Education and knowledge about VIEW encouraged employers to participate. Other items mentioned were a desire to help the welfare reform initiative and a need for workers. Respondents indicated that some employers may benefit from sensitivity training to help them become aware of the value welfare recipients can bring to their business. Only two respondents indicated that tax credits encouraged them to participate, so it is likely that some employers were not aware of their eligibility for tax credits.

Factors Affecting Workforce Entry

The second section of the interviews involved factors that these selected employers felt affected the entry of welfare recipients into the workforce. This study's results and the review of literature (Block & Noakes, 1988; Martin & Tolson, 1985; Wilson, 1987) indicated that welfare recipients can make good employees. The employers who were interviewed for this research reported that the following characteristics affected welfare recipients'successful participation in the work force:

• Qualifications,
• Employability skills,
• Work experience,
• Education and training,
• Support system or monitoring plan,
• Welfare policies,
• Childcare, and
• Lack of funds for transportation and appropriate clothing.

Qualifications

Many employers participated in VIEW because the program involved qualified people who had the prerequisites for the available jobs that employers needed to fill. Findings from this study further indicated that employers realized that some former welfare recipients were good workers despite the fact that their skills were limited. This paralleled the statement of the National Alliance of Business (1997) that the greatest barrier to work for welfare recipients is skill deficits.

Employability Skills

The findings from this study support the review of literature in noting that employability skills (such as interpersonal abilities, attendance, work ethic, appearance, attitude, and behavior) can affect the entry of welfare recipients' into the workforce. Vobejda (1996) indicated that employability skills of welfare recipients often leave something to be desired and gave as examples the frequent lack of positive attitudes, ability to deal with office politics, and capacity to handle workplace conflicts.

Employers want people who are committed to work to the extent that they not only come to work, but also report on time and are appropriately dressed. The attitude and behavior demonstrated to an employer by a person who is seeking a job weigh heavily in the employer's decision to hire that individual.

Work Experience

Employers will hire welfare recipients who have no work experience, but they naturally prefer an individual who has a successful work history. If the individual is committed to wanting to work, employers will waive the work experience requirement in lieu of a positive attitude.

Findings from this study also suggest that employers want employees who do not present a high level of risk; frequent employee turnover costs employers money. Because of this, employers are somewhat hesitant about hiring people who have a limited or sporadic work history.

Education and Training

Employers need people who are willing to participate in training to become qualified for the jobs that are available. Findings also suggested that employers are willing to provide necessary training and most often have to make it available for new hires.

Employers believe that more training programs are needed to help welfare recipients enter the workforce. For instance, employers requested that Cooperative Extension, social services, or other agencies teach the necessary employability skills before these individuals are required to seek employment.

Support System or Monitoring Plan

Employers in this study indicated that a support system or monitoring plan should be provided by social services agencies, possibly in partnership with Cooperative Extension, to follow up participants once they are on the job. Employers cited cases in which this has been a positive factor in making a smooth transition from welfare and work. Other community agencies or institutions could also be involved in providing this service.

Welfare Policies

Employers in this study indicated that, based on their experiences, current welfare policies may effectively prevent participants from working full-time, yet that full-time work is needed if the participants expect to reach a level of self-sufficiency.

The administration of the welfare policies seems to acquire different interpretations and meanings as the policies are implemented. If welfare recipients periodically leave jobs to prevent a loss of benefits such as health care, they lose the opportunity to acquire work experience and possibly training that would help them progress beyond entry-level, minimum-wage positions.

Childcare

Gabe and Falk (1995) stated the cost of childcare may deter some mothers on welfare from taking a job. The findings from this study supported this information from the review of literature.

The consensus among all employers in this study was that the limited availability of affordable childcare was the most serious factor affecting the entry of welfare recipients into the workforce. One employer speculated that the government should encourage employers to provide an on-site or subsidized childcare center by granting some type of incentive to employers who do so.

Lack of Funds

Several employers interviewed for this study indicated that a lack of funds could inhibit the ability of welfare recipients to work regularly by limiting their options regarding transportation and appropriate clothing for the job. The findings from this study showed an almost equal division of opinions among employers relative to the transportation issue.

A transportation system was available to welfare recipients in one locality included in this study, but some respondents indicated that this system was not reliable. Some employers reported having to provide transportation for employees in or der to ensure their attendance to carry out the day-to-day operations on the job. Other respondents indicated that welfare recipients did not have the money to buy job-related clothing such as uniforms.

Other Findings

Employers in this study did not specifically mention the loss of government-provided health care benefits due to employment. It is questionable, however, whether employers will pay the cost of health insurance for minimum-wage or entry-level employees, or pay wages sufficient to offset loss of these benefits.

Based on the review of literature, many employers of former welfare recipients are paying between $5.75 and $6.00 an hour (Churchill, 1995; National Alliance of Business, 1997). Employers in the predominantly rural area included in this study paid wages that were somewhat lower than this. One employer in this study stated, "Nobody can live on $5.25 an hour, especially if they are a single parent."

Assertions

The respondents in this research were interviewed at length, and certain responses that were made repeatedly were considered to be themes. In this section, assertions that might be drawn from those themes are discussed.

Based on the interviews conducted for this study, it can be asserted that employers need workers and are committed to hiring welfare recipients if sufficient support is rendered once the recipients are hired. The support may come from Cooperative Extension, social services, the employment commission, or other institutions or agencies.

Employers are willing to provide some education and training to welfare recipients if they demonstrate good employability skills. Though employers prefer workers who have had work experience, they will hire welfare recipients who have had limited workforce participation.

This study's employers believe that welfare policies that govern welfare recipients' employment and benefits hinder the ability of these individuals to achieve self-sufficiency for themselves and their families.

Important barriers to successful employment for welfare recipients include lack of affordable childcare and funds for transportation and appropriate clothing.

Implications for Cooperative Extension Professionals

The relationships among the welfare system, Cooperative Extension, and employers are longstanding, but continually need attention to be successful. The review of literature indicated that research about employers' attitudes toward welfare reform is very limited. One of Cooperative Extension's supporting roles could be that of conveying research-based information about welfare reform to employers.

Employers in this study expressed commitment to hiring welfare recipients if adequate support is available once welfare recipients are hired. Extension personnel can play an active role in promoting partnerships relative to welfare reform with other agencies, businesses, industries, and volunteers, and where applicable can develop partnerships with other states.

The results of this study provide direction for mentoring and training programs that can be offered through Cooperative Extension, public education, and other agencies to assist welfare recipients in becoming productive members of the workforce and successful in all aspects of their family responsibilities. Examples of program content suggested by the results include financial management, decision making, parenting, and human relationships for the workplace.

Cooperative Extension could work with other community groups to sponsor educational and discussion sessions for employers regarding their role in welfare reform. Professionals from Cooperative Extension and job training agencies should develop ongoing interaction and collaboration with employers as they plan programs and curricula to prepare welfare recipients for employment. Employers can help with planning, developing, and improving job training and educational programs for welfare recipients.

Where employers do not have resources to create training programs of their own, communities are going to have to coordinate efforts to prepare people for work. Cooperative Extension can be the catalyst to making this happen. Cooperative Extension and employers could establish partnership training programs for welfare recipients. Employer/Cooperative Extension partnership training programs could be inclusive of employers related to various areas of Extension programming.

Findings from this study can provide useful information to help prepare people for the world of work. Cooperative Extension, through its financial management education programs, could serve the wishes of employers in helping their employees improve their use of financial resources, thus reducing stress that can limit productivity.

Workforce-preparation programs can enhance the qualifications and employability skills that employers identified as influencing welfare recipients' successful participation in the workforce. Extension programs that focus on family and youth could be supportive to employers by strengthening the support system that employers indicated would be important in helping welfare recipients make a smooth transition between welfare and work.

Additionally, Cooperative Extension can develop a partnership with social services agencies to provide work experience through its volunteer program. Welfare recipients who have not been successful in securing paid employment could do volunteer work in Cooperative Extension facilities and programs to gain valuable work experience that will make them more employable.

Extension personnel can educate legislators and others about Cooperative Extension's accomplishments and educational programs relative to financial management, survival skills, job preparedness, job enhancement skills, and career development. This could result in opportunities for the increased support and funding for both urban and rural Extension programs.

Cooperative Extension can also inform legislators of employers' concerns about welfare policies as it educates them about other issues affecting the American people. Professionals should develop a continuing education plan through which Cooperative Extension can provide to its constituencies the information needed to make informed decisions to enhance the well-being of individuals, families, and the society.

References

Berkowitz, E., & McQuaid, K. (1988). Creating the welfare state. New York: Praeger.

Block, F., & Noakes, J. (1998). The politics of new-style workfare. Socialist Review, 18(3), 31-58.

Churchill, N. (1995). Ending welfare as we know it: A case study in urban anthropology and public policy. Urban Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Systems and World Economic Development, 24(1), 5-35.

Gabe, T., & Falk, G. (1995). Welfare reform: Implications for work and welfare, the role of work incentives and work requirements. Bethesda, MD: University Publications of America.

Martin, J.H., & Tolson, D.J. (1985). Changing job skills in Virginia: The employer's view. Charlottesville: Tayloe Murphy Institute, the University of Virginia and the Virginia Occupational Information Coordinating Committee.

Mayberry, B.D. (1989). The role of Tuskegee University in the origin, growth and development of the Negro Cooperative Extension System 1881-1990. Tuskegee Institute, AL: Brown Printing Company.

McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

National Alliance of Business. (1997, March). Washington Legislative Update. Washington, DC: Author.

Trattner, W.I. (1975). From poor law to welfare state: A history of social welfare in America (3rd ed.). New York: Free Press.

Vobejda, B. (1996, September 22). Welfare's next challenge: Sustained employment. Washington Post, p. A1, A2, A12.

Wilson, W.J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Farm Growth Next to a Large City: Opportunities for Extension Education

Randall E. James
Extension Agent
Ohio State University Extension
Burton, Ohio
Internet address: james.7@osu.edu

Barbara H. James
Extension Agent
Ohio State University Extension
Burton, Ohio
Internet address: james.186@osu.edu

Thomas W. Blaine
District Specialist
Ohio State University Extension
Wooster, Ohio
Internet address: blaine.17@osu.edu

Introduction

In recent years, much attention has been paid to farmland retention issues. Virtually all areas of the country view farmland retention as a valid policy issue (Libby, 1998; Prindle, 1998). Therefore, it was not surprising that public officials in Geauga County, Ohio were also concerned that growth from Cleveland, whose downtown is only 15 miles from Geauga's western border, would soon drive farms out of their county.

In 1996, a group of county officials and community leaders asked their local Extension staff to find ways to work with farmers to maintain their economic viability and therefore the rural nature of the county. An extremely valuable first step was to learn how the county's agricultural community was changing.

The local Extension Agents agreed to review the available literature and then conduct a study to document changes in the local agricultural industry. While the study was conducted at the request of local officials, the Extension Agents took the opportunity to structure the study as a comprehensive and in-depth needs assessment. The unexpected results of the study surprised public officials and the farm community and have caused County Extension Agents to redirect programming resources.

Methodology

Each of Geauga County's 16 Boards of Township Trustees contacted a group of farmers whom they felt best represented agriculture in their community and invited them to participate in a focus group meeting in their township. Participation ranged from 5 to 16 farmers per township for a total of 147 (mean = 9). No incentive was given for participation. At the beginning of each of the 16 township meetings, a Geauga County Extension Agent explained that the purpose of the meeting was to discuss the following issues:

• How agricultural land is being used in the township.
• How agriculture is changing in the township.
• How farmers feel about land use and property rights.
• How the economic viability of the agricultural community can be maintained.

The agents led each group through an exercise in which group members identified farms and the commodities they produced in 1990 and located these farms on a township map. Group members next identified farms that were lost/gained, changes in commodities produced between 1990 and 1997, and any vacant parcels of land that could be brought into production. The 1992 United States Census of Agriculture definition of a farm/farmers was used in the identification process. It specifies anyone producing over $1,000 in gross agricultural sales per year.

Horses are a major part of the county's agricultural community, but the Census of Agriculture did not include units that were exclusively used for commercial stables or horse production in their definition of a farm. The Census did include a category of on-farm horses, which counts horses that are kept on farms producing other agricultural products (United States Department of Agriculture, 1992). Horses will be included in the next Census of Agriculture.

Both the Internal Revenue Service and the Ohio Revised Code, in the zoning exemption for agriculture, do recognize stables and horse production as farms. (The Farmers Tax Guide, 1996 and ORC 303.01). In this study, the researchers included stables and commercial horse production, as farms.

Rented agricultural land was considered part of the farm of the operator who rented the farmland. If a farm had previously been operated by the owner, but was at the time of the study being rented to another farmer, it was counted as a farm loss. Farms, commodities, and vacant land were identified based solely on the knowledge, memory, and estimates of the individuals in the group.

One discussion leader (agent) then presented a series of questions, allowing ample time for discussion of each question. The other agent served as the recorder capturing highlights of the discussion on a laptop computer. After the discussion, the agent/recorder read back the notes for group members to approve or amend (Archer, 1987).

After all 16 township meetings were completed, the agents reviewed the records of each meeting, compiled simple descriptive statistics, prepared a synopsis of the discussion, and made individual township recommendations. Township reports were then mailed to township trustees and participants.

Concurrent to the focus group interviews, the agents reviewed and summarized a number of available and pertinent county statistics, such as housing starts per township, average farm size, farm parcels, gross farm sales, etc. A report was then compiled that provided officials, farm organizations, and farmers with a synopsis of county and township statistics, focus group results, and agent recommendations.

Results

As part of the review of existing statistics, it was found that in 1992, approximately 25% of Geauga County's total landmass was being used for agriculture, and approximately 46% of the total landmass was in woodland. The total number of farms in the county fell through the 1960's to an all-time low in 1974. The number of farms generally increased throughout the late 1970's and early 80's, declined in the late 80's, and from 1992 to 1997, again increased.

The acreage per farm fell from 105 acres in 1992 to 90 acres in 1997. "Land in Farms" in the county as defined by the Census of Agriculture has fluctuated between roughly 74,000 acres and 59,000 acres for the past 30 years (Table 1) (United States Department of Agriculture, 1964-1997).

Table 1: Number of Farms in Geauga County, Ohio
Year	Number of Farms	Land in Farms (Acres)
1969	578	70,000
1974	544	65,000
1978	591	69,000
1982	753	74,000
1987	702	73,000
1992	622	66,000
1997	661	59,000

The 1992 Census of Agriculture and a North Carolina State Extension horse budget were used to estimate average gross farm sales. Farms producing nursery and greenhouse crops, and commercial horse stables had much larger annual gross farm sales than other farms in the county (Table 2) (Census of Agriculture 1992)(Mowrey, Barnette, & Neuman,1995).

Table 2: Geauga County Average Gross Farm Sales by Agricultural Products Sold in 1992
	Average Gross Sales per Farm ($)
All Farms	25,862
Dairy	39,164
Nursery and Greenhouse Crops	85,513
Other Horticulture Crops*	10,159
Horse Stables **	106,000
*Includes vegetables, sweet corn, melons, fruit, nuts, and berries. ** Calculations based on a Horse Boarding and Training Budget prepared by North Carolina State University Extension (Mowrey, Barnett, & Neuman, 1995), and assume a stable boarding 20 horses, training 16 horses per year, and providing both group and private lessons.

The agents found that five of the seven townships in the western half of the county (those closest to Cleveland) experienced a net gain in the number of farms. Eight of the nine townships in the eastern half (most rural townships) experienced a net loss of farms between 1990 and 1997.

Due to the historic township boundaries, county townships are set up in a grid-like fashion, with each being a 5-mile square containing 25 square miles. Therefore, townships can be grouped according to their distance from the Cuyahoga County (Cleveland) line.

The townships closest to Cuyahoga County had a mean net increase in farms per township. The townships farthest from Cuyahoga County had a mean net decrease in farms per township. Those townships in the most rural half of the county tended to be losing farms, while those townships closer to Cleveland tended to be gaining farms (Table 3).

Table 3: Mean Net Change in Number of Farms from 1990-1997 in Relation to Distance from Cuyahoga County Line (Cleveland)
Township Location in Miles from Cuyahoga County Line	Mean Net Change in Farm Numbers per Township
0 - 05	+ 2.00
05 - 10	+ 3.25
10 - 15	- 4.75
15 - 20	- 3.80

Table 4 contains correlation coefficients on housing starts, net farm change, and land values for the period 1990-1997.

Table 4: Correlation Coefficients: Housing Starts, Land Rates, & Net Change in Farms from 1990 — 1997
	Housing Starts	Land Values	Net Change in Farms
Housing Starts	1.00	-	-
Land Values	.61 (.01)*	1.00	-
Net Change In Farms	.45 (.08)	.46 (.07)	1.00
* Numbers in parenthesis are p values.

Contrary to what might be expected, a moderate positive correlation (r=.45, P<0.10) was found between the number of housing starts per township and the net increase in farms per township. In other words, those townships that experienced the greatest increase in residential development (housing starts) also tended to have the greatest increase in number of farms.

In addition, a moderate positive correlation (r=0.46, P<0.10) was found between the market value of farmland per acre by township (as established by the Geauga County Auditor) and the net increase in farms per township. In other words, those townships with the most expensive land tended to gain farms, while those townships with the least expensive land tended to lose farms from 1990 to 1997.

Between 1990 and 1997, Geauga County farms shifted toward agricultural products and services that are normally sold directly to the consumer (e.g., as horses, nursery/greenhouse crops, and vegetables) and away from those agricultural products and services that are sold through wholesale markets (e.g., dairy, cash grain, and beef) (Table 5).

Further, during the farmer focus groups, farmers were asked about the impacts of residential development on their townships and their farms. In general, those farmers on the eastern side of the county (more rural), most of whom were involved in production of wholesale products, tended to focus on the many problems (e.g., trespassing and increased traffic) associated with residential growth. Those farmers in townships on the western side of the county (more developed), many of whom were producing for the retail market, acknowledged the difficulties in coping with residential development, but focused on the market potential of those new residents.

Table 5: Number of Farms Producing Various Agricultural Products
	1990	1997	Net Change
Horse	159	171	+12
Dairy	208	154	-54
Cash Grains/Hay	145	142	-3
Beef	104	100	-4
Maple Syrup	89	89	0
Nursery/Greenhouse	73	85	+12
Vegetable/Herbs	52	60	+8
Sheep	27	33	+6
Fruit	36	28	-8
Swine	28	23	-5
Dairy Heifers	5	12	+7
Poultry	10	11	+1
Specialty Commodities*	38	46	+8
*Commodities include: Goat, Deer, Ostrich/Emu, Llamas/Alpacas, Rabbits, Bees/Honey, Fish, Buffalo, Donkey, Game Birds, & Veal

Discussion of Importance to Extension Educators

This study revealed a surprising picture of the changes in Geauga County's agricultural community in the 1990's and reveals some exciting opportunities for agricultural growth near cities.

While some townships are losing farms, other townships are gaining farms. These new farms are likely to be located in the most densely populated and rapidly developing western townships on some of the most expensive land in the county. Farms in these townships most often produce horse and horticultural products and services that are marketed directly to the consumer. These farms are likely to be financially larger than the farms that are being lost in the eastern, least developed townships in the county.

As might be expected, the study was initially viewed with some skepticism from farmers, government leaders, and colleagues. Before any information was released, the study was reviewed by a panel of faculty members in the Department of Agricultural Economics at Ohio State University. This confirmed its scientific validity and thus helped defend the findings.

The local agricultural community is now using the results. For example, a local fruit and vegetable producer with a roadside market cited the study as the reason that he chose to expand at his present site rather than sell out and move elsewhere.

The information in this study was recently presented to a group of approximately 40 Ohio Extension Agents and State and District Specialists. Comments from the participants in response to the findings of the study included:

• "This study challenges conventional wisdom."
• "Mind blowing."
• "Stimulated a lot of thought."

A number of the Extension participants requested additional information on the study, and subsequently a 1-day tour of the county was conducted for 12 Extension professionals. Several county, state, and district Extension workers are now planning additional research as a follow-up to the original study.

The Geauga County Extension Office is now targeting more of its energy and resources toward assisting the dynamic growth occurring in the horse and horticultural farm industries. The surprising agricultural opportunities found in this study have changed the way we view urban sprawl and farmland retention. Extension educators in other Ohio counties that border major cities are challenged to examine the portions of their counties where similar transitions are being made and to assist members of the agricultural industry to maintain and grow their businesses.

References

Archer, T. (1987). Focus group interview. Edge Guide to Evaluation Fact Sheet. The Ohio State University Extension.

Banks-Baldwin Law Publishing Company. (1994). Ohio Revised Code, Annotated. 303.01.

Internal Revenue Service. (1996). Farmers tax guide, Publication 225. Department of the Treasury.

Libby, L.W. (1998). Introduction. The performance of state programs for farmland retention conference proceeding. The Ohio State University.

Likert R., Roslow, S., & Murphy, G. (1993). A simple and reliable method of scoring the Thurstone Scales. Personal Psychology 46(3):639-690.

Mowrey, R.A., Barnette, D.T., & Neuman, D.F. (1995). North Carolina State University Extension, Horse Boarding and Training.

Prindle, A.M. (1998). State level farmland protection policy: History, purpose, approaches. The performance of state programs for farmland retention conference proceedings. Otterbien College.

United States Department of Agriculture. (1964-1997). Census of agriculture, Ohio state and county profiles. Washington, D.C.

Delivering Short Seminars and Workshops to Farmers and Ranchers with Low Bandwidth On-line Technologies

Bart Beaudin
Team Leader, Information Dissemination, Education and Training
High Plains Intermountain Center for Agricultural Health and Safety
Colorado State University
Internet Address: beaudin@lamar.colostate.edu

Introduction

Cooperative Extension needs to continue to embrace the use of the Internet (Tennessen, PonTell, Romine, & Motheral, 1997). LaPaglia (1998) reports that more than one-third of the readers of Farmer- Stockman are accessing the Internet and have access to resources such as real-time weather reports, veterinary and livestock information, advice, and commodity and futures market prices.

Extension has traditionally delivered short seminars and workshops face-to-face to constituents, and now may be the opportunity to expand offering of programs over the Internet. The aim of this exploratory study was to bring together what has been learned from other fields delivering on-line courses and to provide a series of recommendations for agents planning to deliver on-line instruction. The research questions for this study were:

• Which low bandwidth on-line technologies do on-line instructors recommend to teach concepts when delivering short (1-3 hour) seminars and workshops?
• What are the relationships between on-line instructor characteristics (gender, experience, and training) and the extent to which they recommend various low bandwidth on-line technologies when teaching concepts?

Review of the Literature

The on-line instruction literature was reviewed, and no data-based studies were found that investigated low bandwidth methods for delivering on-line instruction. However, several authors (Bates, 1995; Driscoll, 1998; Hall, 1997;) see the availability of bandwidth (network capacity) as a serious problem in the offering of on-line learning. Hall (1997) suggests that limited bandwidth causes long waits for downloads over the Internet and that this in turn negatively affects learning. From the Extension perspective, O'Neill (1999) sees the "wait time" for downloading information from a Web site as an issue.

The most common ways to design Web-based content over the Internet are to use Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Dynamic HTML, Java, Active-X, and Plug-ins (Hall, 1999). HTML is an electronic document that contains special instructions that tell a Web browser how to display the text, graphics, and background of a Web page. Dynamic HTML is used to provide visitors the opportunity for interaction with the displayed information. Java and Active-X are small programs that expand the interactive capabilities of Web pages. A plug-in is a software module that adds specific features to a site (video, sound, etc.).

Alvear (1998) says that Java effectively eliminates the need for plug-ins, external applications, or Active-X controls. He goes on to predict that Java applets (small programs) will be all that is needed as long as the user has a Java enabled browser. Regardless of what is left to use, HTML is still the key ingredient for creating Web-based learning.

Bates (1995) sees bandwidth as being an expensive venture and suggests alternative formatting should be considered. Driscoll (1998) adds that design options are very limited when there is a concern about bandwidth. However, Hall (1999) predicts that the bandwidth issue will be resolved by within 18 months. Hall's optimism, however, doesn't take into consideration older computers and owners reluctant to download plug- ins.

Method

Study Participants

A purposive study sample was established from various international distance education listserves. Tracking the postings to the listserv allowed the researcher to conclude that the membership included experienced on-line instructors. A request for study participation was sent to the listserv, and willing participants were linked to the on-line questionnaire.

Data Collection Instrument

A 35-item on-line questionnaire was developed to measure the level of recommendation of specific low bandwidth on-line technologies for delivering factual information (concepts) through short on-line seminars and workshops. Respondents were asked to assume that the target audience:

1. Connects over unstable telephone lines at a 28.8 baud rate at best,
2. Has a 14" monitor limited to 256 colors,
3. Uses a 4.0 Browser, and
4. Is not willing to download plug-ins or request a CD.

Reaction rating scales were presented, with ratings from 1 = very low recommendation to 6 = very high recommendation. DeVellis (1991) suggests that either an odd or even number of choices can be used for the response scale, depending upon the phenomenon being investigated and the goals of the investigator.

A six-point Likert scale was chosen for this study to force respondents to take a position as to whether they would recommend a specific technique. Content validity was established by the use of a panel of on-line instructors not part of the study. The last seven items on the questionnaire collected information related to the on-line instructional designer's background and experience.

Data Collection Design and Procedures

An email message was posted to several international distance education listserves requesting the participation of on-line instructors who design on-line instruction. The email explained the purpose of the study and insured confidentiality and anonymity.

The baseline sample size used to establish the response rate was calculated using the study participants and the total number of visitors to the questionnaire site. In this case, the main assumption for deriving a reasonably accurate sample size is that listserv members usually respond to messages posted and that qualified non-participants visited the site but did not complete the questionnaire.

Analysis and Results

The questionnaire was the only means of data collection for the study. The purposive sample consisted of 153 on-line instructors who had experience designing on-line instruction. A response rate of 78% (153/195) was achieved using the total number of possible respondents who visited the questionnaire site. In retrospect, the response rate cannot be verified because some of the visits to the questionnaire site may not have been from experienced on-line instruction designers. The results of this study are thus only generalizable to the survey participants and should not be construed as representing opinions and beliefs of all on-line instructors.

The study population consisted of 87 females and 66 males, with 80% of the respondents being over the age of 40. Approximately 69% had been designing on-line courses for less than 2 years. Sixty-eight percent had participated in formal training in instructional design, and only 48% had received training in writing hypertext markup language (HTML) code. Thirty-seven percent of the respondents had received formal training in using authoring languages, and less than 10% received training in writing CGI scripts or dynamic hypertext markup language (DHTML).

The first research question of the study was designed to identify which low bandwidth technologies designers of on-line instruction recommend when designing short on-line seminars and workshops. Table 1 presents the mean rank order of on-line technologies designers of on-line instruction recommend.

The top-two-recommended low bandwidth means for delivering factual information included the simple presentation of text and graphics. Interaction was incorporated in the top-rated choice by using asynchronous discussion. Asynchronous discussion is a discussion in which the participants are not on-line at the same time. The third-ranked combination of technologies also included asynchronous discussion.

The second research question investigated the relationships between on-line instructor characteristics and the extent to which they recommend various low bandwidth technologies. A series of independent variables (gender; age; experience designing on-line courses; formal training in instructional design, writing HTML code, writing CGI scripts, and designing on-line instruction using course authoring packages) were identified, and data were collected in an attempt to explain why some low bandwidth technologies were recommended over others.

There were no major significant differences between how females and males rated the various technologies using the Independent Samples t-tests. One exception occurred in the ratings of "Web-Based Training with Asynchronous and Synchronous Discussion" (p =.020 and df = 145 at the .05 level of significance).

Age ranges were transformed into two categories, and no significant differences were calculated using Independent Samples t-tests.

Experience designing on-line courses produced a significant finding at the.05 level for the rating of "Web Page with Asynchronous Discussion" (p =.032 and df = 145). The less experienced respondents rated this low bandwidth technology more highly than experienced respondents. None of the other six low bandwidth technologies rated produced significant differences between how respondents rated them.

Whether respondents received formal training produced no significant differences in how they recommended the technologies, except for those respondents who had training writing HTML code. Four of the seven technology choices produced significant t-tests at the .05 level. Each of these choices had "Web-Based Training" as a component.

Discussion and Recommendations for Practice

The purpose of this exploratory research was to identify what experienced designers of instruction would recommend for delivering short seminars and workshops when the delivery modality was restricted to the use of low bandwidth technologies. The results of the study are not generalizable beyond the study population. However, there are ideas that may assist Extension agents in deciding which technologies to use for their target audience.

The following presents a highlight of the results and possible implications for practice.

1. The most useful finding of this study was the ranking of the various low bandwidth technologies. The top-two-ranked technologies suggest that Extension agents view the use of a Web page as an important component when delivering short seminars and workshops.
2. One assumption in the study was to keep graphics to less than 50 Kilobytes on a Web page. This can be accomplished by processing any graphics through a program that reduces the file size.
3. Asynchronous (delayed time) discussion was the preferred means of interaction over synchronous (real time) discussion, according to the mean ranks presented in Table 1. It is recommended that Extension agents focus on using email and listserves with workshop participants to allow for interaction.
4. Incorporating the use of synchronous discussion received the lowest rankings of respondents when low bandwidth is an issue. Extension agents are recommended to not use the real-time "chat room" as a delivery method. Those institutions using WebCT from their Web site may wish to experiment as the technology becomes more reliable.
5. The top low bandwidth technology ranking for delivering seminars and workshops was the "Web Page WITH Asynchronous Discussion." When the results were controlled for experience in designing on-line courses, the less experienced designers rated the top-ranked recommendation higher than did their more experienced counterparts. Extension agents viewing themselves as experienced might want to incorporate a mix of technologies.
6. When results were controlled for formal training in writing HTML code, it appeared that those who had formal training were more likely to recommend "Web-Based Training." Extension agents who wish to use this form of on-line delivery method may want to pursue formal instruction in writing HTML code to gain a better understanding of WBT.

Extension agents remain a key link to farmers and ranchers. By providing on-line seminars and workshops delivered using low bandwidth technologies, that link will be enhanced.

References

Alvear, J. (1998). Web developer.com guide to streaming multimedia. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Bates, A.W. (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education. London: Routledge.

Driscoll, M. (1998). Web-based training: tactics and techniques for designing adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass / Pfeiffer.

Hall, B. (1999). Five common questions - and the answers. Inside Technology Training, 3(2), 42-43.

Hall, B. (1997). Web-based training cookbook. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

LaPaglia, A. (1998). A cooperative ladder to the web. Farmer-Stockman, October, 8-9.

Tennessen, D.J., PonTell, S., Romine, V., & Motheral, S.W. (1997). Opportunities for Cooperative Extension and local communities in the information age. Journal of Extension [On-line], 35(5). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1997october/comm1.html

The Use of Focus Group Interviews to Evaluate Agriculture Educational Materials for Students, Teachers, and Consumers

Patricia A. Nordstrom
Project Assistant
Dairy and Animal Science Department
Internet address: pxn105@psu.edu

Lowell L. Wilson
Professor Emeritus of Animal Science

Timothy W. Kelsey
Assistant Professor of Agricultural Economics

Audrey N. Maretzki
Professor of Food Science

Charles W. Pitts
Professor of Entomology
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania

Introduction

Only a small percentage of today's population is involved in production agriculture. This is possible because of the advances made in the fields of biology, genetics, and chemistry, and the practical application of these advances by agricultural scientists. However, as a result of the smaller agricultural population, the agricultural literacy of the general public is at a very low level.

This, in turn, leads to the public's questioning of agricultural production methods, animal well-being in farm animal systems, the environmental impact of agriculture, the utilization efficiency of resources in agriculture, and the safety of the food supply. It also possibly contributes to agriculture's poor image (Coulter, 1985; Guither & Curtis, 1983; Jamison & Lunch, 1992; Mallory & Summer, 1986).

Many rural areas are experiencing population growths, and many of these new rural residents are unfamiliar with agriculture and do not know what to expect in farming communities. At the same time, agricultural production is becoming more concentrated. This increases the amount of manure and the potential for problems with such things as odors, flies, and groundwater contamination. The combination of these two trends has led to conflicts (Jones, et al., 2000).

Primary concerns the public has about animal agriculture are food safety and environmental issues (Nordstrom, et al., 1999). To address these concerns, educational materials were developed. According to Mawby (1984), "by educating Americans in the wise management of food supplies and related renewable resources, we can anticipate more knowledgeable decision-making about agriculture in the future."

Purposes and Objectives

The purpose of conducting the focus group discussions was to evaluate educational materials about animal agriculture. The objectives were to:

• Ascertain if the materials developed adequately addressed the identified concerns of the public regarding animal agriculture;
• Determine the audiences most suitable for the materials; and
• Identify effective methods of dissemination.

Methods and Procedures

Using focus groups to evaluate publications, slide shows, and videos allows participants to view and react to materials, making it possible to obtain insights that would not have surfaced in other forms of research (Sevier, 1989). Five focus group discussions were conducted in the current study. Calder (1977) recommends that when "trying to get someone's perspective" and there is a high degree of moderator-imposed structure, only a few groups (three to four) are necessary.

Random purposive sampling was used to choose the individuals to participate in the focus groups. According to Lincoln & Guba (1985), the intent is not to generalize to a broad audience. Individuals who had previously been involved (completed a survey in an early part of the study) in the project were invited to participate in the focus groups. Individuals were randomly chosen from those who had responded to the invitation.

Participants were given the option of meeting during the day or in the evenings and were assigned to groups based on those preferences. The discussions were held at restaurants, and either lunch or dessert and coffee were provided, depending on the time of the discussion. The materials were mailed to the participants 2 weeks prior to the discussion to allow them to read the materials and formulate comments.

The focus groups were conducted by a moderator and assistant moderator. To preclude the introduction of bias into the discussion, the moderator had no formal association with the project (Erlander, et al., 1993). The materials to be evaluated and the list of discussion questions were provided to the moderator 2 weeks prior to the scheduled discussions. To allow first-hand knowledge of the discussion, the assistant moderator was one of the project researchers who subsequently would be involved with the data analysis.

The focus group discussions were audio-recorded, with notes also taken by the assistant moderator. At the conclusion of each discussion, the moderator and assistant moderator reviewed the discussion and notes.

Analysis of focus group data follows a prescribed, sequential process that is verifiable and that permits researchers to arrive at similar conclusions (Krueger, 1988). Analysis begins with considering the original intent of the study. If the study is narrow, then elaborate analysis may not be necessary. Krueger (1988) suggests considering analysis as a continuum consisting of raw data (statements made by the participants), descriptives (summary statements of the respondents' comments), and interpretation (building on the summary statements and presenting the meaning of the data).

After the tapes and notes were transcribed, the transcripts were reviewed for similar ideas and themes. Morgan (1988) feels a theme is verified when two or more groups include it in their discussion. A summary report was complied from the review of the transcripts.

Findings

Adequacy of Materials

Did the materials adequately address the concerns of the individuals? Food safety was identified as a primary concern, and the educational materials addressed these issues by discussing the recent Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) legislation enacted by the federal government; the farm-to-table continuum of animal-based food products; and the steps that consumers can take to ensure they are not causing contamination by improper handling. The consensus among the groups was that the materials did address their concerns, but that there was too much information provided at one time.

Suggestions included dividing the information into modules and adding additional graphics to increase readability. Livestock producers felt that more information was needed to explain the steps they take to ensure they are providing a safe, high-quality, wholesome product to the consumer. Producers also suggested more emphasis be placed on the various intermediate steps food products go through after leaving the farm and before reaching the consumer. Producers maintained that the public was generally unaware of the logistics of moving food from the farm to consumers.

Availability of Materials

There was agreement among the groups that the educational materials should be available to all sectors of society. The focus groups felt the materials presented to them were suitable, but strongly recommended the above-mentioned revisions. The suggestion was to make the information available not only as stand-alone material for older students and adults, but also as a study guide for elementary and middle school science teachers.

As a reflection of the strong feelings that everyone should have access to this information, it was mentioned that elementary and middle school students were being left out, thereby creating a void of science-based information about agriculture. Several of the producers expressed their concern that younger students were not knowledgeable about agriculture. Further, participants felt that placing an emphasis on educating students in their early stages of education (elementary and middle school) could reduce the efforts necessary to educate adult members of the public.

Dissemination of Materials

The focus groups were asked how to make this material available. For school-age children, natural channels of dissemination, such as schools, in-school 4-H programs, and county Extension offices, were discussed. Because there are no mandatory educational requirements for adults, providing them with information would require different dissemination methods. Use of the media (television, radio, newspapers) was recommended as a dissemination tool. Suggestions included distribution at supermarkets, agricultural fairs, and county Extension offices, as well as through news releases, articles in local newspapers, and inclusion with animal-based food products.

Conclusions

The use of focus groups proved to be a valuable tool in this project. Not only were the objectives met through the data collected during the discussion, but insight was also gained about (1) how livestock producers feel they are perceived by the public and (2) how the public perceives the agricultural industry.

This study demonstrated that livestock producers and non-farm individuals feel very strongly about the need for science-based information about agriculture. It also underscored the point that the materials must not be biased, or they will be deemed "propaganda" and discounted by the target audience.

Further, if an increase in agriculture literacy and awareness is the objective, the study revealed that educational materials should be developed for all sectors of society, though targeting youth should be a goal. Middle-school-age children appear to have already shaped their perceptions of agriculture (Holtz-Claus & Jost, 1995), making it important for agricultural education programs to start in elementary schools. This can be achieved by wider use and enhancement of the in-school 4-H programs. A continuing effort should be made by Extension personnel to include in-school 4-H programs in the science curricula of elementary schools.

Though the project was identified to the participants as a study being conducted with partial funding by the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, several of the non-farm participants indicated that their first impression of the project was that it was anti-agriculture. These non-farm participants defended agriculture as an industry, maintained that livestock producers are valuable members of society, and expressed admiration for the dedication it took for livestock producers to continue to work in an area as uncertain as agriculture. This was in contrast to the opinion of many of the producers, who felt that the public did not appreciate what they were doing and the difficulties they face.

Though differences in perceptions between farm and non-farm populations were not specifically examined in this phase of the project, the researchers found this phenomenon significant and believe it would be an interesting area to study in the future.

References

Calder, B.J. (1977). Focus groups and the nature of qualitative research. Journal of Marketing Research. 14:353-364.

Coulter, K.J. (1985). The agricultural image. NACTA Journal. 29:19-22.

Erlander, D.A., Harris. E.L., Skipper, B.L., & Allen, S.D. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA. Sage Publications.

Guither, H.D., & Curtis, S.E. (1983). Changing attitudes toward animal welfare and animal rights: The meaning of the US food system. Extension Committee on Policy (ECOP), Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.

Holtz-Claus, J., & Jost, M. (1995). Using focus groups to check youth perceptions of agriculture. Journal of Extension [On-line], 33(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995june/a3.html

Jamison, W.V., & Lunch, W.M. (1992). Rights of animals, perceptions of science, and political activism: Profile of American animal rights activists. Journal of Science, Technology, and Human Values. 17(4):438-458.

Jones, K., Kelsey, T.W., Nordstrom, P.A., Wilson, L.L., Maretzki, A.N., & Pitts, C.W. (2000). Neighbors' perception of animal agriculture. Professional Animal Scientist. (in press).

Krueger, R.A. (1988). Focus groups. A practical guide for applied research. Newbury Park, CA. Sage Publications

Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. p.210.

Mallory, M., & Summer, R. (1986). Student images of agriculture: Survey highlights and recommendations. Journal of the American Association of Teachers in Education. 27:15-17.

Mawby, R.G. (1984). Agricultural colleges must take the lead in ending ignorance about farming. The Chronicle of Higher Education. 28(11):72-75.

Morgan, D.L. (1988). Focus groups as qualitative research. Sage University Paper Series on Qualitative Research Methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Nordstrom, P.A., Wilson, L.L., Richards, M.J., Fivek, M.L., Ruffing, M.B., & Coe, B.L. (1999). Student attitudes toward animal-derived products and services and how they affect society and the environment. Journal of Agricultural Education. 40(4):10-19.

Sevier, R. (1989). Conducting focus group research. The Journal of College Admissions. p 4-9.

Helping Children Succeed After Divorce: Building a Community-Based Program in a Rural County

Diane E. Johnson
Extension Agent, Family and Consumer Sciences
Ohio State University Extension
Greenville, Ohio
Internet address: johnson.8@osu.edu

Introduction

Divorce is a major life transition for a family. Changes include separation of family members, change in residence, lower income, and lower living standards. Well-documented studies show that children of divorce are referred to mental health agencies more than children of "intact" families, and parents report higher incidence of behavioral and emotional problems after divorce.

These adverse responses to divorce have led to the development of parent education aimed at reducing the traumatic effects of divorce and parental conflict on children. Programs are designed to provide information on children's response to divorce and to help improve parental cooperation after divorce.

Programs vary in design. Some offer one session lasting 2 to 3 hours. Others require that parents participate in six sessions of 2 hours each. Organizations that offer these programs include Extension, mental health, family counseling, social service agencies, and the courts.

In rural communities, the number of agencies prepared to provide these educational efforts is limited. This gives Extension a unique opportunity for leadership in divorce education.

Implementation

Darke County is an agricultural county located in western Ohio with a population of 53,664. A survey of divorces, annulments, and dissolutions with rates per 1,000 population indicated that Ohio's divorce rate in 1993 was 4.7. The rate for Darke County was 5.1, with 272 divorce decrees issued during the year. Examination of court records in late 1993 revealed there were 175 divorces involving parents of children under 18 during a 6-month sample.

Discussions conducted by Extension with the existing county early childhood committee, teachers, and mental health and social service professionals further revealed a need for education for divorcing parents in Darke County. Discussion with the County Court of Common Pleas Judge revealed he was also considering the feasibility of such a program.

The Extension Agent recruited an implementation team that included the director of the mental health agency, the County Common Pleas Judge, the Court Magistrate, and a licensed social worker. The group reviewed Extension's program proposal and decided that a 2 1/2-hour program, mandated by the court, for all divorcing parents of children under age 18, including those obtaining a dissolution or legal separation, would meet county needs.

Ohio State University Extension obtained a $1,500 start-up grant from United Way in 1993 and provided leadership for establishing the program in 1994. Grant funds were used to purchase curriculum materials, videos, and booklets to be distributed in the first few months of the program.

Class participants pay a registration fee to fund the program. This fee was set at $20.00 per person and covered:

• Time billed by mental health for the services of a licensed social worker as co-presenter;
• Program development and teaching time of the Extension agent;
• Administrative costs;
• Participant materials, printing, and display materials;
• Lending library; and
• Security.

One month prior to the first program session, Extension staff and the judge met with the Darke County Bar Association. The objectives, goals, and details of how the program would operate were presented to county attorneys. They were encouraged to offer suggestions and input. Brochures explaining the program and a schedule of classes for the first 6 months were distributed.

This was the first court-mandated educational program in Darke County and served as a model for other educational efforts. In the years since the program was implemented, three other counties have adopted the program, using Darke County as a model. Reciprocal agreements allow individuals to attend classes in these counties.

Curriculum

• What do divorcing parents need to know to help their children throughout the divorce crisis?
• How can parents help their children grow up without long-term emotional problems?
• How can parents help their children adjust to new circumstances?
• What problems can parents expect with children of different ages and stages of development?
• What divorce specific tasks do children need to accomplish successfully to adjust well and how can parents assist them?
• How can parents recognize when their child is at risk for developing long-term emotional problems?
• When and where do parents go for help?

These questions were the basis for the content of the Darke County program. A review of literature on children and divorce, parenting after divorce, and the impact of programs similar to the one we proposed was completed. The agent contacted colleagues, Extension professionals, and university family relations and human development faculty to pinpoint curricula that could be used or adapted. The primary resource selected was "Helping Children Succeed After Divorce," from Children's Hospital Behavioral Health, Columbus, Ohio.

Evaluation

The program was evaluated using a written exit survey of all participants. The evaluation instrument included 42 open- and closed-end questions. The items were categorized as follows:

• Demographics,
• Marital status and description of marital conflict,
• Quality of the presentation,
• Effectiveness of presentation, and
• Perceptions about future actions.

The analysis was primarily descriptive. using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

After 5 1/2 years, the "Helping Children Succeed After Divorce" exit evaluations from 1,400 participants point toward a successful program. When discussing the quality and effectiveness of the class:

• 89% of the participants would recommend the class to others in the same situation;
• 87% agreed that the class helped them understand their feelings about divorce; and
• 85% felt that the program helped them become more aware of their children's point of view.

When asked if the seminar would make a difference in how they interact with their children on divorce issues:

• 83% agreed that it would. In judging the quality of the presentation;
• 96% of participants felt that the presenters were well prepared; and
• 97% thought that the speakers knew their subject matter.

Summary

Evaluations of this program indicated that participants gained knowledge about their children's perspective on divorce, learned how to help their children through the grieving process, and understood the importance of establishing a positive co-parenting relationship with their child's other parent.

References

Steinman, S., & Petersen, V. (1991). Helping Children succeed after divorce - A handbook for Parents. Columbus, Ohio: Children's Hospital Behavioral Health.

User Analysis and Future Directions of the Web-Based Aquaculture Network Information Center

D. LaDon Swann
Associate Director
Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures
Auburn University
Dauphin Island, Alabama
Internet address: swanndl@auburn.edu

Mark Einstein
Web Systems Administrator
Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant College Program
Department of Animal Sciences
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana

Situation

The term "information superhighway" was coined for the Internet in 1978 by Albert Gore (Gordon & McKenzie, 1994). The "superhighway" is now a mainstream form of mass communication of interest to adult educators. The Internet is used by 210 million people from 150 countries (Nua Ltd., 1999), with 113 million Americans having Internet access in 1999 (Nielsen/NetRatings, 1999). The number of Americans with Internet access is expected to increase to 148 million by 2001 (Mandel, 1999).

A second area of interest to the adult educator is the increase in the number of adults participating in education programs. For example, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) reported 59 million Americans took part in adult education programs in 1991, 76 million in 1995, and an estimated 100 million by 2004 (NCES, 1998, & Weber, 1999).

These two trends provide an excellent opportunity for educators and specialists to collaborate to address the needs of our adult audience through program delivery over the Internet.

Aquaculture is one example of where the Internet is used to serve our customers. Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing forms of animal agriculture. Production increased from 308 million pounds in 1992 to 768 million pounds in 1997, while farm-gate value increased from $261 million to $978 million during the same period (National Marine Fisheries Service, 1999 and National Agriculture Statistics Service, 1998).

However, little coordination of the delivery of Internet-based aquaculture information by the Cooperative Extension Service or Sea Grant existed prior to 1994. Practicing or prospective aquaculturists relied on direct contact with either state Extension or Sea Grant educators as their primary source of university aquaculture research and Extension information. As national interest in aquaculture information grew, aquaculture educators were faced with the challenge of increasing educational programs for a growing audience without a concomitant increase in program funding.

In addition, there was no single source for locating aquaculture information by the world aquaculture community. As Internet access and use extended beyond educational institutions and governmental agencies, a clear need was identified to use the Internet to reach a broader audience. It was clear that, in the age of an Internet "information overload," a centralized gateway to the world's electronic resources for aquaculture would be beneficial to the Extension community.

Action

The Aquaculture Network Information Center (AquaNIC) <http://aquanic.org/> was established at Purdue University in 1994 through funds from the Cooperative State Research Education and Extension Service and the Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant Program. AquaNIC hardware is housed in the Department of Animal Sciences at Purdue University and is coordinated by the Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium, the Alabama Cooperative Extension System, and the Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant College Program.

AquaNIC also is a member of the Agriculture Network Information Center (AgNIC) <http://agnic.org/>, where it maintains the aquaculture subject matter section. AgNIC is a voluntary alliance of the National Agricultural Library (NAL), Land-Grant Universities, and other agricultural organizations, in cooperation with citizen groups and government agencies. Collaborating members of the AquaNIC/AgNIC alliance consist of Cooperative Extension and Sea Grant Specialists representing each region of the U.S. These specialists coordinate content delivery and also serve as a steering committee to provide oversight and direction for AquaNIC.

The mission of AquaNIC is to be the gateway to the world's electronic resources in aquaculture. AquaNIC houses or provides links to more than 8,000 of state, national, and international aquaculture publications and newsletters. (Due to the large number of publications available in Adobe Portable Document Format (PDF) format, AquaNIC uses commercial search engine software capable of a full text search of PDF files.)

AquaNIC also has many other features to assist existing and prospective auquaculturists:

• A media section contains photographs, Microsoft PowerPoint® slide sets, digital video, aquaculture software, and on-line instructional modules.
• Several contact directories are maintained, including an international database of people involved in aquaculture and a database of more than 800 aquaculture Web sites.
• A news section provides users access to a calendar of events, classified advertisements, and weekly news flashes.
• Job service directories include a job and resume database.
• A beginner's section contains general information and threaded discussion groups for a variety of commonly cultured aquaculture species and the production systems in which they are grown.
• An assortment of key links beneficial to outreach educators is consolidated into an educator page and includes a list of frequently asked questions and Java-driven aquaculture chat rooms for educator-specialized discussion sessions.

Results

AquaNIC was the first U.S. aquaculture Web site and is globally one of the most widely accessed and cited aquaculture Web sites. (AquaNIC staff monitors monthly user statistics using WebTrends®, a commercially available Web traffic analysis software package. WebTrends® collects general information, resources accessed, demographic information, and activity statistics. Data reported in this article is from September 1999 through August 2000.)

More than 1,000 individual, educational, commercial, and governmental, Web sites link to AquaNIC as a source of on-line aquaculture information. More than 8,000 files are currently maintained on AquaNIC, with more than three million files downloaded in 1999-2000 from more than 90 countries.

AquaNIC had approximately 5,000 pages per day viewed by 1,500 daily visitor sessions, with 705 (47%) unique visitors per day. Visitors using AquaNIC two or more times per month comprised 17% of the total unique visitors. Average session length was approximately 8.5 minutes. Visitor sessions from the U.S. comprised 63% of the total, 16% were international, and the remaining 21% were of unknown origin.

Data on organization types reveals an increased U.S. population with Internet access. When AquaNIC was established in 1994, more than 75% of visitors access the site through an educational (.edu) domain, with less than 10% using a commercial (.com) domain. In 2000, the top five domain types used were commercial (.com, 56%), network (.net, 30%), education (.edu, 10%), government (.gov, 1.6%), and organizations (.org, 1.2%).

AquaNIC has 11 public root directories: beginner's section, discussion groups, publications, Internet sites, jobs, resumes, newsletters, contacts directory, multimedia, news flashes, and educator information. Of these, the five most commonly accessed directories were jobs (39%), publications (28%), multimedia (22%), beginners (6%), and Internet sites (4%).

Future Directions

Based on the user information collected for AquaNIC, there is data supporting the use of the Web by educators to provide educational and industry support information to a global audience for a specific agriculture subject area such as aquaculture. We suggest that if the past was a time of providing electronic versions of hard-copy information on the Internet, then the future will be a time of putting information to work through the development of on-line educational programs responsive to the needs of the global aquaculture community.

While Web sites providing solely electronic copies of Extension publications have been and still are useful, future Web sites should take a more holistic approach to supporting the aquaculture industry needs. For example, the Internet is already being used to provide in-service training within Extension. An observational study by Lippert, Plank, Camberato, & Chastain (1998) provides evidence that Extension agents in South Carolina and Georgia were receptive to using the Web as a means of training a group of professionals who had traditionally depended on more personal face-to-face interactions.

The future success of AquaNIC may depend on continuing improvements in delivery of existing information services provided and an increased emphasis on on-line instruction for adult learners. To achieve the goal of increased educational programming on the Internet, there must be increased collaboration across state, regional, and national boundaries using the collective, worldwide expertise of aquaculture specialists.

Non-formal courses, specialized training, and workshops targeting existing and prospective aquaculturists and other educators are the new initiatives AquaNIC proposes to address the needs of aquaculture stakeholders. These Internet teaching resources must be designed, developed, and implemented to allow maximum interaction between the "teacher" and the "student." Teaching resources will include combinations of media such as streaming audio and video, chat rooms, discussion groups, one- and two-way video, virtual reality, electronic mail, and other means of interaction to address industry needs (Hudspeth, 1992).

Through collaboration between educators and the use of interactive media outreach, educators specializing in aquaculture will be able to convert the Web from a source of information to a source of instruction.

Acknowledgements

WebTrends® and Microsoft PowerPoint® are registered trademarks of their respective corporations. The authors also acknowledge Angie Archer and Angela Newcome for technical assistance provided to AquaNIC. AquaNIC also thanks the USDA North Central Regional Aquaculture Center and the National Sea Grant College for their financial support of AquaNIC.

References

Gordon, M.L., & McKenzie, D.J.P. (1994). A lawyer's road map of the Information Superhighway. Gordon and Glickson P.C.

Hudspeth, D. (June, 1992). Just in time education. Educational Technology, 7-11.

Lippert, R.M., Plank, O., Camberato, J., & Chastain, J. (1998). Regional Extension in-service training via the Internet. Journal of Extension [On-line], 36(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998february/a3.html

Mandel, M.J. (1999, October 4). The Internet economy: The world's next growth engine. Business Week. 72-77.

National Agriculture Statistics Service. (1998). 1997 Census of Agriculture. USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service 3 (3).

National Center for Education Statistics. 1998. Digest of Education Statistics 1997 [On-line]. Available: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs/digest97/d97t354.html

National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. (1998). Fisheries of the United States, 1998 [On-line]. Available: http://www.st.nmfs.gov/st1/fus/fus98/index.html [November 17, 1999].

Nielsen/NetRatings. (1999, October). Internet usage for the month of October 1999 [On-line]. Available: http://www.nielsen-netratings.com/ [November 17, 1999].

Nua Ltd. (1999). Nua Internet surveys: How many online September 1999. Available: http://www.nua.ie/surveys/how_many_on-line [1999, November 17].

Waldrop, M.M. (1994). Culture Shock on the networks. Science, 265, 859.

Weber, J. (1999, October 4). School is never out: Continuing education is evolving at net speed. Business Week. 164-168.

Justin S. Morrill--Father of the Land-Grant Colleges: A Book Review

Kirk A. Astroth
Extension Specialist, 4-H
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana
Internet address: kastroth@montana.edu

To those in Extension, the name of Justin Morrill is held in as much veneration as that of Seaman Knapp. While the USDA building in Washington, D.C. has the Seaman A. Knapp Arch, numerous Land Grant Universities have buildings named after Morrill, who, as many recall, was the driving force behind both the 1862 and 1890 legislation creating the Land Grant Universities in every state. His legacy continues to be felt with the 1994 additions of tribal colleges to the Land Grant System.

Coy F. Cross provides the only recent biography of Morrill, Justin Smith Morrill: Father of the Land-Grant Colleges. Cross comes to the task in an interesting way, as a professional historian with the Air Force. Yet, when you recall that Land-Grant Colleges were also instrumental in providing training for our military through ROTC programs, his attraction to his topic is understandable.

Perhaps it's more than coincidence that Cross's biography comes out at a time when so many parallels can be made between Morrill's time and our own. In fact, after reading his book, one might conclude that Morrill could be a man of our times rather than an historical figure from the 19^th century.

Morrill was a staunch Republican. A fiscal conservative, he opposed large government surpluses and over-taxation; opposed Congressional pay raises, actually giving back his raise to the Vermont treasury; voted for a guilty verdict at the impeachment trial of a President (Johnson, not Clinton); and championed the needs of his rural constituency.

But in other ways, Morrill was clearly a man of his own unique times. He opposed women's suffrage, opposed the direct election of senators and the President, opposed the 8-hour work day, and supported a movement to incorporate Canada into the United States (making NAFTA pale by comparison).

Morrill, however, is best remembered for his efforts to provide federally supported education to the common people and to ensure that emancipated slaves would have access to the same educational opportunities as others.

A biography of Morrill is long overdue. The only previous biography, published in 1924 by William B. Parker, has been long out of print, and many college students today have no idea how much they owe to this man from Vermont.

Cross's subtitle, "Father of the Land-Grant Colleges," belies the full content of his book. The biographer covers Morrill's entire life, including his efforts to beautify Washington, D.C. after the ravages of the Civil War and Reconstruction. What surprised this reader was that Morrill lost many more legislative battles than he won, but that his determination and perseverance enabled him to win his way in the end. "Dogged determination" would be an apt descriptor of Morrill. At the same time, he was polite, often serving as a mediator betwee