Feature Articles

A Profile of School-Age Care Programs

Barbara Vandenbergh
4-H School-Age Care Public Awareness Project Coordinator
Internet address: bdvandenbergh@nc.rr.com

Eddie Locklear
Department Extension Leader
Internet address: eddie_locklear@ncsu.edu

North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina

Introduction

In the mid 1980's the Cooperative Extension Service developed the School-Age Child Care Consortium to help address the American families' need for quality school-age care for their children while parents worked. The Consortium provided leadership to a national movement to position Cooperative Extension as a leader in helping to improve the quality and availability of school-age care for children ages 5 to 14. In the early 1990's the Cooperative Extension's National Network for Child Care was established to expand the early efforts of the Consortium by including children, birth through five years old. In May 1999, the Cooperative Extension System created the National Child Care Initiative to address the continuing need for child care.

Before and after-school care, or school-age care (SAC), as it is commonly called, has become a way of life for most families in America. Current economic conditions have resulted in an increase in families with both parents in the workforce. According to Meyers and Kyle (1996), nearly 75% of mothers with children ages 6 to 17 were in the labor force in 1993. Over 25 million school-age children need care while their parents work (Meyers & Kyle, 1996). In a study of 1,175 public school principals, 84% said children needed before and after-school care (National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1993).

The need for school-age care is also growing because of problems associated with leaving children home alone. Children in unsupervised situations face problems of accidents, death, suicide, teen pregnancy, diminished school performance, drug and alcohol abuse, academic failure and negative peer pressure, limited social interaction, lack of social skill development, and limited cognitive development (Locklear, 1992). A 1987 Harris opinion poll found that many teachers felt that students' difficulties in school are associated with their being "left on their own after school" (National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1993). Vandell and Corasanti (1988) found that children in 20 or more hours of school-age care per week are more likely to succeed in school.

In addition to providing for the health and welfare of children during non-school hours, educators realize that there are other benefits associated with quality school-age care programs. According to Posner and Vandell (cited in National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1993), after-school programs for children in low-income areas help improve children's self-esteem, social skills, and academic performance. Locklear, et al. (1994), in a national study of 76 school-age care programs in 16 states, found that youth involved with school-age care programs supported by Cooperative Extension showed improvements in social skills and academic performance, and showed a decrease in behavior problems. Similar benefits were found in an inner-city Baltimore program (Allen, Brown, & Finlay, 1994).

Although there are many benefits associated with school-age care programs, there is a lack of data that describe the characteristics of these programs. Knowing the characteristics of programs will help identify areas that may need additional attention, such as staff salary, work experience, and educational level and program operations. Because most states, including North Carolina, do not register after-school programs, it is problematic to ascertain the characteristics of many school-age programs in America. This study is a beginning. The study was designed to identify characteristics of school-age care programs in North Carolina.

Methods

The North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service worked with The Department of Health and Human Services, the North Carolina School-Age Care Coalition, the Resource and Referral Network, the Governor's Support Our Students Initiative, and the Department of Public Instruction to secure contact information for school-age care programs in North Carolina.

Sample survey questions were distributed to over 20 school-age care professionals for comments. Based on their responses, a survey instrument of 22 questions was prepared. The questions were divided into four categories: information about the sponsoring agency, specifics about the children who attend, a profile of staff, and program operations.

Three thousand fifty-two (3,052) surveys were sent to school-age care staff in public schools, churches, and other sponsoring agencies such as YMCA, YWCA, Support Our Students (SOS), and private schools. The Division of Child Development provided a mailing list of 2,225 names of licensed child care providers who offer school-age care services. Anonymity was assured the respondents. The surveys were color-coded in order to ascertain the return rate of each group of respondents. The respondent groups were: child care centers, Department of Public Instruction programs, North Carolina School-Age Care Coalition members, programs registered with the Resource and Referral network, and the Governor's SOS (middle school) initiative.

Postage paid return mail was provided to the respondents in order to have as high a return rate as possible. Of the 3,052 surveys mailed, 486 (16%) were returned and formed the basis for this report. Responses were received from 89 of the 100 counties in North Carolina.

Results

Sponsoring Agencies

The types of sponsoring agencies for school-age care in the study vary widely (Table 1), with churches and schools providing the majority of programs.

Churches	20%
Public Schools	16%
Private Schools	15%
Private Non-Profits	12%
Support Our Students	9%
Child Care Centers	7%
Other	21%

Of the programs, 73% were licensed, and 27% were not licensed. Sixty-five percent (65%) of the licensed programs have an "A" license; 26% an "AA" license; and 7% have certification from the Department of Public Instruction (DPI). Two percent did not indicate a license type. Of those who responded that they were not licensed, 31.0% replied that licensing would require facility upgrades; 14.3% reported no barriers; 14.3% felt it was unnecessary; and 11.9% had never tried.

Children Who Attend School-Age Care:

The average number of children enrolled in programs was between 10 and 50. The age range of the children varied, with the youngest being five years old and the oldest being 14 years old. Middle school age children were included in 45% of the programs, and 68% indicated that they include special needs children in their programs. Subsides were used to support children in 68.3% of the programs. The source of the subsidy varied; 58.3% of the respondents reported the Department of Social Services as the source of the subsidy and 8.4% as Child Care Resources. Other responses to this question included parent fees and Support Our Students funds.

Staff of School-Age Care Programs:

An almost equal number of programs reported having 1 to 3 (22.3%) and 4 to 6 (22.1%) staff members. A staff size of more than 15 was reported by 66 centers (16.22%). Staff sizes of 7 to 14 were reported by 39.38% of the respondents.

Research has shown that staff training is one of the most important components of high-quality programs (Helburn et al., 1995). Over 94% of respondents reported that they required training for staff, and 85.9% said that they paid for the training. An average of 17.6 hours of training was required annually. The agencies reported as providing most of the training were the Community College System (24.7%), Cooperative Extension Service (19.0%), and the Red Cross (13.6%). When asked what topics were most needed for training, the top two responses were arts and crafts (25.3%) and behavior management (21.7%).

Many of the school-age care staff had limited experience in the field (see Table 2). Seventy-four percent (74%) of teachers had less than 5 years of experience in their school-age work. Directors have more work experience than teachers, with 54% reporting more than five years of experience.

Experience of Staff	Teachers	Directors
Less than 6 months	28%	6%
6 months to 5 years	46%	40%
5 to 9 years	18%	25%
10 years or more	8%	29%

Education:

Educational levels varied among staff (see Table 3). The majority of teachers (37%) had a high school diploma, and 12% had four-year college degrees. Directors' educational levels were higher, with 29% of directors indicating they had a four-year degree.

Educational Level	Teachers	Directors
High school diploma	37%	18%
Some college courses	31%	17%
Two-year college degree	7%	14%
Four-year college degree	12%	29%
* Percentage is less than 100% due to non-responses.

In addition to educational levels, the respondents were asked which state or national credentials the staff held (CDA, NC Credential I, and NC Credential II). For teachers, the largest number held the NC Credential I (48.1%), followed by NC Credential II (43.0%) and CDA (8.9%). Directors were evenly divided between NC Credential I and NC Credential II, with 15.7% holding a CDA.

Salary is an important factor for retaining staff in school-age care programs. The majority of teachers made between $5.00 and $7.00 per hour (53.0%) (see Table 4). The highest percentage of directors received $7.00 to $10.00 per hour (50.0%). Nearly 20% of directors were compensated less than $7.00 per hour for directing a program.

Range of Salary	Teachers	Directors
$4.25 - $5.00	22%	20%
$5.00 - $7.00	53%
$7.00 - $10.00	22%	50%
Above $10.00	3%	30%

Program Operations

Other important components of school-age care programs include length of operation, space, snacks, and transportation. The majority of the programs operated year-round (86%), used shared space (66%), and provided snacks (97%). Twelve percent of the programs operated only during the school year, and 2% operated only during the summer. Transportation to the sites was provided by 43% of the programs, and 15% of the programs provided transportation home. The cost for snacks was $1.50 per child per day.

To maintain the interest of school-age children, a program must offer a diversity of activities. To organize the responses about what activities were offered on a typical day, questions were classified into physical, intellectual, and social/emotional categories. Art was the one specific activity most frequently offered (24.3%) by school-age care programs followed by games (21.0%), outdoor play (8.1%), and field trips (7.6%).

A median of one hour was spent in outdoor play, homework, and free choice activities. Smaller amounts of time (20 to 30 minutes) were spent having snacks and special presentations. Some activities clearly overlap (e.g., basketball was a physical, social, intellectual and emotional activity). The largest number of responses fell into the physical and intellectual categories. Physical may activities include games, sports, and dance. Intellectual activities may include homework, puzzles, computer activities, and reading exercises. These two categories were almost equal in time. Social/emotional activities were a distant third.

The ratio of staff to child is an important predictor of quality in school-age care programs (Helburn et al., 1995). In programs of high quality, staff greet children, integrate them into activities, initiate conversations with them, ask questions, encourage social interaction, and, in general, respond to the children in a warm and friendly manner. To achieve this, a staff child ratio of 1 to 15 or better must be maintained. Currently, the allowable ratio in North Carolina is 1 to 25.

Respondents were asked how their programs would be affected if child/staff ratios were decreased from 1/25. As indicated in Table 5, the majority of the programs would not be adversely affected if child/staff ratios were reduced because 68% of the programs already have lower ratios.

Already have a lower ratio	68%
Would raise fees	21%
Reduce number of children served	15%
Seek more funding	10%
Close the program	2%
* Percentage exceeds 100% due to multiple answers.

Some programs offered additional services to families. When school-age care staff were asked what other services they offered to families, the highest response was that they offered parent services such as: training, counseling, referrals, GED programs, and literacy training. The programs also offered additional child care on teacher workdays, evening care, early drop-off, and summer vacation care. Additional financial aid was also mentioned in the form of scholarships and a sliding fee scale. Some programs offered piano lessons, dance/gymnastics, children's choirs, and library groups. At least one program offered a "drive home" snack.

Summary and Recommendations

The results of this survey provide an overview of school-age care in North Carolina. Although the response rate was 16%, the 486 respondents from 89 of the 100 North Carolina counties provided valuable insight on the characteristics of after-school programs. The data indicate that churches and public schools were providing most of the care and that programs averaged between 10 to 50 children per day. The majority of teachers had less than 5 years of experience, had a high school diploma, and were paid between $5.00 and $7.00 per hour. Directors were paid only slightly more ($7.00 - $10.00 per hour), and 29% had four-year degrees. An average of 17.6 hours per year of training was required of staff. Eighty-six percent of programs operated year-round, and 65% shared the space for their programs with the host facility.

Data about the education level, low pay scale, and work environment may help to explain the high turnover rate that exists in school-age care, about 43% for teaching staff in school-age care programs in North Carolina (Lyons and Russell, 1998). High staff turnover, lack of experience, and low salaries continue to plague school-age care programs nationwide. The results of this study indicate a need to focus more attention on staff salaries, educational level of staff, and activities provided to youth in after-school programs.

In order to address the issues of educational level, staff salaries, and program quality, NSACA (National School-Age Care Alliance) has developed national standards that describe "best practice" in out-of-school programs for children and youth between the ages of 5 and 14. Many school-age care providers are looking toward the accreditation system to illustrate the standard of quality they have achieved. Other staffs are using the standards to improve the quality of their school-age care programs.

The authors recommend that a cooperative effort be made by all individuals responsible for achieving the quality of care children deserve. The Cooperative Extension Service will continue to work with the collaborators who provided contact information for this study to address the needs of after-school staff, with special emphasis on educational level and compensation. Furthermore, parents, communities, governments, and businesses should form a partnership to improve the child care system.

Parents can help by becoming knowledgeable about:

• the various child care options available to them;
• what constitutes quality child care; and
• how to play an advocacy role in improving and expanding school-age care.

Communities can help by:

• developing inter-agency, multi-disciplinary coalitions to assess local needs for school-age care and
• devising creative programs to meet their unique child care needs.

The federal and state governments can help by:

• expanding their role in regulating, monitoring, and financing a child care delivery system;
• basing action on sound standards of care; and
• monitoring progress.

Employers can help by:

• rethinking their traditional benefit plans and employment policies to include school-age child care assistance.

The economy depends upon working mothers and fathers. Parents and children need and deserve high-quality, affordable, accessible care. Although more research is needed to help design ways to support school-age care staff, this survey provides a profile of school-age care in one state and indicates areas that can be addressed to improve the quality of school-age care in America.

References

Allen, M., Brown, P., & Finlay, B. (1994). Helping children by strengthening families. Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund.

Helburn, S., Howes, C., Bryant, D., Kagan, S.L., et al. (1995). Cost, quality and child outcomes in child care centers. Executive Summary. Denver, CO: University of Colorado at Denver.

Locklear, E.L., Riley, D., Steinberg, J., Todd, C., Junge, S., & McClain, I. (1994). Preventing problem behaviors and raising academic performance in North Carolina children: The impacts of school-age child care programs supported by the University Extension Service. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service.

Locklear, E.L. (1992). The impact of the 4-H System Manager Training on child care providers' perceptions of quality school-age child care. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.

Lyons, J.D., & Russell, S.D. (1998). Working in school-age care, a summary of school-age workforce issues, Chapel Hill, NC: Day Care Services Association.

Meyers, J., & Kyle, J.E. (1996). Critical needs, critical choices: A survey on children and families in America's cities. A Research Report of the National League of Cities. Washington, DC: National League of Cities.

National Association of Elementary School Principals. (1993). Standards for quality school-age child care. Alexandria, VA: National Association of Elementary School Principals.

Vandell, D. & Corasanti, M.A. (1988). The relation between third graders' after-school care and social academic and emotional functioning. Child Development, 59, 868-872.

Impact Assessment and Participant Profiles of Extension's Education Programs for Agricultural Chemical/Seed Retailers and Crop Advisors

Michael A. Schmitt
Extension Specialist and Professor
Department of Soil, Water, and Climate
Internet address: mschmitt@soils.umn.edu

Beverly R. Durgan
Extension Specialist and Professor
Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics

Sarah M. Iverson
Program Specialist
College of Agriculture, Food, and Environmental Science

University of Minnesota
St. Paul, Minnesota

Traditionally, agricultural (ag) education programming by University Extension personnel has been targeted at crop producers. Both Brown (1981) and Hildreth and Armbruster (1981) provide classic representations of Extension programming for the rural agricultural setting. They clearly imply that educational materials, including bulletins, folders, newsletters, and guidebooks, have been developed specifically for farmer-producer audiences.

Recent data have shown that crop and livestock producers also look to their agricultural product retailers and service providers for information and recommendations. Alston and Reding (1998) state that grain producers obtain information from ag chemical dealers almost as frequently as from Extension. King and Rollins (1995) conclude that fertilizer dealers are the primary source for locally relevant information. Likewise, a survey by Roseler et al. (1994) reveals that farmers name industry specialists three times more often than Extension personnel as their source for dairy nutrition information.

In the past decade, many chemical and/or seed companies and ag products supply cooperatives have increased their emphasis on education/information transfer. Developing and maintaining ag education programs for agricultural products retailers and service providers can be an important niche for university outreach programs, because university research is an important factor in decision-making. Schmitt (1988a) concludes that University education programs and resources rate similarly in terms of quality and demand to in-house, technical education resources among ag retail dealers. Roseler et al. (1994) report equivalent ratings for company specialists and Extension specialists among dairy nutrition professionals.

It is critical that education programming for ag professional audiences includes interaction with private industry. Davison (1983) states that involving the private sector leads to wider and more rapid dissemination of information compared to working exclusively with producers, whereas Brown (1981) concludes that partnering with private industry allows for sufficient resources to enhance program impact. Spandl et al. (1998) outline some of the issues related to the development and implementation of joint Extension-industry programs outline.

Objectives and Methods

The University of Minnesota Extension Service (UM Extension) has been conducting crop production education programming for ag professionals, which include retail dealers, crop consultants, sales personnel, and county Extension staff, for the past 12 years. These ag programs are multi-discipline and have been developed, organized, and primarily taught by state Extension faculty. The programs have increased in demand and attendance over the years due to quality programming as well as the widespread popularity of the Certified Crop Advisor program, which requires annual continuing education credits.

To evaluate the effectiveness of these specialized programs and better identify this audience and its preferences, the authors surveyed Minnesota ag professionals. The survey asked questions that profiled respondents about their educational attainment and perceived knowledge levels and then addressed the impact and comparative evaluation of the university's education programs.

A six-page survey was mailed to 1,640 ag professionals on July 20, 1998. Because no comprehensive list of ag professionals exists, the most recent rosters of three programs targeted at Minnesota ag professionals (Ag Professionals' Field School, approximately 250 individuals; Ag Professionals' Winter Update, approximately 500 individuals; and the Minnesota Crop Producers Retailers Association's Annual Conference, approximately 1200 individuals) were used to represent the population.

Duplicate entries were identified and excluded. A cover letter was included, along with a self-addressed, postage-paid return envelope. On August 17, a follow-up postcard was sent to everyone. Six hundred and ninety-eight (n=698) usable surveys were completed and returned, for a response rate of 43%.

The survey asked factual (job title, educational emphasis and attainment, program attendance, etc.) and perceptual (subject knowledge, program quality and impacts, etc.) questions. Of particular interest was the effect of educational attainment on responses. Two categories were selected to be used, those with bachelor's degrees and those without. Cross tabulation was conducted to delineate and organize the data into cells for each of the reported responses such that chi-square test analysis at the 10% level could be used (Freedman et al., 1978). This test is based on differences between actual cell frequency data to determine the significance of the education categories. A 10% significance level was used.

Results and Discussion

Respondents' Education and Knowledge

The job titles listed by the respondents were extremely varied and, thus, provided a good mix of perspectives for other questions. Manager was the primary title, listed by 30% of respondents, although many different adjectives (e.g., sales, general, farm, business, branch, area, department, assistant) were added. Agronomist was the second largest category (14%), while 11% listed consultant. Other categories included sales (9%), applicator (9%), owner/president (7%), and specialist (6%).

Respondents were also asked to list their formal educational experience. Sixty percent had obtained a bachelor's degree. Thirteen percent listed a high school diploma as their highest level of educational attainment, whereas 27% cited some post high school education (junior college, technical school, college/university). In comparing these results with a similar survey conducted in 1987 (Schmitt, 1988b), there is a strong, positive trend that more ag professionals, especially those working in the ag retail market, have bachelor's degrees (60%) now than a decade ago (29%).

Among respondents with a bachelor's degree, the area of specialization, or curriculum major, was diverse. One of the most common categories was agronomy, which included crop science, plant systems, soils, and other similar listings. This category included one third of respondents with bachelor's degrees. Another one-third listed degrees in business/marketing. Education degrees were cited by 9%, while general agriculture majors or derivations thereof accounted for 8%. Numerous other majors were listed, ranging from journalism to animal science to natural resources.

All respondents were asked to evaluate their perceived knowledge of several technical areas. Respondents said they had the greatest perceived knowledge about crop production, followed by weed management, fertilizer management, tillage, crop economics, seed selection, insect management, and disease management (Table 1). The subjects that ag professionals deal with almost daily (weed management, fertilizer management, crop production) were those that respondents believed they were most knowledgeable about. In contrast, topics such as disease and insect management--issues that are dealt with less frequently--were those that respondents considered themselves to be less knowledgeable about.

		Bachelor's Degree
Subject Matter	All	No	Yes
	rating
Tillage	3.7	3.7	3.7
Seed Selection	3.4	3.5	3.2
Fertilizer Management	3.8	3.8	3.8
Weed Management	3.9	3.8	4.0
Insect Management	3.2	2.9	3.3
Disease Management	2.9	2.7	3.0
Crop Production	3.9	3.8	4.0
Crop Economics	3.6	3.6	3.7

Delineating respondents' perceived knowledge by formal educational attainment, perceived knowledge was significantly greater among college graduates for the subjects of weed, insect, and disease management and crop production (Table 1). Knowledge of crop economics, fertilizer management, and tillage was not perceived differently based on educational attainment. Only seed selection had lower knowledge ratings from respondents with a bachelor's degree. In our experience with ag professionals, we have observed that information and recommendations about pesticides and their use requires a greater knowledge base about weed, insect, and disease management subjects from the ag professional, with little room for error. However, tillage, crop economics, fertilizer management, and seed selection require important, but less exacting, recommendations and information. Thus the comfort level for making recommendations for these subjects may be less dependent on educational attainment.

Programs' Evaluation and Impact

Respondents rated several issues pertaining to the UM Extension education programs compared to other education programs. For usefulness of information, UM Extension's programs were rated much better or somewhat better by 49% of the respondents, while 51% rated UM Extension programs as no different or inferior to other programs. On a scale of +2 (UM Extension programs much better) to -2 (other programs much better), with 0 representing no difference, the average score was 0.4. Ratings were also obtained for other program issues (Table 2). For one issue, up-to-date with agricultural technology, only 30% of the respondents rated UM Extension programs as much better or somewhat better and the overall average score for this issue was 0.0.

		Bachelor's Degree
Program Issues	All	No	Yes
	index
Usefulness of Information	0.4	0.3	0.4
Up-to-date with Ag Issues	0.2	0.2	0.2
Up-to-date with Ag Technology	0.0	0.0	-0.1
Professionalism	0.5	0.4	0.5
Return for Time Investment	0.3	0.2	0.4
Return for Cost	0.4	0.3	0.5
* 0 signifies no difference.

Extension programs rated highest for the issues of professionalism and return for cost investment. The university's resources, faculty, and applied research programs may have contributed to the favorable professionalism rating. The cost investment rating could have referred to the value of the learned information, or, less positively, it could have referred to the relatively low fees charged for UM Extension programs. The cost issue is the only issue that had a significant statistical interaction with education attainment of the respondents. Those respondents with college degrees rated the return for cost significantly higher than did those without degrees.

Extension's program issues receiving the lowest rating were up-to-date with ag issues and up-to-date with ag technology. Drawing from comments written on the individual surveys, it appears that some of the respondents may have intertwined these two issues to imply up-to-date with ag technology issues. Numerous comments regarding UM Extension's lack of overall endorsement of current technology issues were listed on surveys.

The survey asked respondents to list education programs they had attended recently. The most prevalent sponsors of these education program were regional supply cooperatives (e.g., Cenex/Land O'Lakes, Farmland Industries). Next were programs offered by Land Grant institutions in the neighboring states of Iowa, Wisconsin, and North Dakota. Other frequently mentioned sponsors of ag professional education programs were chemical/seed companies, private research/education organizations, and state commodity organizations.

The sponsorship issue for education programs is often overrated, according to our survey. From a list of six factors that ag professionals may consider when deciding whether to attend an education program, sponsor was rated the lowest (Table 3). The most important programming factor was the topics to be presented. In addition, compared to the average, respondents with college degrees rated the factors of topics and speakers as more important and the factors of sponsor and cost as less important, thus creating a stronger disparity among factors. This ranking of factors mirrors the results of Schmitt (1988b), indicating consistency in ag professionals' opinions.

		Bachelor's Degree
Factor	All	No	Yes
	score
Topic	3.8	3.8	3.9
Location	3.2	3.3	3.1
Speakers	3.2	3.1	3.2
Cost	2.8	2.9	2.7
Sponsor	2.2	2.4	2.0
Time of Year	3.5	3.5	3.5

Assessments of the impact of UM Extension's educational programs were varied. Seventy percent of the respondents said they had provided improved service to their customers as a result of Extension programs. Examples of improved service included enhanced knowledge and credibility as well as improved pest and fertilizer recommendations. There was also a significant interaction with education; respondents with bachelor's degrees more frequently cited a positive impact on service (Table 4). In addition, 71% of respondents reported they had adopted or recommended practices that better protect the environment. There was no significant interaction with this type of service improvement based on education background.

		Bachelor's Degree
Type of Impact	All	No	Yes
	percent
Improved service to customers	70	58	78
Adopted or recommended practices that protect the environment	71	67	73
Business become more profitable	34	29	37

In contrast, only one-third of the respondents stated that their business was more profitable as a result of UM Extension programs (Table 4). One interpretation might be that the improved services/recommendations and practices protecting the environment could have been reducing the sales of products.

Summary and Conclusion

According to ag professionals, the UM Extension education programming offered to them is not necessarily better than other education programs, especially as it relates to current technology issues. However, participants clearly stated that Extension's programs are positively affecting their service and recommendations to customers, both agronomically and environmentally, although not necessarily improving their business profitability. In most instances, ag professionals with college degrees responded more positively to university education programming issues. Future programming will need to focus on relevant topics as well as offer excellent speakers. The specific sponsor and, in general, cost of the program are the least important factors to those attending educational program.

The implications of this survey research to the broad picture of Extension are critical. Extension will have greater impact on agriculture when it directly reaches key information disseminators. Roseler et al. (1994) conclude that, for dairy production, the university's impact and value are in developing and maintaining programs/relationships with the industry. Our survey results reinforce that conclusion for crop production.

Extension education programs should recognize that a very critical target audience for crop production information has shifted from farmers to ag professionals. Agricultural professionals then transfer and/or repackage this information, often in association with product sales to crop producers on a local basis. This information delivery system could potentially exclude county Extension personnel. Extension programming, especially by state Extension faculty, can have its greatest educational impact when its creators partner with companies, associations, and agencies that also sponsor education programs for their employees. These partnerships will enable Extension to target information to those who will be able to best use or transfer the information.

References

Alston, D.G., & Reding, M.E. (1998). Factors influencing adoption and educational outreach of integrated pest management, Journal of Extension [On-line]. 36(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/a3.html

Brown, T.G. (1981). Changing delivery systems for agricultural extension: The extension teacher changing roles and competencies. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 63: 859-862.

Davison, A.D., (1983), Cooperative extension: Its role in education and technology transfer. Plant Disease, 67(5): 468.

Freedman, D., Pisani, R., & Purves, R. (1978). Statistics, 1st Ed. New York, N.Y.; W.W. Norton & Co.

Hildreth, R.F., & Armbruster, W.J. (1981). Extension program delivery past, present, and future: An overview. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 63: 853-858.

King, R.N., & Rollins, T.J. (1995). Factors influencing the adoption of a nitrogen testing program. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 33(4). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995august/rb2.html

Roseler, D.K., Chase, L.E. & McLaughlin, E.W. (1994). Information dissemination in dairy nutrition. Journal of Extension [On-line]. 32(1). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1994june/rb3.html

Schmitt, M.A. (1988a). A survey of fertilizer dealers: I. Sources of agronomic training. Journal of Agronomic Education, 17: 17-20.

Schmitt, M.A, (1988b). A survey of fertilizer dealers: II. Sources of agronomic information. Journal of Agronomic Education, 17: 21-24.

Spandl, E., Schmitt, M.A., & Durgan, B.R. (1998). The development process and multiyear program assessment of a field school for agricultural professionals. Journal of Natural Resources and Life Science Education, 27: 131-133.

Planning Educational Volunteer Forums: Steps to Success

Ken Culp, III
Extension 4-H/Youth Development Specialist, Volunteerism
The University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service
Internet address: kculp@ca.uky.edu

Introduction

A considerable amount of time and resources, on the part of both volunteer and paid staff in, are dedicated annually to the planning, coordination, and execution of educational volunteer events. These may include workshops, in-services, conferences, or forums that may range in duration from a few hours to several days. Regional 4-H Volunteer Forums are held annually in the four national Extension Regions. Each Regional Forum is somewhat different, displays its own personality, and reflects its host state's unique culture. Many similarities exist, however, including the recurring issues that must be addressed by each group when planning such an event.

The purpose of Regional Volunteer Forums is to increase the capacity of volunteer and salaried staff to contribute to the achievement of the mission of 4-H Youth Development Education and the Cooperative Extension System as a whole (Curtis, Hampton, Hougen, Howard, Johnston, McCoy, Peterson, Rutledge, Grieb, & Mullen; 1991). Similarly, the purpose of a state, area, or district Volunteer Conference or workshop is to provide the educational and technical resources that volunteers need in order to deliver the 4-H Youth Development program as well as to meet 4-H members' needs. Although the following suggestions are offered as steps to consider when undertaking the planning of a Regional Volunteer Forum, they have been proven to be equally effective when planning a state, area or district Volunteer Conference or workshop.

Methodology

This article is one of the results of a qualitative, longitudinal study. Since 1992, the researcher has participated in eight Forums in the North Central and Southern Regions, has worked with regional steering committees in four states, and has participated in state 4-H Volunteer Conferences in four states. In addition, the researcher collaborated in researching, developing, and implementing the Ohio 4-H Volunteer Recognition Model (Culp, Schwartz, & Campbell, 1997) and the Kentucky 4-H Volunteer Recognition Model (Culp, in press).

The Ohio 4-H Volunteer Recognition Model was implemented and resulted in a single-day, combined volunteer education and recognition event that was attended by 1700 individuals in 1998, 1900 in 1999, and 1400 in 2000. The Kentucky 4-H Volunteer Recognition Model resulted in a two-day, combined volunteer education and recognition event that was attended by 752 individuals in 2000.

The "Steps to Success" for any Regional Volunteer Forum and most, if not all, State Conferences, may be divided into five categories. These categories include: Constructing the Steering/Planning Committee; Contracting Facilities; Planning the Program; Arranging for Food, Meals and Catering; and Developing the Budget. By focusing on these five categories, planning committees can coordinate a successful forum or conference without getting completely bogged down managing endless details.

Discussion and Recommendations

The steps are introduced and discussed in the order in which they should be executed. For example, the planning committee should be constructed before contracting the facilities, developing the budget, planning the program, or arranging for meals. This is important, because the planning committee needs to be a player in the decision-making processes that are involved in the other four steps.

Constructing the Planning/Steering Committee

Have enough people to do the job.

Committees are composed of volunteers. Most volunteers also have jobs and professional and personal lives, and aren't able to devote their full attention to a volunteer role. "Many hands make light work" is a good motto to remember. Providing secretarial support and technological resources (duplicating, mailing, faxing, printing, etc.) from the State 4-H Office in support of the Steering Committee and its chairpersons will support the volunteers, facilitate goal achievement, and help avoid burnout.

Sometimes, however, more is less. Large groups can be unwieldy and unproductive. Having too many people can cripple some committees. The important thing is to know your volunteers, especially the committee chairs, and to respect their wishes and leadership styles.

Construct committees with a cross-section of personality types and leadership styles.

Each committee needs an assortment of Thinkers, Doers, Dreamers, and Watchers. The Thinkers will envision the details. The Dreamers
l be creative, spontaneous, and dynamic. The Watchers will keep lend balance and stability to the group. And the Doers will make sure that the job gets done.

Structure each committee to have more volunteers than paid staff.

Remember that this is a volunteer conference and the volunteers should have both wide-spread responsibility and authority in planning and undertaking it. The volunteers are likely to have the best concept of what will appeal to other volunteers, what frills are unnecessary, and where to place budgetary and educational priorities.

Make sure all Extension staff on the Steering Committee are Forum literate.

The quickest way to cause a "them against us" rivalry is to place a group of well-meaning Extension staff in leadership roles who have no concept of, or history with, the Regional Forum. Regional Forums are not NAE4-HA conferences. The purposes, objectives, and audiences of the two are quite different and have no bearing on each other.

Don't expect a lifetime commitment.

With the exception of booking facilities (which needs to be done at least three years prior to the event), most Forum details can be accomplished in 18 months or less. In no case should a committee be meeting on a regular basis more than 2 years prior to the regional event.

Contracting Facilities

Knowing your audience is crucial. Many volunteers attend Regional Forums and State Conferences without reimbursement. Others take vacation to attend on their own. Planners should consider these factors when contracting the conference center and hotel.

Negotiate hotel costs.

Hotels costing $100 per room per night are likely to be too expensive for volunteers. Remember that, of the "big three" costs (meals, facilities, and sleeping rooms), the sleeping room cost is likely to be the most negotiable. One option is to get the hotel to guarantee a room price, regardless of the number of guests in the room. Be aware that many conference hotels in large cities also charge a bed or conference tax, ranging from 10 to 20%, that is not tax-exempt.

Recognize that big convention centers are intimidating.

People don't want to pull out a map to determine the location of their next workshop. Nor do they want to leave the hotel every time they attend a workshop. Meeting rooms should be in close proximity to lodging rooms; there should be ample elevators to transport guests to different floors; and meeting rooms should be easily located.

Be the only conference scheduled at that facility.

It is more advantageous to be "a big fish in a small pond," or, even better, the only "fish" in the pond. Being the only conference scheduled at a facility ensures that you will have all available staff and resources funneled toward your event, rather than have to share them with other groups.

House all conference delegates at a single facility.

Most 4-H volunteers have been found to be motivated by affiliation (Byrne & Caskey, 1985; Culp, 1997; Henderson, 1983; Rouse & Clawson, 1992). Forum and conference delegates attend largely due to three motivational influences: the quality of the educational workshops (achievement motives), the opportunity to share information (achievement through affiliation), and building or renewing relationships (Culp & Schwartz, 1999).

Housing delegates at multiple hotels complicates schedules, requires additional transportation, and reduces opportunities to meet and share. Volunteers staying at an "over-flow" hotel are likely to feel disconnected and left out, and will have a less positive experience.

Know the preferences and limitations of your audience.

If your audience is accustomed to a hotel/conference center, planning a Forum at a state 4-H camp may be out of the question. While historic hotels can be wonderful places to spend a weekend, consider whether their turn-of-the century elevator(s) will be able to transport your guests from the main floor to their rooms and back between workshops. Can the facility accommodate the special needs of all of your delegates? Make sure that the facilities are convenient, accessible, and easy to locate and navigate.

Understand the constraints that "tradition" places on your event.

If the Forum in your region has traditionally been successfully scheduled during a particular month or time frame, moving it to another time could be disastrous. A difference of 3 weeks may not seem to be a problem on an agent's calendar, but a move from mid-October to late September may seem "undoable" to a volunteer.

Developing the Budget and Financial Resources

Plan your budget based on a 3- to 5-year attendance average.

A 3- to 5-year average provides a good benchmark from which to base your budget. Other issues, including registration, lodging and transportation costs, location within the region, and local attractions may have a bearing on attendance. Basing break-even costs on a conservative attendance estimate will help ensure that your event operates in the black.

Have a contingency plan that is reflected in your budget.

When Nebraska hosted the 1997 North Central Forum, three budgets were developed, based upon different registration numbers. These registration numbers were 400, 500, and 600 delegates. While 600 was the 5-year average, the previous Forum held in Ohio (scheduled a month earlier than traditional dates, in an expensive luxury hotel) had registered barely 400 delegates. By comparison, South Dakota (which adjoins Nebraska) hosted 775 delegates at the 1993 NCRVF. Nebraska's 600-delegate budget (which was ultimately the budget that was utilized) featured two nights out, two off-site dinners, and heavy-duty speakers. The smaller budgets reduced the number of off-site visits and meals, as well as Forum "extras."

Understand what the threshold is for Forum registration fees.

Volunteers understand inflation. However, increasing registration more than 10% in a year is likely to significantly reduce attendance figures, particularly if a good reason for the increase is not perceived or understood.

Establish up-front who will be responsible for resource development and financial contributions.

What role will your state 4-H Foundation play in resource development? If the Foundation is involved, coordinating fund raising activities will be important. A development officer may be more effective in securing a $5,000 gift than a volunteer. Additionally, a development officer is more likely to ask a potential donor for $5,000, while a volunteer may ask only for $500. Realize that in-kind contributions may be even more important than long-term financial support. For example, a printer is more likely to be willing to donate printing the registration booklet, dinner menus, programs, or evaluations, than cash. In the budget, however, in-kind donations are as important as cash.

Budget and spend money where it makes a difference.

You should spend most of the budget in two key areas: education (speakers, workshop locations, and offerings that are conducive to learning, and high-quality educational tours) and meals. Money spent on professional decorators, elaborate lights and sound, and exotic meals will neither increase the educational value of the Forum, nor attract potential delegates to attend.

Find out early what recognition each donor desires in return for contributions.

Each Regional Forum has a JC Penney banquet. Yet many Forums have donors who have made larger contributions but who receive less recognition than JC Penney does. For most donors, seeing their name listed in the program is not enough.

Some alternatives include: displaying their logo or signage prominently throughout the Forum, including a catalogue or products in goodie bags or on tables at meals, inviting a company representative to give remarks at a meal, and including self-addressed thank-you notes in goodie bags or on tables at a meal for participants to complete and mail. It's also important to provide donors with impact information within 2 months of the Forum.

Planning the Program

Remember that the success of the Forum rests on the educational workshops.

Forum delegates attend to gain new ideas, become re-energized, develop or renew friendships, and take information back home. Workshops should be hands-on, ready to use, and easily understood. Offering workshops that appeal to both newer and more experienced volunteers will have greater appeal and educational value.

Because Saturday will be part-timers' day of choice, fill it with high-quality workshops.

A common temptation of many Steering Committees is to load the Saturday schedule with tours. However, if a Forum goal is to appeal to part-timers, remember that part-time attendees are likely to be employed and will therefore be weekend participants. Part-timers will not be as interested in going on a tour as they will be in attending a meaningful workshop.

Recognize that one "heavy-duty" speaker per day is more meaningful (and more cost-effective) than one speaker per meal.

An effective speaker can greatly enhance any Forum. Everyone will hear the speakers, so make sure that your money for speakers is well-spent. It is also important to remember that informal sharing is an important aspect of the Forum. Providing time during one or two meals each day for sharing and developing relationships will meet the volunteers' motivational needs, help keep the program uncluttered, and also keep the budget in check. When budgeting for speakers, the minimum for a "reputation" speaker, contracted through a speaker's bureau or conference planner, will start at $2,500 plus expenses.

Vary speaker types.

Different speakers appeal to different people. In order to please everyone, include a cross-section of motivational, inspirational, educational, and humorous speakers. Engaging the services of a meeting planner will provide access to a larger speaker's pool. Remember it is possible that an effective speaker maybe someone local, who may be willing to speak for free. However, any speaker should be reputable and experienced. One lackluster speaker can do a lot of damage.

Respect tradition.

Some aspects of the Forum are considered sacred! The volunteers will recognize those and won't want to compromise them. Planners are well advised not to alter or compromise such sacred traditions.

Try at least one new idea. Start a new tradition.

Each Forum has its own personality. Each Forum brings an opportunity to try something innovative and new. Be creative, make an impression, and try something a little bit different.

Schedule at least one evening meal "off-site."

Having one meal off-site livens up the program and breaks the routine. Off-site meals also present an opportunity for a state to showcase some of its own unique culture. A bar-be-que, luau, crawfish boil, hog roast, or fish fry; dinner at a museum, mall, farm, or zoo; or one with an ethnic theme will add to the Forum experience without drastically increasing costs. In addition, eating off-site provides commodity groups an opportunity to make in-kind donations, whereas most convention centers or caterers will not accept foods from other suppliers.

Schedule time for mingling, meeting new people, and exchanging information.

Forum delegates are "people-persons." They want to share and receive information, as well as develop and rekindle relationships. Scheduling 90-minute meals, 30-minute refreshment breaks, and some "down time" between workshops will facilitate these exchanges.

Arranging for Food, Meals, and Catering

Have plenty of wholesome, hearty food, in ample servings.

Eating is a celebration, a tradition, and a way of life in most cultures. Meals should be wholesome, nutritious, hot, on-time, and abundant. The wait staff should be punctual, courteous, and responsive to individual requests. Most people perceive that their registration fees are spent largely on meals and therefore want good value for their money.

Remember that "grazing" buffets can be awkward for large groups.

Many people prefer to be waited upon, rather than to serve themselves. Additionally, buffets are not conducive to exchanging information and developing or renewing relationships. While lingering over a meal may be desirable, standing in a long line with 400 other delegates may be perceived to be a waste of time. Finally, buffets are awkward for older people or those with disabilities.

Have alternative entrees available.

Many people are on restricted diets. Restricted diets may require eliminated or reduced amounts of sugar, salt, fat, cholesterol, and meat. Check with your caterer and have an alternative entree available. Provide a space on the registration form for special or restricted diets.

Have ample seating available.

The "fallout rate" is generally lower for State or Regional Forums than for most other volunteer programs. This is likely due, in part, to the sizable investment volunteers make to attend. It is embarrassing and hard on a schedule to be caught short of seating and to ha
o set-up additional tables, chairs, and place settings.

Conclusion

There are many effective means of planning and orchestrating Regional Volunteer Forums and State Volunteer Conferences. All of them, however, are time and resource intensive. This article is not exhaustive and has not covered all details, but conference planners who pay attention to the five "Steps to Success" described here will gain the necessary structure to keep focused on the "big picture" without getting completely bogged down managing endless details.

References

Byrne, R.A., & Caskey, F. (1985). For love or money? The Journal of Extension. 23(3): 4-7.

Culp, III, K. (1997). Motivating and retaining adult volunteer 4-H leaders. Journal of Agricultural Education. 38(2): 1-7.

Culp, III, K., & Schwartz, V.J. (1999.) Motivating adult volunteer 4-H leaders. The Journal of Extension. 36(1).

Culp, III, K., Schwartz, V.J., & Campbell, I.J. (1997). Volunteer recognition: A new model for a new millennium. Proceedings of the 26th annual conference for the association for research on nonprofit organizations and voluntary action. December 4-6, 1997. Indianapolis, IN.

Curtis, O., Hampton, A., Hougen, R., Howard, M., Johnston, S., McCoy, E., Peterson, D., Rutledge, J., Grieb, J., & Mullen, S. (1991). A guide to planning regional 4-H volunteer forums. National 4-H Council: Chevy Chase, MD.

Henderson, K.A. (1983). The motivation of men and women in volunteering. Journal of Volunteer Administration. 1(3): 20-24.

Rouse, S.B., & Clawson, B. (1992.) Motives and incentives of older adult volunteers: Tapping an aging population for youth development workers. The Journal of Extension [On-line]. 30(3). Available: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992fall/a1.html

The Educational Needs of Small Business Owners: Look into the Future

Glenn Muske
Asst. Professor/Extension Home-Based and Micro Business Specialist
Department of Design, Housing and Merchandising
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
Internet address: muske@okstate.edu

Nancy Stanforth
Assoc. Professor
Dept. of Fashion Design and Merchandising
Kent State University
Kent, Ohio
Internet address: nstanfor@kent.edu

Introduction

Small businesses represented a significant driving force behind the economic boom of the 90s. These businesses employed more than 56% of all workers. Between 1990 and 1994, small businesses generated 38% of the gross national product (Berns, 1991; Chun & Griffin, 1996; Nelton, 1989). Small businesses accounted for virtually all of the net new jobs created between 1987 and 1992(Ashmore, 1996). Women and minority small businesses made an important contribution to the economy, generating over $3 trillion in sales and receipts (Chun, 1998).

Future economic expansion will depend on the continued success of small business owners. One factor found to predict business success has been education and training of the small business owner. Much of that training has come from continuing education programs, such as that offered by the Cooperative Extension Service. Seventy-four percent of home-based business owners in one southern state depended on continuing education to fulfill their educational needs (Burns, 1994). Similar studies by Burns in 1989 and Berns in 1991 support that finding. Berns studied 9,000 entrepreneurs and found that continuing education in financial management, personnel, marketing, and business planning was regularly requested.

The purpose of the study described here was to examine the anticipated continuing educational needs of current college students. Today, entrepreneurship courses have seen tremendous growth at the college level. With such an explosion it might be anticipated that today's college student will already have acquired the educational programs needed to operate his or her own business. Confirming this will help Cooperative Extension plan its future entrepreneurial support role.

Background

The number of small businesses in the U.S. economy quickly grew during the 1990s. Today, more than 99% of the 23 million U.S. businesses are classified as small, using the standards of the U.S. Small Business Administration. Over 70% of U.S businesses have 20 employees or fewer (Buck, 1997; Frauenfelder, 1997; U.S. Census, 1998).

The growth in the number of small businesses is expected to continue into the new millennium. According to futurist Watts Wacker of SRI Consulting, the number of small businesses is expected to increase by 50% over the next 10 years (Chun, 1998). Nearly 900,000 new companies started each year, with over 90% classified as small businesses, and it is estimated that 50% are home-based (Case, 1996; Frauenfelder, 1997).

One primary reason for the growth in the number of small businesses is that "being your own boss" continues to be a part of the American dream (Batory & Batory, 1997). In a N.Y Times survey, over 75% of people indicated that having one's own business was one measure of success. Muske and Stanforth (1998) note that nearly 60% of non-business college students thought they would be owning their own business at some time. Other studies of college students, including both business and non-business majors, note similar results (Brenner, Pringle, & Greenhaus, 1991; Crant, 1996; Duke, 1996; Kay, 1996; Scott & Twomeny, 1988).

A second reason for starting a business is disillusionment with corporate America, causing many to look for alternative employment choices (Kay, 1996). Corporations are no longer viewed as lifetime employers, even if the individual would like that to be the case. Global competition, corporate hiring freezes, downsizing, and changing skill needs have altered the business/employee relationship. Nor can workers expect that corporate jobs will fulfill their psychological and sociological needs.

Quality of life represents a third reason for starting a business. Many employees view quality of life as important as money or status (Buck, 1997; Kay, 1996). Owning a business provides income and time flexibility that is not easily available when working in a large corporation (Brackey, 1998). Entrepreneurship represents an alternative means for many to achieve their desired lifestyle (Buck, 1997; Duffy & Stevenson, 1984; Kay, 1996). Entrepreneurship also provides an income potential greater than what the corporate world might offer and sufficient to keep up with one's peers (Bryant, 1999).

The technological revolution has made working at home or in a small business more viable. Technology has allowed workers to produce quality output from their desktop computers without regard to firm size or location, and has enabled rapid communication worldwide (Kay, 1996).

Another issue that has sparked people's interest in starting a business is the "glass ceiling," often regarded as a gender issue. Often women are not able to rise beyond a certain level within the corporate environment. To fully realize their potential, they choose to start their own businesses (Chun, 1998).

These reasons for growth are predicted to continue and to drive the increasing numbers of individuals starting a business. At the same time, however, many businesses fail or do not achieve the success needed to continue a growing economy. Success, measured simply by staying in business, is an elusive goal for many entrepreneurs.

Research indicates that as many as 60% of all small businesses fail within 5 years of start up (Case, 1996; Kirchoff, 1993). One way to increase business success rates has been through education and training (Danco, 1994; Ede, Calcich, & Panigrahi, 1998; Jenkins & Jenkins, 1997; Luisser, 1995; Robinson & Sexton, 1994; Sage, 1993). Education can reduce mistakes that are costly in terms of both time and money (Hatten, 1997).

One obvious source for such education is higher education. Entrepreneurial courses and programs have experienced a huge growth in numbers (Block & Stumpf, 1992; Gartner & Vesper, 1993, Vesper & Gartner, 1997). Today, as many as 1,000 two- and four-year colleges and universities offer formal entrepreneurship programs, up from only 50 in 1975 (Vesper, 1993; White & Shank, 1999).

For a variety of reasons, though, many students do not have an opportunity to take entrepreneurship courses while in college. Business colleges report that classes are filled to capacity with their own students and many have substantial prerequisites for enrollment. Thus a non-business student has limited opportunities to get this training while in college (Stanforth and Muske, 1999).

Cooperative Extension has long assisted the home and micro business owner as well as rural and community development through educational programs. These programs have responded to the needs of the business owner (Burns, 1994). The Extension programs in each of 40 states have a designated person to oversee micro business development. For future planning, it is important that the Cooperative Extension Service look at prospective demand for entrepreneurship education.

This paper discusses the entrepreneurial intentions and continuing business education needs of the non-business student. Do these students see themselves as future entrepreneurs? Do they anticipate that they will need educational support beyond college courses, such as those offered by Cooperative Extension's non-formal education programs? If so, what programs does this group anticipate needing? Such information will be useful in the development and planning of Extension programs and outreach efforts as we enter the new millennium.

Method

Students in non-business classes in two Land Grant universities completed a self-administered questionnaire. The questionnaire included questions regarding the students' continuing education plans for business management classes. Students were asked what subject content they would be interested in taking through some form of continuing education. The choice of subject matters was derived from Duke's (1996) study. Demographic information included the respondent's major, year in school, family experience with entrepreneurship, age, and gender.

The study discussed here has two limitations that affect its applicability. The most important is that the survey measured intended behaviors, that is, what students were planning to do. Many factors may cause their actual behavior to differ. For example, students who now are planning to become entrepreneurs may never achieve that goal, and others who did not consider entrepreneurship may indeed end up owning a business. Entrepreneurial ventures are often unplanned (Jenkins & Jenkins, 1997).

A second limitation is that students were from two universities and primarily from two colleges within those universities. Thus the results may not be applicable to all areas of the country and across other colleges even within the same university.

Having noted these limitations, the authors nonetheless believe that their findings have implications for future Extension programming.

Results

Three hundred eighty-three students completed the questionnaire. The majority were female (68.1%). A variety of majors were represented, with 43.9% from Human Environmental Sciences and 38.9% Agriculture, for a total of 82.8% from these two areas. The majority (76.2%) were 20 years of age or younger (Table 1).

Nearly half of the respondents (46.6%) indicated that their families owned a business, which included ownership of farms and ranches. Forty percent indicated that their fathers owned a business, while 16.4% indicated that their mothers owned a business. The other businesses were jointly owned or held in some other form of business structure.

Twenty four percent of the respondents said they are definitely going to open their own business some time during their lifetime. An additional 60% indicated they might start a business. These two groups were considered the prospective entrepreneurs in this study.

As might be expected, the needs of the potential entrepreneurs differed significantly from those who did not see themselves becoming business owners. Among the prospective entrepreneurs, students anticipated most needing education in small business financing, basic accounting, and business growth. However, there was not a great deal of difference with each course being listed by 32% to 40% of the respondents. Students were least interested in personnel management and retailing (both at 32%) (Table 2). Ten percent of the students overall said they would be taking all of the listed courses.

Women and men did not differ significantly in seeing themselves as becoming entrepreneurs. In examining the responses according to college major, only in the agriculture college did men and women differ significantly (c2=12.8588, p=.00161). This finding might be expected because male students majoring in agriculture are more likely to return to a family farm than are female students. Men and women potential entrepreneurs did not differ, however, in their perceived future educational needs.

Continuing Education Needs	Percent Who Anticipate Taking
Small Business Financing	39.8
Basic Accounting	39.7
Growth	38.9
Small Business Start-Up	38.9
Small Business Management	38.2
Small Business Planning	38.2
Entrepreneurship	36.9
Marketing	35.4
Personnel Management	32.8
Retailing	32.5

Discussion

Continued economic expansion depends on successful small business owners. One important factor to that success has been education and training. In a 1999 survey of its members, the Oklahoma Home-Based Business Association found that the primary need of the membership was for information. The top four topics included marketing, taxes, financial resources, and record keeping (Muske, 1999). The students in this study expressed similar needs to current business owners.

Today's college student represents a future audience for small business courses already offered by state Extension Services. Support of small business owners, both potential and existing, will remain an important focus for the Cooperative Extension Service. The potential audience includes today's owners and tomorrow's potential owners. The programs will include business development efforts as well as programs that allow the owner to keep up with today's rapidly changing environment. Education is a life-long requirement, becoming a necessity in the development and maintenance of a successful business enterprise (Roth, 1996).

Cooperative Extension small business programs can build on three advantages.

• First, Extension has always, and will continue, to provide programs to outlying areas. Our programs represent one of the few rural opportunities for continuing education. In many rural areas, Cooperative Extension programs already provide local business owners with updates and information. Extension professionals who live in the area become uniquely qualified to identify and address local needs and issues.
• Second, Extension is typically well known and respected for its ability to provide nonbiased, timely, valuable information. Extension professionals have the ability to draw information from top university researchers making them unique sources for small rural businesses.
• Third--and extremely important from the perspective of the small business owner--Extension has ability to provide very directed and specific information. Small business owners focus on very specific issues. When attending a workshop, they want the information provided quickly, and they want it to the point. Extension professionals understand because they work with that perspective on a daily basis.

References

Ashmore, C. (1996). Starting at the top. Vocational Education Journal, 71(4): 35-38.

Batory, S. S., & Batory, A.H. (1997). A gender analysis of potential entrepreneurs: Their motivation to be self employed and actual self-concept. Edward Lowe Foundation.

Berns, R. G. (1991) Entrepreneurship in the year 2000. Vocational Education Journal, 66(2): 44.

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Case, J. (1996). The dark side. Inc, 18(7): 80-81.

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