Cooperative Extension (CE) resources, including publications, must be focused on the highest priority programmatic needs. Critical decisions regarding publications include deciding what publications to write, the cost of production, and the publication's support of program needs. Like all Extension materials, publications need to be accurate, appropriate for the intended audience, and of high quality. Periodic review of publications in print is needed to insure accuracy in light of current information.

In California it is believed that these standards are necessary for a respected and vital CE publication program. With increasing pressure on Extension staff and their budgets, addressing these is more important than ever.

In the past, development of most California CE publications by the Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources internal publication unit required several reviews and approvals to ensure the publications were of high quality. Even with these reviews, however, the publication process was often ignored by potential authors because of slow production, unavailability of specialists in specific areas, unclear decision making (determining which publication to print), and basic unfamiliarity with the process.

As a result, the vigor of the publications production system in California CE had declined to the point where many authors had simply stopped using it. Instead, many authors were using desktop publishing and outside sources to produce publications on their own. While this trend made it easier for people to publish and distribute Extension materials, CE review and approval of these publications was inconsistent, despite the fact that many carried the University banner.

In 1993, the vice president of the Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, which includes Cooperative Extension, recognized the problem with CE publications and appointed an ad hoc committee of CE and external members to address it. This committee, through a facilitated process, addressed the entire communications need of the Division. One of the committee's major recommendations was creation of a complete communications unit by bringing the Publications group together with Visual Media and Agriculture Communications. Another recommendation was to establish a communications advisory board to advise the newly created unit.

A significant part of the ad hoc committee's work was the development of a more structured publication review process with the goal of ensuring quality publications that meet high priority program needs of the division. However, it was important that this review process not overburden division staff. The committee members also recognized the need to reward authors and reviewers for using and supporting the review system.

The key to the new peer review system is the associate editors who are program-based CE Specialists, Agriculture Experiment Station faculty, or county CE advisors. They are appointed for three-year terms in specific program areas such as natural resources, human development, pomology, 4-H Youth Development, and Spanish language materials, for example. There are 13 overall. They manage anonymous peer review and approve publications and other educational materials such as video or slide set scripts based on programmatic need.

The review can be of several levels, depending on the scope of the material. For example, one- to four-page publications are reviewed by one or two reviewers. More reviewers see lengthier publications. When publications are multidisciplinary, reviewers from other disciplines are also included. When appropriate, two or more associate editors work together with one taking the lead in the review process. Once the reviews are completed, the associate editor has the authority to approve, ask for revision, or reject the manuscript.

The focus of associate editors is on accuracy, appropriateness, and programmatic acceptance. They do not have to deal with issues of layout, style, or grammar. When the review is completed, the associate editor sends the manuscript to the Communications Services unit for editing, design, production and distribution.

In some cases, an ad hoc associate editor who deals only with a specific publication can be appointed. In this way, an individual familiar with the subject can spend the time necessary to coordinate review of a large publication, especially one by multiple authors.

When developing this new review process, it was recognized that many people had gone outside the system for publication editing, design and printing, especially when extramural funds were available. In the new review process, this is still allowed. The associate editors manage the review of these manuscripts and, once accepted, turn them back to the author to produce outside the university system. Nonetheless, these are still University of California publications. They receive a division publication number, are indexed in the publications catalog, and can receive other marketing efforts as appropriate.

In the effort to capitalize on success, the communications advisory board can also approve alternate review processes such as those that had been in use prior to the development of the associate editor process. For example, the 4-H Program's curriculum committee looks at 4-H curriculum needs and reviews materials for appropriateness for 4-H. The communications advisory board approved this process because it met the overall goal of anonymous peer review of materials. This support of existing review processes has helped keep people engaged in and supportive of the new review effort.

Once the technical review of publications is established, the resource issue must be addressed: which publications to publish. The communications advisory board and editorial staff determined the total number of manuscript pages the Communications Services unit could handle in a year. Each associate editor was then given an allotment -- known as a page block -- which consisted of a certain number of manuscript pages that they can approve for publication per year. This forces the associate editors to make priority decisions about which publications to publish. The associate editors have been encouraged to and are working with local program groups to help them make those decisions. Proposals for major publications (larger than 225 manuscript pages) require greater resources and are approved by the advisory board using its page block. After this approval, the manuscripts are sent through peer review by the appropriate associate editor(s).

The new review process has been in place for about four years and, by almost all accounts, is working well. The associate editors are well engaged with program staff and decisions are being made according to publication quality and program priorities. There has definitely been a resurgence in large publication activity, which is attributed at least partially to the associate editors' discussions with work groups and others to encourage and discuss publication needs for Extension programs. In addition, because of the page block process, authors have a better sense of when their publications will be done.

Another important consequence is that existing publications and materials are being cyclically reviewed for accuracy. This cyclical review solves a long-standing problem because once publications were completed they were often never looked at again. Associate editors have the responsibility for all publications within their program areas, including deciding which to continue. They are also able to deal with publications needing revision in cases where authors have left or are no longer available. They have the authority to remove a publication from circulation or ask others to revise it as necessary.

This review process breathed fresh air into the publications program in the Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources in California. Its implications are tremendous. Not only has it improved authors' desire to work on written publications, but they are also now contributing to publications for the WWW and for other media such as video, slide tapes, and computer programs. The fact that the publications are peer-reviewed through an editorially managed process gives authors more personal incentive to write because the peer-reviewed publications look better for their merit and promotion package.

Work groups and other groups of Extension and Agriculture Experiment Station staff are taking more interest and ownership in publications within their program areas because they have responsibility and control. They are deciding when publications need to be discontinued and are working together to write new publications or other material.

One of the most important results of the associate editor review process is the demonstrated commitment by CE administration in the development of quality publications. This has also energized the Communication Services staff and brought them more closely into the programs of CE.

The associate editor review process was a major change that substantially turned around the publications program. It is resulting in more and higher quality publications that truly serve the needs of CE. The system is relatively inexpensive to operate and is driven at the programmatic level. It is not perceived as, nor is it, a major bureaucratic step that authors have to go through. There are some rough spots but already issues about how publications money is expended, why the process is what it is, and whether it meets program needs, are all being addressed by the associate editors. The system may sound complex, but it has worked.

The authors want to thank the Communications Ad Hoc Review Committee for their hard work, dedication, and foresight in developing the editorial review process. They also thank Ann Senuta and Sydni Gillette for reviewing early drafts of this manuscript.

Since the 1970s, business retention and expansion (R&E) programs have comprised an important component of economic development work in many communities throughout the U.S. Initiatives aimed at keeping businesses in a community, and in facilitating ways for them to expand, have been shown to be extremely effective economic development tools, as compared to efforts at attraction of new industry. Studies have shown that approximately 80% of new jobs are created by firms already located within a community (Kraybill, 1995). The formalized R&E program in particular has been demonstrated to be successful in helping communities to achieve their economic goals (Smith, Morse, and Lobao, 1992). The purpose of this article is to describe the standard R&E program as it has been applied in Ohio and how this program has been adapted recently, with a specific look at the experience in Portage County.

Extension educators have a substantial history of involvement with R&E, which has constituted one of the core segments of Extension community development programming over the past two decades. Ohio State University Extension began development of an R&E program in 1977, and in 1986 entered into a 10-year partnership with the Ohio Department of Development to conduct R&E programs in communities throughout the state (Rohrer, 1998). Between 1986 and 1995, a total of 65 communities in Ohio completed an R&E program.

Each program is initiated by community members, usually a mix of business and civic leaders, who submit an application and then attend a one-day workshop conducted by a team of Extension specialists. A local R&E task force is established and an individual selected as coordinator. The coordinator's responsibilities include laying out a time line and checking to see that all parts of the program are completed in accordance with it.

At the center of the program is a series of volunteer visits by members of the task force to a number (usually between 50 and 70) of businesses. The primary objective of the visits is to ascertain from business representatives their concerns in continuing to do business in the community as well as what they see as barriers to expansion.

Businesses may be targeted on the basis of several criteria, including size, perceived likelihood of leaving the community or expanding within it, type of business, and location within the community. Since most R&E programs are undertaken at the county level, it is usually appropriate to include task force representation and businesses visited from across a wide geographic range in order to ensure strong community support. Some communities choose to restrict visits to businesses of one type, such as manufacturing, retail, or tourism-related. Volunteers receive training about how to conduct interviews with the representatives of the firms they visit.

Once the visits are complete, a series of action planning sessions is held, where issues are discussed. Task force members, in consultation with Extension specialists, prepare a final report, which includes recommendations for future work designed to address the concerns expressed by employers. The final report is released at a widely advertised public meeting, with community and business leaders invited. Typically, this meeting is well covered by local media and serves as an important focal point for the community's economic development efforts. From inception to completion, the average length of an R&E program is 12-18 months.

In the early 1990s, as the national economy was struggling, many communities were eager to sign up for the R&E program. OSU's capacity limits were constantly reached, with five new programs established every six months. As the economic recovery, starting in 1992, turned into a nationwide economic expansion in the mid-1990s, fewer communities expressed interest. As the national unemployment rate fell from more than 9% in 1991 to less than 5% in 1996, the goals of many community leaders began to change.

This was particularly true in many areas of Northeast Ohio, where unemployment rates dropped to around 3%. Many business leaders began expressing concerns that they were unable to find labor to meet existing needs. At the same time, numerous civic leaders were expressing concerns about the effect that continued growth was having on communities, such as urban sprawl. In such an environment, discussion of expanding businesses seemed inappropriate to many. The number of communities applying to the program continued to dwindle, until what had been the most active Extension Community Development program was, by 1997, virtually nonexistent.

At about this time, however, several members of previous R&E task forces from throughout the state began calling Extension offices for assistance. In Portage County, task force members made it clear that they were not interested in duplicating or repeating the R&E program done in 1993-94, but rather in conducting some applied research in follow-up to that program.

As in many R&E programs, the Portage County report placed a great deal of emphasis on labor force development. The report noted that it appeared likely that finding employees with adequate job skills would pose a significant challenge for businesses in the future. The report included the following recommendations:

• Addressing the issue of employee/employer training programs
• Creating an organization to follow this issue
• Considering industry training programs at the local vocational school (Maplewood JVS)
• Conducting research to identify the specific educational/vocational training needs that employers state exist for their current and prospective employees.

In 1997, Portage County Task Force members requested that Ohio State University Extension assist them in conducting a survey of businesses in the county in order to follow up on the recommendations that had been produced in the final report. Specifically, the members wished to examine employers' views on labor force preparedness and educational/vocational needs in the community. The survey developed was designed to (a) measure employers' views of employee skills and attitudes, and (b) determine whether these views varied significantly based upon factors such as wage rates and opportunities for advancement within the firms.

A mail survey was designed following techniques described by Dillman (1978) and sent to 176 manufacturing businesses in January 1998. Letters accompanying the surveys were addressed to the president or general manager of each of the firms including the 65 firms that had been visited in 1994.

Respondents were presented with a series of statements and asked to respond on a Likert scale, with 1=strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3=uncertain, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. Next, respondents were asked to provide some information about their employees such as beginning wage rates, length of employment with the firm, and average length of commute. Respondents were asked to restrict their consideration to production line employees, as opposed to management employees or secretarial staff.

Initially, 34 firms responded with usable completed surveys. A second mailing was conducted among non-respondents that yielded another 19 usable surveys. A third mailing resulted in an additional 9 responses, bringing the total number of usable surveys to 62, for an overall response rate of 35%. In order to account for non-response bias, an assumption was made that late respondents were similar to non-respondents (Miller and Smith, 1983). The responses to the first mailing (early respondents) were compared with those obtained from the second and third mailings. F tests were used with criteria p<.10 to compare means for all of the variables examined in the study. No statistical difference was found at this level, indicating that at the 90% level of confidence, non-response bias was not evident in this study.

Table 1 contains the summaries of the responses on the Likert scale statements.

The results show that respondents believe that neither current employees nor new hires are adequately trained in mathematics. Not a single respondent strongly agreed with either of the first two statements concerning math skills. But a significant difference was found in the evaluation of employees and new applicants, indicating that new applicants' math skills are well below the expectations of employers.

The statements on written communications revealed that employers are not satisfied with the skills employees have in this area either. Again, applicants were rated lower than current employees.

Half of the respondents stated that their firms offered training opportunities in math to their employees. However, a substantial number of respondents did not circle any response on this (16 of 62, or 26% of the sample). This indicates that there is some unwillingness either to recognize training opportunities or to reveal information on these opportunities on the survey.

Technical training was offered by 85% of the firms, and approximately 75% stated that employees have access to local vocational training relevant to their job skills.

Relatively high percentages of respondents believe that employees understand instructions on the job, have opportunities for advancement, are involved in decision making on ways to improve their job, and have a positive work ethic.

The findings also reveal that the outlook for labor demand in the community will remain high. Only seven firms indicated they had to lay off employees in the six months prior to the administration of the survey, while 43 were in the process of seeking employees to expand production. These results, along with local trends demonstrating continued decreases in the unemployment rate (Ohio Department of Development, 1999) indicate that the tightness in the labor market is likely to continue, and that the challenge of finding skilled labor in the community will only become more severe in the future.

A set of statistical tests was used in order to determine whether factors such as wage rates and opportunities for advancement within the firm influenced employers' perceptions of the skill levels or work ethic of employees. Not a single one of these revealed a statistically significant association (F, p<.10), indicating that the results appear to be similar across the entire spectrum of production jobs in the county.

The history of the R&E program in Ohio demonstrates a few important lessons for Extension educators. Foremost among these is that the demand for Extension programs is cyclical in nature. Regarding R&E specifically, clientele interest tends to be higher when the economy is weak. As economic growth proceeds and unemployment falls, the demand for the traditional R&E program declines, but requests for technical assistance from clientele relating to issues addressed in the R&E programs previously completed continue to be significant.

Extension educators need to be aware of how changes in economic conditions in their communities contribute to changes in program needs. As a supplier of programming resources, they must recognize changes in clientele needs, and adapt their programs to meet those needs. The result of this should be an on-going program evaluation process designed to supply the type of program desired by clientele at any given time. In the case of Portage County's R&E program, the 1998 survey of businesses on labor force development served an important function in taking R&E to this next level, with a highly structured and extremely successful program being adapted to meet current, narrowly defined objectives.

Since many of the R&E task forces that were formed in the 1980s and 90s are still in place, Extension educators have opportunities to access a clientele base in order to offer support to assist communities in achieving their goals. This is critical, because the future well being of the community, and eventually the nation, is at stake. In this particular example, one sees a situation where the labor force in general is not meeting the expectations of employers. Moreover, employers state that the problem is even worse for new hires and applicants than for those already employed. This phenomenon is not localized (Fenn, 1996). As the economy of the U.S. continues to become more linked with the world wide economy, the competitiveness of the American work force will have a major impact upon the standard of living of the country. It is highly appropriate for community development professionals to play a role in this issue.

In Portage County, the development of a community partnership of community educators, business leaders, and elected officials was recommended to find solutions to the problems of deficient skills of labor force participants. Based upon the survey results, resources for improved training are available locally. Business leaders, in conjunction with elected officials and community educators, must explore ways to encourage their employees to take advantage of these opportunities in order to improve their skills. An environment where life long learning is cultivated and rewarded must be created.

A partnership designed to achieve these objectives needs to be formalized in order to be effective. In Canada, labor force development boards have emerged in the 1990s in order to bridge training gaps such as those identified in this study (Sharpe & Haddow, 1997). The creation of these boards represents an innovation that appears to be cutting edge. Promotion of these organizations locally offers an excellent opportunity for Extension as it continues to strive to be pro-active in economic development issues in the future. Directing Extension resources away from traditional R&E programs and into the creation and facilitation of labor force development boards is an appropriate step in taking R&E to the next level.

Dillman, D.A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Fenn, D. (1996, August). Benchmark: The growing labor challenge. Inc. Magazine.

Kraybill, D.S. (1995). Retention and expansion first: An investment of resources in existing businesses reaps top-ranking job growth. Ohio's Challenge, 7(1), 4-7.

Miller, L.E., & K.E. Smith. (1983). Handling non-response issues. Journal of Extension, 21 (Sept/Oct).

Ohio Department of Development, Office of Strategic Research, (1999). Columbus: 1998 Estimates of Ohio's population, cities and villages, counties, and state.

Rohrer, J.D. (1998). The practitioner-educator in community economic development. The Gazebo: Community Development Newsletter, Ohio State University Extension, 1(2), 1-8.

Sharp, A., & Haddow, R. (1997). Social partnerships for training: Canada's experiment with labour force development boards. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.

Smith, T.R., Morse, G.W., & Lobao, L.M., (1992). Measuring impacts of business retention and expansion visitation programs. Journal of the Community Development Society, 23(1), 123-143.

More than three dozen state Cooperative Extension organizations have launched, or soon will, the MONEY 2000 program as a method to increase the financial well-being of consumers. The objective of MONEY 2000 is that participants will set a goal to increase savings and/or reduce debt by the end of the year 2000 or later (O'Neill, 1997). A goal of $2,000 of savings increase and/or debt reduction by December 31, 2000, is suggested.

MONEY 2000 was launched by Rutgers Cooperative Extension in New Jersey in 1996. New York also initiated a MONEY 2000 campaign in 1996. Other states have followed suit as the program has gained momentum. To date, more than 1,600 New Jersey participants have increased their net worth by about $3 million. Nationwide, about 8,000 participants are enrolled and have increased savings or reduced debt by over $5 million. MONEY 2000 is believed to be the only savings education program ever launched in the U.S. with a behavioral monitoring component over an extended period of time.

As the MONEY 2000 program has expanded, interest by state and national media and Extension stakeholders has increased. Common questions asked by reporters, Extension funding agencies, and administrators are "What are the characteristics of program participants?", and "Who are they and are they any different than the general adult population?"

This study was conducted to determine if there were any statistically significant differences between MONEY 2000 participants and others interested in personal finance with respect to five demographic characteristics and various financial behaviors. Data for this study were collected at three all-day MONEY 2000 conferences held in the New York metropolitan area in November 1997. The sample consists of 124 MONEY 2000 program participants and 101 others who attended one of the sessions.

A convenience sample of 248 conference participants completed questionnaires for this study at three conference sites in two states. Incentives were used to encourage participation. Of those responding, 23 did not indicate whether or not they were a MONEY 2000 participant, thereby reducing the number of usable surveys for this analysis to 225. Slightly more than half (55.1%) of respondents were enrolled in MONEY 2000 at the time the data were collected. Demographic data about the sample are as follows:

Clearly, this is a more affluent sample than national averages, with two-thirds of respondents earning more than $45,000, compared to a 1997 national median income of $37,005 (Schlesinger, 1998). It is also more highly educated, with 64% of respondents holding a 4-year college degree or higher, compared with 23.6% of all Americans ("Statistical Abstract," 1997), and over 90% with some post-high school education. Ethnicity and marital status, on the other hand, more closely track national averages and, like the country as a whole, there is a large block of middle-aged baby boomers in the 34-44 and 45-54 age categories.

The one thing all respondents had in common was an interest in personal finance. Everyone devoted a Saturday to attend one of the conferences and, in some cases, drove a distance to get there. In the larger sampling frame of 248 respondents, the primary reasons given for attending the conference were interest in workshop topics (36.7%), desire to increase savings (36.3%), desire to reduce debt (22.6%), interest in hearing the keynote speaker (12.9%), and other (12.9%). These percentages exceed 100% because multiple responses were given to this question.

Chi-square analyses were conducted to determine if differences exist between MONEY 2000 participants and others interested in personal finance with respect to age, ethnicity, education, income, and marital status. Chi-square is a nonparametric test used as a measure of association between categorical variables. It is a test of independence used to either accept or reject the null hypothesis that there are no significant differences between an observed number and an expected number of responses falling in each category. The null hypothesis for this study was that there is no difference between MONEY 2000 participants and others with respect to the five demographic characteristics.

A second analysis was conducted to determine if differences exist between MONEY 2000 participants and others with respect to 11 items that describe actions taken or planned to manage personal finances. These items were based on the transtheorethical model of behavior change (Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross, 1992).

The premise of this theory is that self-change is a gradual process that occurs in defined stages based on an individual's readiness to change. The model is called transtheoretical because it has been shown that individuals appear to move predictably from stage to stage. Specific theories or treatment methods are applicable at different stages of the change process. The six stages of change are: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and termination. Each stage entails certain mental and even physical changes to be completed.

Prochaska et al (1992) have developed an assessment method using statements about whether and when behavioral change is planned. Additionally, there seem to be specific teaching or facilitating strategies that may be employed at different stages that assist an individual in moving to the next level of readiness for change (Prochaska, Norcross, & DiClemente, 1994, Bristow, 1997). The rationale for studying differences with respect to readiness for change is that enrollment in MONEY 2000 involves a commitment toward personal behavior change. MONEY 2000 participants may be in the action stage of change while those not enrolled may at the contemplation or preparation stages.

The final test in this study was done to determine if differences exist between MONEY 2000 participants and others with respect to 20 items that describe current financial practices. Again, the null hypothesis was that there was no difference between MONEY 2000 participants and other respondents.

Of the 36 tests performed to address the research questions listed above, only three were shown to be statistically significant: two items pertaining to actions taken or planned and one current financial practice item. As indicated in Table 2, there were no statistically significant differences found between MONEY 2000 participants and other conference attendees with respect to four of the five demographic characteristics noted above. The test for ethnicity was also not significant but over half of the cells had counts less than 5, making chi-square an unreliable test.

Eleven tests were done to determine differences in readiness for behavioral change between MONEY 2000 participants and other respondents. For each of the 11 items that were tested, respondents were asked to indicate, on a five-part Likert-type scale, whether a specific financial management task (such as making a spending plan) was not a problem/challenge or had been addressed previously, action was taken to address the issue within the last six months, action was planned within the next month, action was planned within the next six months, or no action/change was planned.

Two items were statistically significant at the .05 level of significance: investing funds wisely (x2 = 11.462, DF = 4, p = .022) and setting financial goals and objectives (x2 = 11.299, DF = 4, p = .023). The latter is not surprising, since setting a personal savings and/or debt reduction goal is a feature of MONEY 2000 and requested of participants upon enrollment. Deciding to enroll in MONEY 2000 and commit to the establishment of a financial goal is an action step toward behavioral change.

Of the 218 respondents who completed the question on investing, 50 of 123 (40.7%) MONEY 2000 participants and 31 of 95 (32.6%) others indicated that investing wisely was not a problem or that they had taken action within the past six months to address this issue. Another 48 (39%) and 56 (58.9%) of MONEY 2000 participants and others, respectively, planned behavioral changes within one or six months.

Of the 216 respondents who completed the question on goal-setting, 57 of 120 (47.5%) MONEY 2000 participants and 28 of 96 (29.2%) others indicated that setting financial goals was not a problem or that they had taken action within the past six months. Interestingly, 47 (39.2%) of MONEY 2000 participants said they planned to take action within the next one or six months, although presumably they had done this upon enrollment.

Perhaps this response indicated a desire to further define or change a previously-set MONEY 2000 objective. Another possibility is that participants may have entered the program before they were ready to set an initial financial goal. Of the other respondents not participating in MONEY 2000, 58 (60.4%) planned to set financial goals within six months. According to the transtheoretical model of change, these individuals are in the preparation stage of behavioral change.

Table 3 contains the chi-square statistics for the 11 behavioral change items. The scale used for responses to these items was based on previous empirical studies of the transtheoretical model of behavior change (Prochaska et al, 1992, 1994), which has been tested extensively for behavioral change related to weight loss, smoking cessation, and substance abuse. Recently, this model has been suggested for use in studying changes in financial management behavior (Kerkman, 1998, Bristow, 1997).

The final analysis tested for differences between MONEY 2000 participants and others with respect to 20 common financial practices (for example, "I set financial goals"). Respondents were asked to indicate, using a five-part Likert-type scale, whether they performed these practices almost always, always, sometimes, seldom, or almost never. The only item that was statistically significant at the .05 level was "I pay more than the minimum due on credit card bills each month" (x2 = 10.562, DF= 4, p = .032). Of 119 MONEY 2000 participants who completed this item, 81 (68.1%) indicated "almost always" or "often", compared to 76 of 99 (76.8%) non-participants. The item "I set aside money for a retirement plan (e.g., IRA)" was significant at the .10 level of significance (x2 = 7.79, DF =4, p = .100).

Table 4 contains the chi-square statistics for the 20 items.

A second, more powerful, test called the Mantel-Haenszel chi-square was also used to study differences between MONEY 2000 participants and others. While chi-square tests for any differences between groups, the Mantel-Haenszel test looks for increasing or decreasing trends among categories of ordinal data. None of the significant differences reported above were significant at the .05 level using the Mantel-Haenszel test. This indicates that there was not a consistent pattern to the five responses, although there was a significant difference between the two groups.

The only item that tested significantly using Mantel-Haenszel chi-square was "I pay bills on time" (x2 = 3.880, DF = 4, p = .049). Fewer MONEY 2000 participants (83.5%) than others (91%) answered "almost always" or "often" to this item. Another item relating to action planned or taken regarding "Evaluating my financial situation" was significant at the .10 level of significance (x2 = 3.602, DF = 4, p = .058).

This study was conducted to determine whether or not significant differences exist between MONEY 2000 participants and other adults who indicated an interest in personal finance by attending a Cooperative Extension conference open to MONEY 2000 participants and the general public. While generalization of results is limited due to data that were drawn from a non-random sample in a small geographic area, MONEY 2000 participants in this study did not differ demographically from other adults interested in personal finance. Thus, there may be factors other than demographic differences which lead some individuals to enroll in a program such as MONEY 2000 while others do not. While this sample, as a whole, had relatively high incomes and educational levels, MONEY 2000 participants did not differ significantly from other respondents.

Where MONEY 2000 participants did differ significantly from others was in readiness to make behavior change, specifically actions taken and planned to invest wisely and set financial goals. For both investing wisely and goal-setting, a greater percentage of MONEY 2000 participants than others had taken action on these issues or indicated that they were not a problem. Conversely, more of the non-participants planned future behavioral changes related to investing and goal-setting. With respect to the question on goal-setting, the difference between the two groups of respondents is probably at least partially explained by the fact that setting a savings and/or debt reduction goal is an entrance requirement of the MONEY 2000 program.

For those coordinating MONEY 2000 outreach efforts, sensitivity to participants' readiness for behavioral change is important. Individuals in the preparation and action stages of change will probably be more attracted to enrollment in MONEY 2000 and utilization of educational services than others who are not ready for change. Continued marketing and outreach activities may reach those who have yet to realize the need to change, moving them to the contemplation stage. At that point, program delivery strategies such as seminars, newsletters, and Web sites can help these individuals decide that a change is in order, thus leading to the preparation stage.

Additional Extension programming covering investing and financial goal-setting is advisable to meet the needs of those with planned behavior changes (such as the purchase of stock) and those who have yet to realize the need to change (for example, set specific financial goals). In a previous study (O'Neill, 1998) utilizing the entire sampling frame, strong interest in investment topics and retirement planning was indicated by respondents. Joo and Garman (1998) also found these topics to be of greatest interest in a study of workplace financial education needs.

The third behavior where there was a significant difference between MONEY 2000 participants and others was paying more than the minimum due on credit cards. The higher percentage of non-participants than MONEY 2000 enrollees repaying more than the minimum due on debts is not surprising since debt reduction is a stated objective of MONEY 2000. Persons experiencing financial difficulty may have enrolled in MONEY 2000 as a way to address this concern. It is also possible that those motivated to join MONEY 2000 are in more serious financial difficulty than those who have not enrolled.

On the other hand, similar low percentages of respondents in both groups said they "seldom" or "almost never" pay more than the minimum due. This indicates that a majority of those sampled were taking action to accelerate debt repayment. Results of the Mantel-Haenszel chi-square indicated significant differences with respect to paying bills on time. A high percentage of respondents in both groups met their obligations in a timely manner, however, indicating that this personal finance behavior has already been addressed.

This study is the first empirical investigation of participants in the MONEY 2000 program and how they compare with others interested in personal finance. Clearly, there are complex issues involved in changing personal financial management behaviors and this study has only begun to address them. With increasing numbers of Extension personnel involved in the MONEY 2000 program, questions about the characteristics of program participants are more likely from media, stakeholders, and potential participants. Results of this study can help answer questions posed by interested parties and inform future personal finance education initiatives.

The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Tebbie Clift and Martha Shortlidge for assistance with the collection of data and the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences for their financial support of this study through the 1997 Ruth O'Brien Project Grant.

Bristow, B. J. (1997). Promoting financial well-being: Running a successful MONEY 2000 campaign. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Cooperative Extension.

Joo, S. & Garman, E.T. (1998). Workers want more than retirement education at their workplace: A report of findings. Personal Finances and Worker Productivity, 2(2), 156-161.

Kerkman, B.C. (1998). Motivation and stages of change in financial counseling: An application of a transtheoretical model from counseling psychology. Financial Counseling and Planning, 9(1), 13-20.

O'Neill, B. (1998). Yes, Americans can save, and smart employers can help. Personal Finances and Worker Productivity, 2(1), 59-67.

O'Neill, B. (1997). MONEY 2000: A model for personal finance employee education. Personal Finances and Worker Productivity, 1(1), 76-80.

Prochaska, J., Norcross, J., & Diclemente, C. (1994). Changing for good. New York: Avon Books.

Prochaska, J., DiClemente, C., & Norcross, J. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist, 47, 1102-1114.

Schlesinger, J. (1998, Sept. 25). Finally, U.S. median income approaches old heights. The Wall Street Journal, p. B1.

Statistical Abstract of the United States 1997 (1997). Washington DC: U.S. Department of Commerce.

To succeed in business, decision makers must keep abreast of the continuously changing wants and needs of clientele, and motivate them to purchase their product. While Extension does not market tangible goods, the products we deliver are educational programs and services. The information we purvey is intended to increase customers' knowledge and ability to make informed decisions, and improve their lives. Given this significant role, can Extension staff be any less informed about client needs and wants than business? Can we afford to be any less sophisticated than business in motivating clients to take advantage of what we offer? Probably not, but identifying constituents' needs and motivating them to attend an educational program is a formidable challenge.

Defining the wants and needs of their customer base was an important priority for counties in the Quad Cities Extension Cluster. Historically, the group had classified agricultural customers in broad terms as livestock producers (beef, dairy, pork or other species) and as crop producers (wheat, hay, corn or soybeans). Recognizing that farming operations today are becoming increasingly specialized and complex, Extension personnel determined to change strategies to meet these new realities. For example, mailing lists used for advertising educational programs were usually general and not defined enough to do targeted mailings. As a result attendance at educational programs was declining annually even though current issues important to agriculture were being discussed. Two questions raised by staff were:

• Do we as extension personnel know enough about our customer to compete with other providers of educational information?

• Do we really know the wants and needs of our customer for educational information?

To answer the above two questions, a group of Extension personnel from the Quad Cities Extension Cluster began a collaborative effort to develop a tool for profiling customers. The Customer Profile requested information in the following areas:

• Demographics
• Enterprise(s)
• Preferred methods of receiving information
• Business management practices
• Major sources of information used in making management decisions

The Customer Profile was administered at all agricultural related meetings. Data was entered into a database management program. The program development process was greatly enhanced as a result of the utilization of this tool. We now had the capability to analyze the wants and needs of our customer, a basic building block to developing strategies to build client desire to attend educational programs.

Staff felt that motivation to attend Extension programs is fostered by addressing the current issues facing agricultural producers. The Profile is a perfect vehicle for soliciting unbiased information on the current issues, and anticipating future challenges. It also facilitates clarification of or honing in on current issues through the administration of random surveys. This is especially useful for planning groups such as Extension Councils and their program sub-committees. Targeting producers with certain enterprises is another means of identifying program needs especially when that particular group is not represented on the Extension Council.

The ability to develop effective marketing strategies is another key benefit of utilizing the Customer Profile. Target marketing is possible, for example, as it is designed to ascertain the nature of a farm operation. Staff can identify producers that have a cow-calf operation, farrow to finish, grow corn or soybeans, or combinations of any of the categories included on the profile. As a result we can query the database and disseminate information only to those producers who would benefit from it. Recently we honored a request for a targeted mailing to cow-calf producers.

In addition, information derived from the profile can be used to assist Extension staff in making decisions about where to offer programs. For example, if one county in the group has the largest populations of beef finishers, the program designed for that audience would be offered there with other producers from surrounding areas invited to attend. A database query might also indicate that there is not a sufficient population within the multi-county group to offer any program to a specific targeted audience. If that is the case, a regional or statewide approach to programming might be considered. An important benefit of having the ability to understand the critical mass available for a particular educational programs and services results in more cost-effective and cooperative programming. Fiscal and human resources are efficiently deployed as counties or regions unite through joint programming efforts to reach targeted audiences.

Critical to effective marketing is understanding how customers prefer to receive information. Extension personnel can avoid costly mistakes made as a result of using a delivery method that is not likely to be user friendly. See (Table 1 ). The Profile revealed that a preferred method identified by producers for receiving information was reading. Based on this, our multi-county group developed a newsletter in 1995 designed to provide information about research based initiatives. Recent evaluation of this publication shows that the newsletter is an effective vehicle for disseminating research-based information.

TABLE 1

A zip code analysis provides information about areas of the county served and identifies undeserved areas. This enables us to focus attention on underrepresented geographic areas should the size of the population warrant it. Zip code analysis allows staff to tap into other databases available through outside sources. By using GIS software, we can plot the zip codes in our database to visualize physical distribution or demographic characteristics of populations living in a selected zip-code area.

A frequently overlooked marketing strategy in Extension is to gain knowledge of the competition. The Ag Profile has a section which provides the producers an opportunity to identify sources of information they rely on in making management decisions. (See Table 2 ).

TABLE 2

One fact apparent from Table 2 was that we had serious competition from chemical and seed dealers. As a result of this discovery, we decided to gain more information about the nature of the competition from seed dealers. A small survey has been sent to a random sample of the producers in the profile to acquire additional details. It is intended that the results will be utilized in future marketing and program planning efforts.

Increasingly, county-based Extension offices have been asked to provide stakeholders such as county boards and local funders with evidence that the money provided to Extension is a wise investment. As noted above, instruments such as the Customer Profile are important tools that enable us to develop a strong rationale for our existence. Staff members can report to supporters that they are making wise and cost effective decisions based upon data, rather that feelings or assumptions. Through targeted marketing, we can eliminate unnecessary materials and staff costs utilizing a multi-county approach to programming and better understanding of how our customers like to receive information.

We can also report to interested parties important information about the vitality of our operations. For example, information in our database shows us that we are not just serving the 60+ producers who have been our audience for years. The majority our clients are between 31-60 years of age. (See Table 3). Additionally, producers between

20 and 30 years of age are using Extension's programs and services. From this data, we can infer that we are successfully serving all age categories of producers, and not just the 60+ who may be soon retiring.

TABLE 3

As we move into the 21^st Century, we believe that increased demands will be made upon Extension by stakeholders, University administrations and other interested constituencies to justify its existence. Tools such as the Customer Profile will enable extension professional to successfully meet the challenge. As we have noted above enlightened decision making in the areas of program planning and development, marketing, stakeholder reporting, and developing measures of accountability can be the rule rather than the exception. Can we afford to ignore this opportunity?

Effective advisory committees are the cornerstone of relevant, quality Extension programs. Ineffective committees, on the other hand, undermine credibility and worth of Extension work and Extension personnel. It is important, therefore, to determine if Extension advisory committees fulfill the purpose for which they are established, namely helping Extension professionals plan and implement need-based education programs.

Published work on Extension advisory committees deals largely with suggestions based on staff experiences to ensure that committees are properly organized and managed. It is expected that if this happens, committees will be representative of community interests and perform in an effective manner. Research to verify this connection is non-existent, because establishing such a cause-effect relationship would be difficult and resource-intensive. The limited research that has been done on this subject is based on perceptions of individuals involved in advisory committees.

Three studies conducted in Louisiana are relevant. In a study involving agents and members associated with community resource development advisory committees, it was found that committees were effective in achieving their purposes and functions, and that committee performances of the several purposes and functions were highly correlated (Chauhan, 1984). A 1986 statewide census study of Extension agents determined that advisory committees were mostly used for program planning. Committees were not involved in program evaluation and only slightly involved in program execution.

Several weaknesses in committee performance were indicated including improper member orientation, inadequate member participation, and substantive procedural and technical insufficiencies (Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, 1986). Committees chaired by lay leaders were perceived to be more effective than those chaired by agents (Wegenhoft, 1986).

This study of the effectiveness of cotton Extension advisory committees in Louisiana was undertaken to complement research in this area and improve cotton Extension programming. Cotton is a major commodity grown in 22 parishes (counties) in Louisiana. Significant resources are devoted by the state Extension service to cotton programming and cotton advisory committees. Committee purposes and functions suggested by Pesson (1966) and the conventional Extension programming model were major concepts guiding the study.

Pesson proposed that Extension advisory committees serve several purposes. By involving representative lay people, advisory groups (a) accelerate educational change among the target clientele, (b) result in "better" program decisions than those made by Extension agents on their own, and (c) provide a beneficial learning experience. He maintained that advisory groups also have several useful functions: (a) giving advice to Extension professionals regarding programs (b) analyzing and interpreting the local situation to identify needs and problems, and (c) legitimizing and communicating program decisions among the community. Extension programming was conceptualized as advisory committee involvement in program planning, implementation, and evaluation.

The purpose of the study was to determine the overall effectiveness of cotton advisory committees as perceived by Extension agents and advisory committee members. Specific objectives were to determine the extent to which advisory committees (a) fulfilled committee purposes and functions, and (b) were involved in Extension programming.

Nineteen of the 22 parishes where cotton is grown in the state had functioning cotton advisory committees at the time of the study.

Two focus groups involving all 19 cotton Extension agents in the state and four focus groups with 21 advisory committee members were conducted. Forty-two members were invited to participate using appropriate invitation and follow-up procedures. Advisory committee members attending were cotton producers, cotton association representatives, and agricultural consultants in the cotton industry. Participating agents had an average of 21 years in Extension, and had worked in cotton and with cotton advisory committees for an average of 13 years. The mean age of advisory committee members was 53 and 75% had a college degree or some college. They had been producing cotton for an average of 24 years, and had used Extension programs and information for over 15 years.

Questions for both respondent types were focused on determining their perceptions on how well advisory committees met intended purposes and functions, and were involved in cotton programming. The questioning route enabled agents and members to respond to such questions as how committees were structured and had functioned, problems and needs faced by cotton producers, whether committees had contributed to members' knowledge and disseminated committee decisions to other producers, and how the advisory system could be improved.

Conventional protocols were followed to assure attendance and to moderate and tape record the interviews. Tape transcripts were analyzed to extract individual messages and summarize group comments. Committee member and agent perceptions were studied for themes and patterns within and across the two respondent types focused on the notions of committee purposes, committee functions, and committee involvement in programming.

Committee Purposes

Many members did not have a clear understanding of the intended purposes of advisory committees. The majority felt that the committee's main purpose was to identify problems and give the agent direction for Extension programs. A majority of agents held a similar view, indicating that the purpose of the committee was primarily problem identification and advisement.

Members felt their input influenced decision-making somewhat, but also admitted they were not aware of all the factors that determine the direction of educational programs. Agents, on the other hand, did not view advisory committees as significant in the final determination. Input from committee members guided program direction, but agents made the final decision.

Agents placed a high value on advisory committees for program acceptance by the community. While this was not the only factor in program acceptance, agents thought that strong advisory committees could positively affect the success of programs. Members, by contrast, did not view the advisory committee as being very important for program acceptance. They cited some excellent programs which were supported by the advisory committee but had poor participation from producers. They also gave examples of programs developed without input from the advisory committee that had broad participation. Members felt that program acceptance could be enhanced by using the advisory committee to assess producer attitudes and the parish situation.

Neither group viewed advisory committee work as an educational experience. Both groups expressed the belief that the primary purpose was advising and that other Extension activities were better suited to providing educational experiences.

Committee Functions

Agents viewed the advisory committee as being very important for advisement and legitimation. A dominant theme in the agent interviews was the use of committees to advise. The majority felt that this was the most important function of the committee. Most of them also felt that a major function of committees was to legitimize programs. Agents felt the committees were not able to interpret situations. Often, committees would identify problems and needs that could not be addressed by Extension, suggesting that committee members did not have a good understanding of the limits of Extension programming.

Members saw advisement as the primary function of committees. They felt that they understood the needs and problems of the cotton industry in terms of their local situations. They often recognized things the professional agent did not, and felt that in some situations they, as cotton producers, had more and better experience than agents. Overall, members viewed advisory committees as a source of support for agents and Extension programs.

Neither group emphasized the importance of the advisory committee in spreading information about programs or committee work. Members felt that lists of committee members should be publicized by them to increase communication among producers, agents, and members. The agents generally thought that communications about programs and committee actions should be handled by them. However, they realized the importance of key community leaders on advisory committees to enhance programs and foster acceptance.

Programming

Agents felt that planning and evaluation should be left to professionals. They thought that producers could play a part in initiating and implementing programs.

Members felt that education programs were informally evaluated by the level of producer participation. They felt that the advisory committee was a part of program planning, and that many members played major roles in implementation.

Both groups agreed that advisory committees were involved in programming through advisement and assisting with implementation. The agents strongly felt that the development of education programs should be the responsibility of the professional Extension educator.

Overall Effectiveness of Cotton Advisory Committees

Overall effectiveness of committees was judged by the extent to which agents and members perceived that the committees were meeting committee purposes, performing committee functions, and participating in the programming process. Overall member perceptions indicated a poor understanding of the advisory committee process but substantial involvement in many areas. Agents' perceptions indicated a good understanding of the process, but poor adoption of some of the component areas.

With regard to committee purpose, perceptions of both groups indicated that committee members had (a) strong involvement in decision-making, (b) weak involvement in program acceptance, and (c) no involvement in learning from participation in the process. With respect to committee functions, members had (a) strong involvement in advisement and legitimation, (b) weak involvement in communication, and (c) no involvement in interpretation. In programming, members had (a) strong involvement in implementation, (b) weak involvement in planning, and (c) no involvement in evaluation.

The following summary propositions are indicated with regard to overall committee effectiveness:

The process was effective in advising agents, assisting with decision making, and legitimizing and implementing programs.

For members, the process was not effective as an educational experience or for interpreting situations, and communicating decisions about programs.

Agents more than members perceived advisory committees to enhance program acceptance.

Members perceived that their input into program planning contributed to the development of effective programs, but agents did not subscribe to this view.

Members perceived their attendance at Extension programs as an effective form of evaluation, but agents felt that advisory committees had no effect on evaluation.

Advisory committee members have a good working relationship with Extension agents. They expressed positive support for cotton and other Extension programs.

Serving on committees was a positive experience for producers. Their knowledge and appreciation of other Extension programs had been enhanced. However, they expressed some concerns about committee work, including (a) the need for a more defined purpose, (b) a written agenda prior to meetings, (c) greater utilization of committee members in a liaison role between Extension and the agriculture community, and (d) better public awareness and recognition of advisory committee membership and activities.

Changing the committee structure to include all crops, not just cotton. The key to sustaining the system was the recruitment and involvement of young farmers.

1. Advisory committees strongly influence decision making related to Extension programming, have limited influence on program acceptance, and are not considered to be an educational experience by members or agents.

2. Committee members are strongly involved in advisement, have some involvement in legitimation and communication, but no involvement in interpretation related to the advisory committee process.

3. In the advisory committee process of programming, members have strong involvement in implementation, weak in planning, and none in evaluation.

4. Agents and committee members have a good working relationship. Members perceive serving on the advisory committee as a positive experience. Involvement is strong in some areas of the advisory committee process and nonexistent in others.

5. The parish advisory committee process should continue to function but is in need of change. Changes need to be made to increase producer involvement in the components of (a) educational experience, (b) interpretation, (c) planning, and (d) evaluation.

1. Establish one parish advisory committee to cover all crops, not just cotton. Due to the "freedom to farm" legislation included in the 1995 U.S. Department of Agriculture Farm bill, most producers now farm more than one crop and are apt to change crops from year-to-year. The establishment of all-crop advisory committees will allow for the changing of the agenda from year to year to best fit the needs of parish producers. This can be accomplished by merging existing commodity advisory committees and meeting with one overall committee prior to the growing season to discuss commodity selections that best fit the market situation for the upcoming year. Work of the committee could then be directed to address the problems and needs of commodities being grown that production season. Future farm legislation may make it necessary to revert back to commodity specific committees as needs change.

2. Bring about more effective representation and participation of a broad cross section of individuals involved in the agriculture industry, with particular attention given to including consultants, agribusiness, research personnel, and state specialists. This will strengthen the areas of program acceptance and communication. It will also provide additional assistance for agents in program planning. This can be accomplished by identifying leaders in all segments of the row crop agriculture industry and including them in committee membership.

3. Recruit and involve more young producers in the advisory committee process. This will nurture continuity of the process.

4. Train agents to increase their understanding of the advisory committee process and required volunteer leadership skills.

5. Improve agent management of the committee by (a) providing members with a written agenda and clearly-understood purpose for advisory meetings, (b) increasing public recognition of committee members, (c) maintaining one-on-one contact with members throughout the year, and (d) preparing and mailing out minutes of advisory committee meetings to all producers and others involved in the cotton industry.

Chauhan, M.S. (1984). Effectiveness of Extension CRD advisory committees as perceived by lay members and Extension professionals in Louisiana. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.

Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service (1986). Effectiveness of Extension advisory committees in the Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service: Perceptions of committee members and Extension agents. Baton Rouge: Author.

Pesson, L.L. (1966). Extension program planning with clientele participation. In H.C. Sanders (Ed.), The Cooperative Extension Service. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Wegenhoft, A.A. (1986). A comparison of agent perception of parish Extension advisory committees chaired by agents and by lay members. Unpublished master's thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.

The dramatic increase in the number and proportion of the elderly in the U.S. population is significantly impacting the American family. This trend is expected to continue well into the next century as the "baby boomers" enter the ranks of the old. Currently, an unprecedented number of individuals - two-to-three million by one estimate - are providing care for one or more aging family members (Stone, Cafferata, & Shangl, 1987).

More than half of family care giving is intergenerational; that is, adult children caring for aged parents (Olson, 1994). Among filial caregivers, perhaps those who experience the greatest stresses are those who care for parents who are victims of a dementia. Most often this is Alzheimer's Disease, a chronic condition characterized by a slowly progressive process that includes both cognitive and functional deterioration as well as a variety of behavioral disturbances. In this context, care giving for a loved one with dementia may be intense, stressful, and fraught with conflict.

The tasks shouldered by adult children caring for elderly parents with dementia are numerous and varied, and often change with the course of the dementing illness. Caregiving can include such activities as running errands, providing emotional support, managing disturbing behavior, and remaining ever-vigilant (Barber, Fisher & Pasley, 1990; Gold, Cohen, Shulman, Zucchero, Andres & Etezad, 1995). Given these overwhelming responsibilities, caring for loved ones with dementia is often associated with levels of depression, anxiety and anger, poorer self-reported health, as well as higher use of psychotropic drugs (Schulz, O'Brien, Bookwala, & Fleissner, 1995). As a result, family caregivers are often described as "hidden patients" in need of outside assistance and support aimed at improving their own health and well-being (Gallagher-Thompson, Coon, Rivera, Powers & Zeiss, 1998).

In response to the needs of family caregivers, researchers and service providers have been exploring a variety of interventions designed to help individuals adjust to and effectively cope with caregiving roles and situations. In fact, several informative reviews of these interventions and their effectiveness have been published in recent years (Bourgeois, Schulz & Burgio, 1996; Zarit & Teri, 1992). Although the evidence from these studies is inconclusive regarding the superiority of any single model or intervention, the research literature does identify several promising approaches.

Among these approaches are strategies aimed at increasing caregivers' abilities to manage effectively the stresses associated with caregiving within a family context. Part of this management process is aimed at achieving balance, wherein balance is defined as the flexibility to adjust healthily to change. Presented in this article is a six-step Care-giving Consensus Management Model (Fetsch & Zimmerman, 1999; Zimmerman & Fetsch, 1994) that Cooperative Extension agents and other adult educators can teach individuals and families to reduce intergenerational stress and conflict.

Family conflicts are likely to emerge when a parent's aging requires collective filial action in response to increasing needs. One way Cooperative Extension professionals and other mental health professionals can assist intergenerational families is to teach them a six-step, process-oriented model for achieving family consensus regarding a shared vision or goal for the family's care taking of the elder person. The first two steps in the model are essential for establishing a family climate of trust, open communication, and a shared family vision of care giving for a three- to five-year time frame. The latter four steps facilitate more amicable interaction in the completion of priority care-giving tasks and responsibilities.

Below is a graphic to illustrate the six-step process model.

If any family member feels unsafe discussing their feelings and thoughts, efforts to achieve a shared family vision of care giving are likely to be sabotaged. Each family is unique, but five family rules that the authors have found help most family members feel safe during family discussions are:

1. I won't use what is said here against you later.
2. I will listen so well that I can repeat back to the speaker's satisfaction what they say and feel rather than lose my temper, yell, scream, or get violent.
3. I will give no blame, no shame, and no violence.
4. I will ask directly for what I want rather than force another person to accept my way.
5. When we get angry, I will call for a "time out" to cool down, relax, and set a time when we'll get back together to talk further.

Agreeing to abide by these rules creates a safe context for discussing sensitive family issues, for finding creative solutions to complex family problems, and for creating a shared family vision (Fetsch, 1990). It is recommended that the shared vision be written with as few words as possible so it can be remembered and referred to in future conversations. An example is: We want mom to live comfortably in her home as long as possible with daily visits from health care professionals and us.

Also recommended is that the family shift from an autocratic (one person decides) or a democratic (majority decides) to a "consensucratic" decision-making procedure. Consensus is defined as communicating, problem solving, and negotiating one major issue at a time until no family member has any major objections to the decision--all can live with it and none will sabotage the family decision (Zimmerman & Fetsch, 1994). This process involves all family members in compromising and in making sure that all viewpoints are heard.

Positive family meetings with all major stakeholders provide an opportunity for families to have structured times to deal with problems as they arise and to plan proactively for their elder family member's future health care. There are a number of recommended sources that provide guidelines for conducting effective family meetings, such as Dinkmeyer and McKay (1989). A recent compilation of different practical recommendations distills 10 simple steps that families have found useful (Fetsch, 1999; Fetsch & Jacobson, 1996):

1. Meet at a regularly scheduled time.
2. Rotate meeting responsibilities (secretary and chairperson).
3. Encourage all family members to participate.
4. Discuss one topic and solve one problem at a time.
5. Use I-messages and problem-solving steps.
6. Summarize the discussion to keep the family on track and to focus the discussion on one issue at a time.
7. Make decisions by consensus.
8. Once you think you have an agreement to a point that no one has any major objections to it, check it out to see if you have reached consensus and if no one will sabotage it.
9. If things get "too hot to handle," anyone can call for a break.
10. End with something that is fun and that affirms family members.

A common dilemma faced by many families is the lack of time, energy, and money to accomplish all care-giving tasks required by the loved one with dementia. One approach is to have families list all the tasks required to care for an elder family member. By generating a list of monthly tasks that need to be completed in the year ahead, along with an estimate of the number of hours necessary to complete each task, the family sets priorities. Key tasks may include bathing, personal grooming, house cleaning, preparing meals, perhaps feeding the person, selling a home, dealing with physicians and Social Security, updating wills and power of attorney, settling insurance claims, handling financial matters, listing all assets and liabilities, identifying what the person wants about funeral arrangements, and giving primary caretaker free time. Families who meet regularly can choose which tasks to take care of during the coming month.

Family members then group the tasks into "departments," and choose "department managers" who are responsible for seeing that the work within each group of tasks is completed. One sibling who lives nearby might arrange for housekeeping tasks to be taken care of, prepare some meals, and arrange for meals to be delivered. Another sibling can interface with physicians, nurses, hospitals, and insurance companies. A third sibling living more distant might assume the role of financial and legal advisor and interface with lawyers, bankers, Social Security, and so forth.

Tension and conflict frequently arise among family members. Such conflicts are normal and can be managed effectively by establishing a safe context for communicating and problem solving. Perceptions of who could or should do more can be openly discussed, and changes in care-giving responsibilities can be negotiated. Regular and open communication and problem solving help family members learn to appreciate and respect diverse approaches and opinions regarding the fulfillment of care-giving tasks. By establishing monthly calendars, which incorporate the groups of tasks, family members can be playful as they divide care-giving tasks to meet the needs of the elderly parent. This also helps reduce stresses and crises that inevitably arise when new, unexpected tasks emerge with which family members may be reluctant to help. This strategy helps family members build flexibility into their schedules and take time out to take care of themselves.

The first two authors used and tested an earlier version of this six-step Care-giving Consensus Management Model with an intergenerational ranch family. Both clinical observations and empirical data suggested that the process was effective when combined with family consultation (Fetsch & Zimmerman, 1999). Fetsch and Zimmerman (1999) found that the family increased their family satisfaction with adaptability levels. They also decreased their family strains, stress, and depression levels. The first author used parts of the model with his own family as they s .struggled to maintain family balance in the face of his mother's Alzheimer's Disease.

Caregiving and its social and personal consequences do not take place in a cultural vacuum. The willingness and ability of families to assume long-term responsibility for a loved one with dementia will be influenced by the traditions and values of the family, by the composition of the family, by the general economic conditions in the country, on the availability of and access to alternative measures of support, and so on.

One limitation of the model proposed in this article is that it assumes families have some level of effective and open communication. When a family has poor communication, a history of tension or dominance by either gender, or special needs in terms of low skills to work through the model, a family might obtain and use Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets with practical communication exercises (Fetsch & Jacobson, 1995; 1996). If the family still has trouble communicating, they may need to employ a family therapist to facilitate additional family sessions. Doing so can help resolve issues so the family can use the model more effectively.

A second limitation of the model is that it may not easily accommodate differences in the caregiving experience due to family composition or to differences derived from culture. Incorporation of cultural material into our model will be dependent on the findings of emerging research aimed at identifying cultural comparisons of the caregiving experience. These comparisons, it should emphasized, do not necessarily involve different racial or ethnic groups across societies, but can involve the comparison of different cultural groups within a society (such as Hispanic versus Non-Hispanic caregivers in the United States). Further program evaluation research is needed by Cooperative Extension faculty who test the effectiveness of the model using experimental and control groups of diverse families.

This article suggests that Cooperative Extension professionals, other adult educators, and clinicians can use the six-step Care-giving Consensus Management Model. As greater numbers of Americans join the elderly, the authors recommend that Cooperative Extension incorporate this model into their gerontology intergenerational programs. Its use can benefit needy elderly family members and their families by providing them with a structure for decision making, problem solving, priority setting, and task accomplishment. This is a practical way that Cooperative Extension professionals and mental health professionals can foster caregivers' health and balance.

Barber, C.E., Fisher, B.L., & Pasley, B.K. (1990). Family care of Alzheimer's disease patients: Predictors of subjective and objective burden. Family Perspective, 23(3), 289-309.

Bourgeois, M.S., Schulz, R., & Burgio, L. (1996). Intervention for caregivers of patients with Alzheimer's disease: A review and analysis of content, process, and outcomes. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 43, 35-92.

Dinkmeyer, D., & McKay, G.D. (1989). The parent's handbook STEP. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

Fetsch, R.J. (1990). Toward the cutting edge with strategic planning and futuring techniques. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68(6), 692-695.

Fetsch, R.J. (1999). Family council. In C.A. Smith (Ed.), The encyclopedia of parenting theory and research (pp. 165-167). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Fetsch, R.J., & Jacobson, B. (1995). Dealing with couples' anger (Fact Sheet no. 10.238). Fort Collins: Colorado State University Cooperative Extension.

Fetsch, R.J., & Jacobson, B. (1996). Manage anger through family meetings (Fact Sheet no. 10.249). Fort Collins: Colorado State University Cooperative Extension.

Fetsch, R.J., & Zimmerman, T.S. (1999). Marriage and family consultation with ranch and farm families: An empirical family case study. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 25, 485-501.

Gallagher-Thompson, D., Coon, D.W., Rivera, P., Powers, D., & Zeiss, A.M. (1998). Family caregiving: Stress, coping, and intervention. In M. Hersen & V.B. Van Hasselt (eds.). Handbook of Clinical Geropsychology. NY: Plenum Publishing Corporation.

Gold, D.P., Cohen, C., Shulman, K., Zucchero, C., Andres, D., & Etezad, J. (1995). Caregiving and dementia: Predicting negative and positive outcomes for caregivers. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 41, 183-201.

Olson, L.K. (1994). Public policy and privatization: Long-term care in the United States. In L.K. Olson (Ed.), The graying of the world: Who will care for the elderly? (pp. 25-58). New York: Haworth Press.

Schulz, R., O'Brien, A.T., Bookwala, J. & Fleissner, K. (1995). Psychiatric and physical morbidity effects of dementia on caregiving: Prevalence, correlates and causes. The Gerontologist, 35, 771-791.

Stone, R.S., Cafferata, G.L., & Shangl, J. (1987). Caregivers of the frail elderly: A national profile. The Gerontologist, 27, 616-626.

Zarit, S.H., & Teri, L. (1992). Interventions and services for family caregivers. In K. W. Schaie & M. Powell Lawton (Eds.), Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Vol. 11 (pp. 287-310). New York: Springer.

Zimmerman, T.S., & Fetsch, R.J. (1994). Family ranching and farming: A consensus management model to improve family functioning and decrease work stress. Family Relations, 43, 125-131.

This study was an effort to determine the effect of a series of seminars titled "Women's Participation in Public Policy" on participants' knowledge gain, levels of participation in public policy affairs, levels of anomia (feelings of self-worth, hopefulness, and belonging) and levels of internal control (feeling of control over one's life).

The seminars were developed by the county Extension agent - Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS), Sabine County, Texas. The central question addressed was: "Can participation in this series of seminars increase awareness of the importance of civic participation among women and, in turn, influence them to take a more active role in helping shape public policy at the local, state, and national level?"

During the seminars, participants learned about the importance of participation in public policy affairs; interacted with peers, public officials, and organizational leaders; and acquired knowledge, skills and techniques for active participation in public policy decisions.

The study addressed the following questions (a) How effective was the seminar series in increasing participants' knowledge about decision makers at the local, state, and national level? (b) To what degree can participants' participation in public policy affairs be increased through participation in the seminars? (c) To what degree can participants' levels of anomia be lowered through participation? (d) To what degree can participants' levels of internal control be raised through participation?

For the 1998 program year, the Sabine County Extension Family and Consumer Sciences Program Committee identified 43 issues facing families in the county. The top six issues identified were (a) lack of transportation for elderly, handicapped, and non-drivers; (b) need for additional mentoring in schools; (c) lack of adequate rural water; (d) elderly living in unsafe housing; (e) lack of retirement homes; and (f) lack of all communities in the county working together on common causes.

The FCS agent recognized that potential leaders needed to be developed and provided with the knowledge and skills necessary to effect change in order to address these issues. In consultation with County FCS Program Committee members, the FCS agent developed the seminar series. The agent selected this series of seminars as her "Integrated Major Program Area Curriculum" (IMPAC) program for 1998 and developed plans for development, implementation, and evaluation.

The overall goal of the seminar series was: "For participants to become better informed and more active citizens." The topics selected for the seminar series were: City Government; County Government; State Government; Boards, Commissions, and Committees; U.S Government; Politics and Political Parties; and Selling Ideas and Programs through Social Action.

The following factors were considered as limitations of the study:

(1) Participants in the study were limited to those attending at least five of the seven sessions. The results apply only to this small group. (2) No effort was made to classify participants by age, education, income, or other independent variable. Relationships between and among variables were beyond the scope of the study. (3) The time period over which the seminars were conducted was three months. This short time period may have limited the amount of change that occurred within the participants. (4) Because some participants initially were knowledgeable about decision makers, were active in public policy affairs, possessed strong feelings of internal control, and/or had low anomia scores, the "ceiling effect" must be acknowledged as a possible influence on changes in these areas.

This study used a pre-test/post-test design. The population consisted of six individuals who attended five or more of the seven seminars on "Women's Participation in Public Policy." The seminars were open to the public and were advertised through mass media and newsletters. Fifteen individuals enrolled and six attended at least five of the seven sessions.

A 50-item questionnaire was developed and used to elicit information on participants' knowledge about local, state, and national decision makers, and levels of participation in public policy affairs. The questionnaire included a scale to measure anomia--an adaptation of Srole's Index of Anomia (1956)--and a scale to measure Internal/External Control, an adaptation of Rotter's I-E Scale (1965). These two concepts were chosen because they represent measures of hopefulness, belonging, and the perceived feeling of control (or lack of control) over one's interactions with others and the larger social environment. It was felt that if these feelings could be changed in a positive direction through experiences provided in the seminars, the participants might conceivably begin to assume a greater role in public policy decisions that affect them and their families and neighbors. The same questionnaire was used as the pre-test and the post-test.

The questionnaires were administered to all individuals attending the first seminar. They were re-administered to the six individuals who attended five or more of the seven seminars.

The data analysis for the study used mean scores and percentage distributions. The data were obtained from a total population, therefore the use of sampling techniques and predictive statistics was inappropriate. Any differences that occurred were real differences for this group of participants.

The analysis involved determining participants' pre- and post-seminar (a) knowledge about decision makers, (b) levels of participation in public policy decisions, and (c) levels of anomia and internal/external control.

Data are presented and analyzed under the headings of the four questions outlined under the "Purpose" of the study. The questions follow in order.

• Question 1. How effective is the seminar series in increasing participants' knowledge about decision makers at the local, state, and national level?

Table 1 shows the pre-test and post-test knowledge scores of participants and includes differences and percentage change. A score of 13 was possible.

The mean knowledge score moved from 6.2 on the pre-test to 11.2 on the post-test, a gain of 5 points. This represented a gain in knowledge of 81% for the group as a whole. The mean score is somewhat misleading, however, in that the percentage increase in knowledge scores ranged

from 11% to 266%. All participants showed gains in knowledge, but the greater gains were made by individuals with lower pre-test scores.

It was concluded that the series of seminars increased participants' knowledge about decision makers at the local, state, and national level.

• Question 2. To what degree can participants' participation in public policy affairs be increased through participation in this series of seminars?

Table 2 shows the pre-test and post-test participation scores, differences, and percentage change. A score of 20 was possible.

The pre-test participation scores ranged from 1 to 13 and post-test scores ranged from 3 to 17. The mean change in participation score was 61%. However, the percent of individual change in participation ranged from 30% to 200%. For two of the participants, the amount of change was small because of high pre-test scores or the "ceiling effect." All participants registered increases in participation in public policy affairs.

It was concluded that the seminar series had a definite positive impact on participants' involvement in public policy affairs.

• Question 3. To what degree can participants' levels of anomia be lowered through participation in this series of seminars?

It was felt that low participation in public policy affairs might be attributable to an individual's own feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and low self-esteem. Therefore, a part of the study compared pre-test and post-test anomia scores for individuals and for the total group.

The scores on the anomia scale used in this study ranged from 1 to 5 on each of the five items on the scale, 1 being "strongly disagree" and 5 being "strongly agree". Pre-test and post-test weighted scores were calculated for each individual and a mean weighted score was calculated for the group as a whole. The highest possible score was 25. A score of 12.5 was considered as neutral. A score below 12.5 indicated a eunomic situation (positive feelings about one's self and one's relationship to society). A score above 12.5 indicated the opposite-- anomia (negative feelings about one's self and his/her relationship to society).

Table 3 shows the pre-test and post-test weighted scores for each participant along with change and percentage change.

The mean anomia score on the pre-test, for the group as a whole, was 14.8, indicating that the group was slightly anomic prior to the series of seminars. The mean post-test score for the group was 11.5, which represented an overall change to a slightly eunomic situation.

It was anticipated that participation in the series of seminars (which gave participants the opportunity to interact with peers, public officials, and organizational leaders in a non-threatening environment) would, in fact, enhance feelings of hopefulness and personal self-esteem.

The percent change in anomia scores for individual participants varied widely, from no change at all to 55% change. For four of the six participants, the percent change was appreciable. The mean change for the group was -22%.

It was concluded that for a majority of the participants, the series of seminars did slightly to moderately increase their feelings of hopefulness and self-esteem.

• Question 4. To what degree can participants' levels of internal control be raised through participation in this series of seminars?

The learning experiences within the seminar series were designed to help participants understand how important the individual is, or can be, in influencing public policy decisions and to help them see how each person can have input into the public policy decision-making process. It was expected that the participants would show an increase in internal control.

Table 4 shows the pre-test and post-test internal/external control scores for each individual, along with changes and percent change.

A score of 12 was possible on both the pre-test and post-test. A score of 6 was considered neutral. The mean pre-test score for the group as a whole was 8.3, indicating a slight feeling of internal control. The mean post-test score was 11.5 which represented a 39% increase in feelings of internal control.

There were dramatic changes toward feelings of internal control from pre-test to post-test on the part of two participants--100% and 500%. Three participants registered slight increases in feelings of internal control, and there was no change on the part of one individual.

It was concluded that the series of seminars increased feelings of internal control for a majority of the participants.

The analysis of the data in this study indicated that the seminar series did achieve its overall goal, that is, "For participants to become better informed and more active citizens." Participants, as a whole, are more knowledgeable about decision makers at the local, state, and national level; have slightly more positive feelings about themselves and their ability to control their own lives and situations; and are participating more in public policy affairs.

This study has important implications for county Extension agents. It demonstrates an approach to evaluating the effect of their educational programs on clientele. It offers agents a guide to determining knowledge gain, attitude change, and practice change that can be attributed to the learning experiences provided.

The findings of this study reinforce the importance of Extension agents' taking a proactive position in designing new learning experiences for their clientele. Often, programs are designed to meet immediate needs, such as diet, health, and physical fitness. While these are very important, there is also value in helping clientele become more involved in public policy affairs so that they can improve their lives and the lives of their neighbors.

As a result of the seminar series, several of the participants have taken active roles in addressing the issues identified by the Sabine County Extension FCS Program Committee.

Rotter, J.B. (1965). Social learning and clinical psychology. NY: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Srole, L. (1956). Social integration and certain corollaries: An exploratory study. American Sociological Review, 21, 709-716.

*NOTE: At the time the seminar series was conducted, Charlotte Gorman was FCS Extension Agent in Sabine County, Texas.

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