Volume 36 Number 1
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February 1998 Volume 36 Number 1 |
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Editor's PageDear Reader, Time and technology march on and so does your Journal of Extension. A number of technical and design changes will be taking place during the coming year, starting with this issue. The Journal has moved to a new server in a new host state with a new web look. Ohio State University is now the host for the technical side of the Journal. A new server is in place with more capacity and higher performance. This issue begins a more complete "web markup" for the Journal. The World Wide Web continues to grow in use and access. We see the web as a vital component of where Extension and the Journal are headed. The web has advantages of conventional electronic communications - images, presentation, multimedia, etc. - and we are eager to use these advantages. We are standardizing design and navigational tools to enhance the direct use of the web-Journal. We look forward to the inclusion of new design elements in coming issues. But everything still works! Almanac and Gopher are still supported - all the existing ways of connecting with and receiving the Journal are being maintained for the present time. Please take a look at the new web interface and tell us what you think. We also would like to take this opportunity to say "thank you" to the folks at Virginia Tech who took care of the Journal for the last few years and to Dirk Herr-Hoyman of Wisconsin and Patrick Robinson of Virginia Tech who so ably served as the Journal's technical consultants as the publication made its way from print to electronic format. There's also a word of appreciation for Sorrel Brown, Iowa State, for her leadership during 1997 as president of the Journal's board of directors. She will continue on the board. Mike Lambur, Virginia Tech, is the new new president of the Journal. Again with this issue, your Journal brings you a wide variety of articles ranging from child development concerns of affluent parents to volunteerism to recruiting a diverse Extension staff. Of course, you'll find the second half of Patterson's provocative commentary about Extension administration. There are two national meetings that might interest many in the Extension system. The first is the 1998 Public Issues Leadership Development Conference April 19-22 in Arlington, VA. Graham Spanier, president of Penn State, will be the keynoter, while Michigan State's Mike Tate will lead a hands on experience in working with decision makers. "Politics and Partnerships: Working within a Web" is the theme of the JCEP-sponsored event. Registration information is available from Ann Rhinesmith, telephone 908-475-6504 or E-mail rhinesmith@aesop.rutgers.edu. Conference chair is Keith Martikainen, Nebraska, telephone 308- 385-6414, E-mail scrc013@unlvm.unl.edu. The second event will be held at Oregon State University Oct. 1-3. Theme of the conference, limited to 200 people, is "Scholarship Unbound: Reframing faculty evaluation and awards." It will focus on redefining scholarship and changing tenure and promotional criteria in universities engaged in research and education on and beyond the campus. Persons interested in learning more about the event should write to Office of Academic Affairs, Oregon State University, 624 Kerr Administration Building, Corvallis, OR 97331, telephone 541- 737-0732 or E-mail gigi.bruce@orst.edu. Leonard J. Calvert, editor Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors: Michael Lambur, President, Virginia, member-at-large Ex-officio:
Leonard Calvert, Oregon, Editor Editorial Committee: Joyce Alves, Arizona
Commentary II: A New Paradigm for Extension Administration
Thomas F. Patterson, Jr. This is the second of a two-part commentary on Extension administrative practice. Part one (Fundamentally Flawed: Extension Administrative Practice, JOE volume 35:6) argued that the foundation of many of today's Extension management practices are based on 100 year-old work place assumptions of the classical school of management. When examined, these assumptions fall apart, exposing much of current Extension administrative practice to critical scrutiny and ultimate rejection. This commentary suggests new ways of administering the Extension system.
Paradigm blindness is a term used to describe the phenomena that occurs when the dominant paradigm prevents one from seeing viable alternatives. A dominant paradigm, made obsolete by a dramatically changed external environment, often continues to blind its participants both to its lack of utility and to other potential options. Such is the case with the classical school of management. A new work place paradigm is forming to replace the current fundamentally-flawed administrative paradigm, with different assumptions about the nature employees and the work place:
Given this new set of assumptions, what then are some administrative practices that reflect them?
The answers lie within the human relations school and quality management movement that seek to encourage and capitalize on employee trust, loyalty, and cooperation in the work place. Within this new culture of faith, administration's attention is redirected from controlling people to controlling the systems of work. In fact, in a quality environment, 85% of a manager's time is spent on managing and improving systems, while only 15% needs to be spent on managing people. In terms of human resources, the role of the administrator becomes one of team facilitator, counselor, coach, and encourager, rather than expert, overseer, enforcer, and judge. Time, previously spent managing and controlling people, is freed to manage systems. Extension work is viewed systemically as series of processes that can always be improved. The main role of administration is to understand and manage these work processes. For example, Extension program development would be viewed as a long-term process to be managed rather than as a way to control people and assess personal accountability and responsibility. People are not singled out for review, rather they are seen as team members, integral to the process itself. Process improvement teams, made up of a cross section of employees, are called together to recommend and follow through with improvements. Essentially, Extension learns how to learn and becomes a "learning organization." Rather than administering to bureaucratic requirements and constraints, administrators focus on customer satisfaction as their primary goal and the ultimate measure of quality. Both internal and external customer satisfaction surveys are the principal indicators of administrator effectiveness. The role of Extension administrator changes from that of controlling and evaluating subordinates to removing barriers and providing the necessary tools and training so employees can perform their jobs better. Rather than leading troops into battle (the scientific management paradigm is full of military references and metaphors), the Extension administrator coalesces members of the organization into crafting a common vision and mission, complimented by a core set of values. These public statements of belief are then elucidated by Extension administration, while they are internalized and practiced by every member of the organization. Vision, values, and mission become the benchmarks by which all organizational behavior and activities are judged. In effect, the organization becomes "mission-driven" rather than "rules and regulations-driven." Leadership supplants bureaucracy.
Focusing on managing and improving systems represents a profound challenge to traditional administrative theory and practice. A paradigm shift represents a "world turned upside down" and almost always leads to uncertainty and denial for the status quo. Bureaucracy and the scientific management school have demonstrated incredible staying power. The classical management dominant paradigm of Extension's higher education, government, and political environment has shown few signs of relinquishing its commanding position. Classical management expectations of accountability and control are still deeply expressed in the language of laws, contracts, memoranda, and rfps. Still, the recent unparalleled success of human relations management and quality initiatives in the private sector, and, increasingly, in the public sector, gives hope that our clientele and funding agencies will become schooled in new ways of managing. And, being a human resource-rich organization with a non-formal educational mission, Extension seems uniquely positioned to be able to affect its own management paradigm by influencing these stakeholders. Weigh the assumptions of the 100 year-old classical school with the new paradigm assumptions. Which make sense too you? Which reflect the values and humanity of today's work place? Which would you rather work under?
McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. NY: McGraw-Hill. For additional insight into management theory and practice, the author also recommends the following: Gitlow, H., Gitlow, S. (1987). The Deming guide to quality and competitive position. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline. NY: Doubleday/Currency.
Staffing Strategies For A More Diverse Workforce: Case Examples In Cornell Cooperative Extension
Soneeta Grogan
Barbara Eshelman
Cornell Cooperative Extension Workplace diversity means new opportunities for both employees and employers. As organizations such as Cooperative Extension move into the 21st century, it is imperative to capitalize on the talents of employees from diverse backgrounds because it is their "differences that enrich us, expand us, [and] provide us the competitive edge" (Makower, 1995, p. 51). They enable organizations to tap new markets while increasing effectiveness and productivity (Makower, 1995; Schuler, 1992; Thomas, 1990). In this article, the authors provide case examples to illustrate how the Cornell Cooperative Extension (CCE) system involves a variety of people and utilizes specific strategies throughout its recruitment, selection, and orientation process to support and promote diversity and pluralism. Ewert, Rice and Lauderdale (1995) indicate cultural diversity affects organizations in several ways including the recruitment/retention of staff, management styles and decision- making processes, and relationships within organizations. Organizations become more inclusive by altering aspects of their culture within each of these categories. For example, culturally diverse staff often are isolated in otherwise homogeneous organizations. Limited informal interaction with co-workers can lead to exclusion from key committees and decision-making groups potentially resulting in reduced productivity and effectiveness. Such isolation can lead to employee dissatisfaction and higher turnover among staff from under-represented groups. Staff from varied cultures reflect different learning styles and bring different preferred working styles to their jobs. Sometimes managers consider such differences wrong or problematic--it seems the person exhibiting them just doesn't fit in. But, recognizing, valuing and supporting these and other differences can maximize the productivity of everyone in the workplace.
The concepts of "diversity" and "pluralism" as defined in Pathway to Diversity: Strategic Plan for the Cooperative Extension System's Emphasis on Diversity (1991) are: Diversity is differences among people with respect to age, class, ethnicity, physical and mental ability, race, sexual orientation, spiritual practice, and other human attributes. Pluralism is an organizational culture that incorporates mutual respect, acceptance, teamwork, and productivity among people who are diverse in the dimensions of human differences listed above as diversity. These definitions establish a foundation for Extension's commitment to an emphasis on diversity in all programs and activities. While valuing differences and developing awareness are important, they are insufficient for creating the organizational changes that will truly support diversity and establish an organizational culture of pluralism. We must develop skills for enhancing and working within an increasingly pluralistic organization. But how do we do it? Peggy Riehl (Boys and Girls Club of Chicago, Illinois) says, "If organizational change to address diversity and pluralism issues requires a change in organizational culture, then we need to be about the business of creating culture. This might mean creating new rituals, creating rules, creating language" (personal communication, July 3, 1995). In the process of recruiting, selecting and supporting a more diverse staff, Cornell Cooperative Extension like other organizations (Kilborn, 1992; Solomon, 1990; Thomas, 1990), is trying to create a new culture to become more inclusive. As an organization we need to increase the diversity of our staff in order to reach new and varied audiences and enrich our educational programming.
The staffing process utilized in CCE includes three stages: (a) position development, (b) recruitment, and (c) selection and support. Each stage offers opportunities to change organizational culture. During position development, staff and volunteers review the position vacancy considering current and future program priorities, identify essential job functions, and examine alternative staffing options. The second stage--recruitment-- includes developing and implementing an inclusive recruitment strategy. Faculty, staff, and volunteers develop a recruitment plan that includes targeted mailing lists, personal contacts, electronic postings, national publications, professional conferences, and a call for nominations. Cornell Cooperative Extension emphasizes recruiting individuals who bring a diverse perspective and are supportive of diversity. The final stage-- selection and support--involves reviewing applications for the position, conducting interviews, making the offer, and designing an individualized orientation and development plan for the new employee. The following case examples for each stage of the staffing process emphasize how CCE is trying to enhance diversity and develop a more pluralistic organizational culture. While each case example highlights one stage, the three-part staffing process was followed in each of the cases below.
Stage 1: Position Development A county executive director and personnel committee needed to fill a temporary staff vacancy for which the essential responsibilities were already well-defined. During the position development stage the executive director and personnel committee decided to explore the idea of creating an internship. The executive director proposed sharing the cost of employing an entry-level nutrition educator with CCE administration and targeting recruitment at groups that were under-represented among the CCE staff yet present in the population that CCE needed to reach. Extension leadership in this county, like some other organizations, had begun to recognize that "your workplace should reflect your customer base" (Wilson, 1995, p. 23). After the internship proposal was accepted, faculty and staff developed a recruitment plan emphasizing personal contacts with new professionals, faculty advisors, and targeted professional groups. One staff member contacted faculty and Extension specialists in other states for help in identifying applicants. An Extension specialist shared the position announcement with a member of the research/teaching faculty who gave it to one of his advisees, a woman from an under-represented group who had recently completed her masters degree and was seeking employment. After learning more about Extension work, she contacted CCE to discuss the internship. The candidate's interview for the internship included: (a) a telephone interview with the county executive director, the staffing specialist, a statewide program leader, and a faculty member; (b) a county visit and interview with the Extension board and staff including introductions to volunteers involved with the Extension program; and (c) a Cornell University campus visit to meet with faculty and CCE administration staff. She was offered the internship; however, she had financial concerns associated with moving almost a thousand miles. Although not always provided, CCE included moving expenses in the compensation package. She successfully completed the internship and is currently employed as an Extension educator after having been hired through a competitive national search. Opportunities During Position Development An examination of staffing alternatives influenced the county Extension director and personnel committee to consider staffing a temporary position. They believed that an entry level professional might be interested in an internship for a first experience with Extension. Internships have been used as a recruitment strategy by other state Extension services and other organizations (Kilborn, 1992). The director also creatively considered how the internship might be funded. Believing that CCE administration would be supportive of the internship alternative, she approached them for sharing the funding. CCE administration believed the internship would be an opportunity to develop a new professional with Extension experience and prepare the individual for a permanent position with Extension following the internship. County Extension staff were committed to providing the level of supervision an intern would need to carry out the essential job functions identified. Other options and opportunities to consider at the position development stage include:
Stage 2: Recruitment When an Extension program leader position became available in an urban area, the staff and volunteers wanted to employ an individual who would help them reach new audiences and meet the needs of a suburban/urban population. A county executive director believed he had met a well-qualified individual for the job during a summer professional development experience for educators from across the U.S. He immediately called to inform the individual of the opening and attempted to interest her in the position. Although she was not looking for a new position, after several conversations with Cornell Cooperative Extension staff, she decided to apply. After a national search, she was selected from a competitive pool of applicants and participated with several other candidates in the interview process. Subsequently, she was offered and accepted the position. Opportunities During Recruitment Based on our experience, personal contact has been the most productive recruitment strategy for attracting a diverse and well -qualified applicant pool to CCE positions. Effective recruitment utilizes a variety of strategies to inform potential applicants of positions. Encouraging all CCE staff to recruit applicants with diverse backgrounds for positions and communicating that staff recruitment is everyone's responsibility has been a successful strategy. Other opportunities organizations can consider at the recruitment stage are:
Stage 3: Selection And Support An individual who learned about a CCE job opening through a personal contact rather than through the usual announcement outlets applied for a nutrition educator position. The interview team was impressed with the applicant's volunteer experience and class projects that demonstrated her initiative and commitment to educating diverse populations. Although the program leader believed more time would be needed initially to supervise this applicant, she and the selection committee believed the additional time would be worthwhile considering potential contributions to the county program. However, before the applicant was invited to participate in the county interview, she was offered and had accepted a dietetic internship with another organization. CCE administration kept in touch with her during the internship and about four months before it ended, another position opened for which she was qualified. After a nationwide search, she and two other applicants interviewed for the position. Subsequently, this applicant was hired. Although she was unable to begin employment for two months in order to complete the internship, the county staff were willing to wait because she was considered to be a good fit for the position. Since the applicant had been a student and then an unpaid intern, she needed financial assistance both to travel to the state for the county interview and to relocate for the position. CCE staff worked with her to help meet those needs. Opportunities During Selection and Support Employers highly committed to diversity will be flexible, consider alternatives, and, to the extent feasible, invest additional resources (time, money, etc.) to secure and retain staff from under-represented groups. Such behavior begins the process of creating new rules and new rituals--that is, a new organizational culture related to staffing. The program leader in this case example was willing to invest the additional supervisory time needed for the employee to be successful. The county executive director and CCE administration also were willing to help meet some of the new employee's financial needs. Other opportunities at the selection and support stage are:
Cornell Cooperative Extension has had some success in recruiting and employing a more diverse group of Extension educators. But recruiting a more diverse staff will not ensure their retention. While these recruitment efforts need to continue and expand, creating hospitable working environments and developing the talents of all employees requires greater attention (Kilborn, 1992; Schuler, 1992; Solomon, 1990; Thomas, 1990; Wilson, 1995). Organizations must ask themselves, "What happens once staff from diverse backgrounds begin employment? Does the organizational culture and workplace contribute to retaining or to repelling them? Organizational leaders need to ensure that all staff are welcomed into a workplace that supports and values differences because "it accomplishes next to nothing to employ those who are different from us if the condition of their employment is that they become the same as us" (Makower, 1995, p. 51). Organizations can become more inclusive by: (a) providing learning opportunities to improve an organization's intercultural effectiveness; (b) providing learning opportunities that are planned, systematic, and address personal and organizational issues; (c) building staff understanding of the values, beliefs, customs, and preferences of other groups; (d) targeting unconscious discrimination to help people rethink their assumptions and restructure their organizations; (e) promoting intercultural skills to help people improve their skills in listening, interpersonal communication, conflict resolution, and negotiation; and (f) studying non-western world views to explore new paradigms and extend the range of options through which organizations can solve their own problems (Ewert, Rice, & Lauderdale, 1995). Organizational change to address diversity and pluralism issues in Cooperative Extension requires action and authentic leadership. We cannot change organizational culture without changing behavior. Sharing case examples and successes experienced during the position development, recruitment, and selection and support stages in Cooperative Extension is one strategy to encourage organizational change. If specific efforts are made to address diversity and pluralism issues during the staffing process, Extension will increase its potential for effectiveness and productivity.
Elmuti, D. (1993). Managing diversity in the workplace: An immense challenge for both managers and workers. Industrial Management, 35 (4), 19-22. Ewert, D. M., Rice, J.K., & Lauderdale, E. (1995). Training for diversity: How organizations become more inclusive. Adult Learning, 6 (5), 27-28. Kilborn, P. T. (1992, October 4). A company recasts itself to erase years of bias. The New York Times, p. A1. Makower, J. (1995). Managing diversity in the workplace. Business and Society Review, (92), 48-54. Schuler, R. S. (1992). Repositioning the human resource function: Transformation or demise? In Frost, P.J., Mitchell, V.F. & Nord, W.R. eds., HRM Reality: Putting Competence In Context. Cincinnati: Southwestern Publishing Company. Solomon, J. (1990, September 12). As cultural diversity of workers grows, experts urge appreciation of differences. The Wall Street Journal, p. B1. Strategic Planning Task Force on Diversity. (1991). Pathway to diversity: Strategic plan for the Cooperative Extension System's emphasis on diversity. Washington, D.C.: Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, USDA. Wilson, M. (1995). Diversity in the workplace. Chain Store Age Executive, 48, (6), 21-23. Thomas, R. R. (1990). From affirmative action to affirming diversity. Harvard Business Review, 68, (2), 107-117.
Affluent Parents of Young Children: Neglected Parent Education Audience
Maureen T.Mulroy
Jane Goldman
Cassandra Wales
In 1994, the national Extension System developed a model for the design of parent education programs, the National Extension Parent Education Model(NEPEM). This model represents a consensus of opinion about essential areas and practices of parent education (Smith, Cudaback, Goddard, & Myer-Walls, 1994). It is based on data collected in a series of nation-wide surveys of Extension human development and family life educators. The primary audience is Extension professionals responsible for designing balanced and comprehensive parent education programs (Smith et al.,1994, p.5). NEPEM recognizes that there are diverse types of parent audiences and underscores the importance of Extension educators being knowledgeable about and sensitive to the particular needs of each group with whom they work. A review of recent research indicates that many Extension family life educators have heeded this recommendation. Using a variety of techniques (for example, surveys, need assessments, focus groups) they have collected information about parenting and family education needs of parents with limited incomes, parents from different ethnic groups, and parents rearing children in stressful circumstances (Cudaback, Marshall & Knox, 1994; Jackson, 1993; Ludwig, 1988). However, there is one group of parents whose needs for parent and family education have not been addressed. They are parents rearing children in affluent circumstances. As a group, affluent couples, and more recently, affluent families, have been well studied by researchers interested in explaining, predicting, and anticipating their business, financial, and purchasing decisions (Crispell, 1994; Seiter, 1992). However, there has not been parallel interest in looking at the parenting concerns in these families. What little information exists suggests that affluence does not insulate parents from the stress and worries accompanying child rearing (Li, 1993) nor does it guarantee their children will be protected from harm. In fact, evidence suggests that children reared in affluent circumstances, like children raised in other economic circumstances, also are at-risk for psychosocial and educational problems such as stress disorders, abuse, neglect, suicide, substance abuse, depression, eating disorders, and under-achievement (Gubernick & Linden, 1995; LeBeau, 1988; Stone, 1979; Wellisch, 1984; Wixen, 1973). There is evidence that affluence brings its own set of risks, recently labeled "affluenza," that are associated with childhood experiences of over-scheduling and over-indulgence (Arnoff & Ward, 1994; Fanning, 1990; Gubernick, 1995; Gubernick & Lindon, 1995; Shine, 1992; Stevens, 1990). The purpose of this study was to assess the parent education needs of a group of affluent parents of young children.
Eighty-five mothers of preschool age children participated in this study. The mothers were residents of a suburban community in the metropolitan New York area recognized as one of the most affluent communities in the United States (Barone & Ujifusa, 1993). All were enrolled in a parent education program sponsored by the local health association and the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System. This parent education program, which runs weekly from September to May, has been on-going since 1980 and always has a long waiting list. Parents are divided into groups (infant, toddler, preschool/kindergarten) depending upon the ages of their children. The average age of the respondents was 33 (range 24-46). One mother identified herself as being Asian. All other mothers identified themselves as Caucasian/Non-Hispanic. Ninety-four percent(N=80) were college graduates, with 35% holding advanced graduate degrees. Seven were mothers of infants, 57 were mothers of toddlers, and 21 were mothers of preschool/kindergartners. Only 20 (23%) of the mothers were employed. Of these women, only 5 worked more than 20 hours a week. The mean family income reported was $250,430 (range $40,000-$1,400,000, SD= $210,042). However, it is interesting to note that even when assured of anonymity only 74% provided information about family income. Development of the needs assessment for this population occurred as follows:
As a result of this process, eight areas of child and family functioning were included on the needs assessment: Caring For Self as a Parent and Spouse, Understanding Child Development, Nurturing Family Relationships, Motivating Your Child's Learning, Guidance and Discipline, Advocating for/Utilizing Community Resources, Handling Emergencies and Crises, and Establishing Routines. In order to reflect the developmental nuances of the three age groups, three versions of the needs assessment were developed. Each of the three versions covered all eight areas. The three needs assessment questionnaires differed only in number of items listed under each of the eight areas of child and family functioning and in the age/stage related words used in the questions. For example, on the infant questionnaire, an item listed under Establishing Routines was "Traveling with an infant." On the questionnaires for mothers of toddlers and preschool/kindergartners, it appeared as,"Traveling with young children." The questionnaire for parents of infants, toddlers, and preschool/kindergartners had 44, 57, and 65 items, respectively. For each item, the parents were asked to rate their interest in the topic on a scale of 1-4, with 1 indicating "Very Interested, Definitely Cover in Class;" 2 "Interested;" 3 "Somewhat Interested;" and 4 "Not at All Interested." Group leaders distributed the questionnaires to participants during one of the first classes in the fall. Participants completed them during the class. Copies of the needs assessment questionnaires are available from the first author.
Parent responses were examined to assess: (a) interest in each of the eight child and family functioning areas; (b) interest in particular topics or items; and, (c) variations among parent groups in terms of level of interest in topics or items. Parents in all of the groups expressed interest in seven of the areas of child and family functioning. However only the mothers of infants were interested in items concerning community resources. For the topics pertaining to child and family functioning, there was considerable variation across the three groups in terms of the specific topics in which they were most interested (Very Interested) or (Interested) by 75% or more of the parents in at least one of the groups. Caring for Self Eighty-six percent of the mothers of infants and 84% of the mothers with older children were interested in discussing the "how to" of juggling the roles of parent/spouse/individual and in finding time to meet their own needs. In contrast, only 70.5% of the mothers of toddlers were interested in these topics. The mothers of preschool and kindergarten (pre/k) age children also expressed interest in including topics such as stress management (91%) and enhancing self-esteem (91%). Understanding Child Development Mothers in all three groups were interested in the areas of social and emotional development. Cognitive development was of interest to mothers of infants (100%) and mothers of toddlers (98%). In addition, mothers of infants (100%) were interested in learning about physical development. Nurturing Family Relationships The topics of interest to parents varied greatly by group. The birth of a baby appeared to increase mother's interest in family structure and interactions (100%) and in father-infant interactions (86%). These were not issues with mothers of older children. Both the mothers of toddlers (75%) and mothers of pre/k age children (78%) expressed interest in discussing ways in which the family can relax and have good times together. The issue of sharing household responsibilities was listed as an important topic for discussion by 81% of the mothers with pre/k age children. Motivating Your Child's Learning All groups expressed strong interest in this area. For example, 100% of the mothers of infants indicated that all aspects of infant stimulation should be a part of their parent education classes. Similarly, mothers of toddlers were interested in covering the topics of appropriate intellectual stimulation (92%) and planning for their children's educational future (84%). Ninety-one percent of the mothers of pre/k children expressed interest in developing the best environment for learning, setting reasonable expectations for learning, and in having classes focus on learning styles, capabilities, and problems. These mothers were also concerned about hurrying their children (82%) and in "tuning in" to their children's perceptions and feelings about learning (96%). Guidance and Discipline All groups expressed a high level of interest in this area. All of the mothers of infants (100%) were interested in learning about limit setting and discipline. Ninety-seven percent of the mothers of toddlers thought that the issue of behavior problems should be covered in their parenting education class and 88% wanted ideas about methods for disciplining and handling "acting out" behaviors in public. These mothers (98%) also were concerned about when discipline may have gone too far. Parents of pre/k age children found all the topics listed under this heading worthy of discussion. They also thought that power, control, and autonomy issues should be covered in class (100%) and wanted limit setting, methods of discipline, and handling oppositional behavior to be part of class discussions (96%). Utilizing Community Resources The only group that showed any appreciable interest in this area was mothers of infants. All of them wanted to know what community resources and opportunities were available and (84%) of them wanted to talk about community involvement as a method for combating loneliness. In addition, the mothers (84%) wanted to focus some of their class discussions on choosing a care-giver. Handling Emergencies and Crises All mothers of infants (100%) were interested in learning how to handle a variety of physical and emotional emergencies and crises. Eighty-five percent of the mothers of toddlers thought that information about how to handle common accidents should be included in their parent education classes. Mothers of pre/k age children (81%) were interested in information about handling emotional crises. They were not interested in information about handling accidents or other physical crises. Establishing Routines For Parents and Children There was great variation among the three groups in the types of routines they were interested in discussing. All of the mothers of infants rated limit-setting and discipline, safety- proofing the home, and private time as important topics for parent education classes. They also expressed interest in discussing crying (83%) and play (83%). Only half of them were interested in talking about bottle vs breast-feeding and weaning. Mothers of toddlers expressed interest in only one item, play (91%), whereas mothers of older children were interested in discussions focused on private time for all members of the family (91%)and chores and responsibilities in the home (86%).
The responses of mothers in this study, residents of one of the most affluent communities in the United States, documented a high degree of interest in participating in parent education programs. This finding clearly contradicts the general social assumption that affluent parents, who tend to be highly-educated and have access to many resources, are less interested in participating in parent education programs. Overall the topics that these mothers identified in the needs assessment questionnaires were similar to those that have been documented for parents in middle-class families and families with limited incomes. For example, they were interested in expanding their knowledge of child growth and development and were interested in improving their skills and abilities in areas pertaining to guidance and discipline, children's learning, positive family relationships, handling crises and emergencies. The only topic most of these mothers were not interested in covering was "accessing and utilizing community services". Discussion with the mothers suggested that they already felt knowledgeable about available community resources and could access them readily if needed. Although the interests of these women were similar to those of mothers in other socio-economic groups, discussions with parent educators who lead the classes indicated that within the individual group sessions the discussions often focused on issues specific to living and raising children in affluent families residing within affluent communities. For example, in the area of caring for self, mothers who had left high power/high visibility careers to become stay-at-home moms wanted to discuss issues surrounding changes in their personal identity and changing roles. In discussions on nurturing family relationships, participants needed to talk about problems associated with fathers working in high power/high pressure jobs.
These findings establish a clear need for parent educators to include the needs of parents and children in affluent families when developing their service plans. As with all other audiences, programs need to be refined to meet the specific needs of this audience. Once general topics have been identified using a needs assessment questionnaire, we suggest that the most effective role for the parent educator is one of informational resource and group facilitator. Given the articulate and highly educated nature of this audience, traditional didactic methods of parent education are not appropriate. Rather within each topic, sessions are most successful if parents are given the opportunity to take the lead in focusing discussion on issues of most concern to them. The findings of this study also have implications for the field of parent education in general. The data support NEPEM's categories and priority areas and support the appropriateness of using this model with affluent families. The data also indicate that age/stage specific questionnaires help to identify important but subtle differences in the information needs of parents with children of different ages. Finally, these data reiterate the importance of being sensitive to the idiosyncratic needs and interests of each audience served, whatever their circumstances
Arnoff, C. E. & Ward, J. L. (1994, August). Coping with the "silver spoon syndrome". Nation's Business, p.58. Barone, M. & Ujifusa, G. (1993). The almanac of American politics 1994. Washington, D.C.: National Journal. Crispell, D. (1994). The very rich are sort of different. American Demographics, 16, 11 - 13. Cudaback, D., Marshall, M. K., & Knox, J. (1994, December). The magic years: Parent education by Spanish language radio. Journal of Extension, [On-line serial], 32 (4) Feature 3. Available: www.joe.org Fanning, D. (1990, June 24). Weighing the fast track against family values. The New York Times, section 3, part 2, p.25. Gubernick, L. (1995, June 19). From sex to money. Forbes, 155 (13), 132. Gubernick, L. & Linden, D. W. (1995, June 19). The perils of family money. Forbes, 155 (13), 130 - 133. Jackson, B. J. (1993, Fall). Juvenile court parenting program. Journal of Extension, {On-line serial}, 31 (3) Ideas 4. Available: www.joe.org LeBeau, J. (1988). The "silver spoon" syndrome in the super rich: The pathological lineage of affluence and narcissism in family systems. American Journal of Psychopathology, 52, 425 - 436. Li, L. (1993). Parenting stress in affluent families: A Descriptive study. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. Ludwig, B. (1988, Spring). Reaching out to single-parent families. Journal of Extension, [On-line serial], 26 (1) Ideas 1. Available: www.joe.org Seiter, E. (1992). Toys are us: Marketing to children and parents. Cultural-Studies, 6, 232 - 247. Shine, W.A. (1992). Affluence. In S.B. Firedman, M. Fischer, & S. K. Schonberg (Eds.). Comprehensive Adolescent Health Care. St. Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing, Inc. Smith, C., Cudaback, D., Goddard, W. & Myers-Walls, J. (1994). The national Extension parent education model. U.S. Department of Agriculture: Extension Service, special project number 92-EXCA-2-0182. Stevens, N. (1990, August 25). "Did I say average? I meant superior." New York Times, Section 1, p.23. Stone, M. H. (1979). Upbringing in the super-rich. In J.G. Howells (Ed.), Modern perspectives in the psychiatry of infancy. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Wellisch, D. K. (1984). Drug problems in children of the wealthy and famous. Journal of Drug Issues, 84, 233 - 242. Wixen, B. (1973). Children of the rich. New York: Crown Publishers.
Regional Extension In-Service Training Via the Internet
Robert M. Lippert
Owen Plank
Jim Camberato
John Chastain
Distance learning has become a popular method of instruction, especially for students with demanding full-time jobs or who find it difficult to invest a lot of time and expense in travel. Universities have progressed over the past 120 years from correspondence courses and films to videos, satellite linking, cable TV, computer aided instruction, and, most recently, Internet conferencing via the computer (Telg, 1996). One of the most recent forms of distance education to be explored is interactive instruction exclusively via the Internet. This type of instruction is now possible in many areas because of the widespread availability of computers and Internet technology. Compared to other methods of distance learning such as video courses or live satellite instruction, Internet courses provide the following advantages. First, it allows for constant personal interaction between the students and instructors. Second, it allows much greater time flexibility than a televised real-time instruction where students must meet at a designated facility for scheduled instruction. Finally, it expands resource opportunities through access to the World Wide Web and the potential to communicate with specialists throughout the world (Mayadas, 1997). The Internet approach to instruction has tremendous potential for training county Extension agents. Agents can log-on to the computer as their schedules permits. Internet training eliminates the need to travel to another location in a state or region, thus saving time and money. Most county Extension offices now have or are in the process of acquiring Internet access to the World Wide Web and E-mail, which makes this a very attractive training tool for many topics. A two-week Internet training course was offered to county Extension agents in South Carolina and Georgia for a regional training titled "Land Application of Animal Waste". Twenty-two county Extension agents from South Carolina and Georgia registered for the course and ten specialists from South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama participated in the Internet discussion.
The two main objectives for this training were: (a) To determine if Internet distance learning could be used effectively with Extension agents for training about the basic principles of land application of animal waste, and (b) To determine if agents could be sufficiently instructed prior to the training on how to access Web pages, use the Listserv and send E-mail through Netscape. The Listserv is a means of electronic communication similar to an E-mail distribution list (with all the specialists and county agents on the list). An E-mail message sent to the username (in our case manure-1@clemson.edu) would go to all participants who subscribed to this Listserve address. A reply to the Listserv would likewise go back to all members of the list. It serves as a "slow motion" conversation with everyone or as an electronic "bulletin board." The Listserve is created by the university postmaster at the computer center. The agents who lacked Internet skills were assisted with telephone calls, one-on -one E-mail correspondence, and instructions posted on the Web.
To make this training successful, it was important to choose a topic of wide interest, to create an appealing and well designed Web page, and ensure that the users would encounter as few problems as possible utilizing the Internet. Prior to offering the Internet training, several agents were surveyed via E-mail regarding possible topics and preferred time of year to take the training. Land application of animal waste was selected as the preferred topic and late- to mid-May was selected as the best time. Core material for the training was obtained from Clemson University Extension Circular 673 "Land Application of Animal Manure". Other specialists were invited to contribute materials to expand the information. Additional information included odor control, mini-pits, a table for application rates of lagoon effluents, a sample of the University of Georgia's UGFERTEX program, and links to pertinent information from the University of Georgia and Auburn University, Alabama. Links were also provided to access laboratory information for manure analysis from South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. The names of specialists contributing material to the Web page were included so that the user could click on them to get a "pop- up" E-mail box for individual correspondence. A graduate student programmer was hired to create the Web page. Labor costs for the programmer were the only expenses encumbered for the course. Specialists, whose expertise coincided with the topic, were contacted and asked for contributions to the Web page. When the Web page neared completion, the senior training coordinator subscribed registered agents to the Listserv by using their E-mail usernames. The agents were asked to practice using the Listserv by sending test messages to all the other participants. None of the participants had any difficulty using the Listserv. In addition, agents and specialists were asked to try to access the Web page and send E-mail by utilizing the E-mail option on their Web browser. Some of the agents learned that Web addresses are case sensitive. Many had problems sending E-mail through Netscape. This was the skill that required the most pre- training assistance. Instructions were subsequently posted on the Web explaining how to set up the proper parameters to send E-mail through Netscape. The URL (Web address) for the training can be found at: http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/
The training was for two weeks from May 19-30, 1997. The Listserv was relatively quiet the first couple of days then became more active as the agents and specialists began raising questions, sending responses, and sharing experiences across state lines. Some interesting discussion also occurred between specialists who had different approaches to various issues. The 41 documented questions, answers and comments were available to all the participants to read since they were sent out on the Listserv. The Listserv questions and responses were saved to a file where they can later be reworked into an Extension question and answer fact sheet or posted on the Web. A questionnaire was included on the Web page that could be filled out "on-line" and responses were sent electronically to the senior training coordinator. There were 16 agent responses, 12 from South Carolina and 4 from Georgia. Eight agents said they read about 80% of the material on the Web page and eight agents said they read 100% of the material. Table 1 shows agent impressions of the training material content and organization, Table 2 is the agent responses to the effectiveness of Internet training for this topic, and Table 3 is the agent's assessment of Internet skills learned as a result of this training.
The questionnaire also provided space for written responses to four specific questions. When asked "What advantages do you see with Internet in-service training?", nearly all agents replied that they liked the flexibility in learning time, not having to travel, the subsequent savings, and being able to share ideas with many people over a large geographic area. Responses to the question "What disadvantages do you see with Internet in- service training?" included missing the one-on-one interactions, being able to see demonstration sites when applicable, and the temptation to put off the training to address Extension-related problems in the office. To the question, "What would you like to see changed next time if another in-service training was to be offered on the Internet?", some agents felt they needed more time, others wanted more material and links to other relevant Web sites. A few mentioned the need for more structure and goal orientation. They suggested that some probing questions on the Listserv or a test at the end would give more direction. The responses to the question "What was the most important thing you learned as a result of this training?" were quite varied. About half of the agents mentioned that they found useful information on the Web pages or in the Listserv discussions while the other half of the agents focused on the Internet skills they acquired, such as the ability to do topic searches on the Web.
The main question to be answered by this "experiment" with in-service training of Extension agents is whether a high tech approach that has no face-to-face interaction could be a feasible method of training with a group of professionals who have traditionally depended on a more personable approach of communication. The responses to the questionnaire affirm that this type of training can work and, in fact, can engage enthusiastic participation by Extension agents. For a group who had never experienced this style of training before, they seemed to enjoy the novelty of this form of communication and being able to utilize their newly acquired Internet skills. For many, this was a course not only about land application of animal waste but how to effectively use the Internet as a learning tool. It is important to stress that this approach to in-service training requires considerable planning in anticipation of possible problems. The Web page should be kept as user friendly as possible with minimum plug-in links which require downloading additional software programs from the Web. A few moments of frustration at a computer terminal can readily convince a person that this style of learning is unfeasible, at least for them. Future plans are to offer another Internet in-service training next spring on regional cotton fertility issues. Changes in presentation will include worksheets or questions presented periodically throughout the training to keep the participants focused and discourage them from procrastinating in reviewing the materials or participating on the Listserv.
Mayadas, F. (1997). Asynchronous learning networks: a sloan foundation perspective. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks. 1(1). Telg, R. (1996). Distance educations considerations for IFAS faculty. Univ. of Florida. Academic Programs Publication Series, no. 21, 1-4.
Characteristics of Florida Extension Professionals that Influence the Teaching - Learning Process
Matt Baker
Tracy Hoover
Rick Rudd
Department of Agricultural Education and Communication
In formal education programs, the background and demographic characteristics that both learners and the educator bring into the classroom influence the teaching and learning process (Dunkin & Biddle, 1974). Conventional wisdom holds that the same would be true in nonformal education programs. Only a limited amount of research on learning styles has been conducted with professionals employed in cooperative Extension. Rollins and Yoder (1993) utilizing the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (LSI) with Extension professionals in Pennsylvania found differences between areas of assignment. Seevers (1995) utilized the Principles of Adult Learning Scale (PALS) instrument with Extension professionals in Ohio and found that respondents had a more teacher-centered behavior pattern than the norm. Values are defined as the "standards (or principles) by which choices are made which lead to actions" (Performax Systems International, 1985, p.VI-1). O'Connor (Performax Systems International, 1985) proposed that culture is a key variable in one's values, and stated that "cultural variables include our ethnic or tribal group, geographical location, socio-economic status, community residence, and national citizenship" (p.V.-7). Although the influence of value systems upon the teaching- learning process is unclear, conflicts between the value systems of the Extension professional conducting an educational program and those of clients could negatively influence client retention of knowledge. This study focused upon the identification of learning styles, value systems, and demographic characteristics of Extension professionals.
The target population for this descriptive study consisted of 56 Extension professionals employed in a 17 county region in north Florida. The counties ranged from primarily rural to a predominately urban area (Jacksonville). Three instruments were used to collect data for the study. Learning styles were measured by the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, & Karp, 1971). The GEFT classifies learners into two categories. Field dependent learners score lower than the national mean (11.4), and field independent learners score higher than the national mean. Field dependent learners have global perceptions, are sensitive to their social environments, have highly developed social skills, favor a spectator approach to learning, and need structured learning environments. Field independent learners are relatively uninfluenced by their surrounding field, are perceptive of discrete parts, are good at analytical thought, and often provide their own structure to facilitate learning. Values were measured by the Values Analysis Profile (VAP) (Performax Systems International, 1985). The VAP consists of 40 statements measured on a Likert-type scale. It classifies subjects into four categories. First, "traditionalists" are accepting of authority, traditional in terms of customs and practices, are loyal group members, and respective of social orders, believe in formal personal and work relationships. Second, "in-betweeners" prefer choices and options, dislike situations in which they are forced to make limited decisions, and are influenced by trends and fads. Third, "challengers" are likely to question authority and traditional values, believe that individual rights should take precedence over group or organizational considerations, have difficulty accepting social orders, and are informal in their approach to social orders and organizational roles. Finally, "synthesizers" are motivated to resolve conflicts, optimistic about the future, skeptical about present situations, and often noncommittal toward singular approaches (O'Connor & Massey, 1989). Demographic data were collected by way of a researcher- developed questionnaire. Items included on this questionnaire were based upon an in-depth literature review on learning styles and value systems (Baker, Hoover, Rudd, 1996).
The average GEFT score was 9.04 (SD=5.08). Scores ranged from a low of 1 to a high of 18. As a whole, more Extension professionals were field dependent learners (65%) than field independent learners. All of the professionals were categorized by the VAP as synthesizers. About 35% of the Extension professionals had multiple program area responsibilities. Of the multiple program Extension professionals, 41% included county-level administrative responsibilities and a combination of 4-H and Youth Development, Family and Consumer Sciences, Agriculture and Natural Resources, or Community Development assignments. Thirty-five percent of those with multiple responsibilities indicated that they had 4-H and Youth Development as well as Agricultural and Natural Resources assignments. Ages of Extension professionals ranged from 22 to 61 (M=40.06, SD=9.96). Over 53% were male. In terms of learning style and gender, both males (M=8.16, SD=5.26) and females (M=10.0, SD=4.81) were field dependent. A greater percentage of males than females were field dependent than females (68% compared to 60.9%). Participants in their 30's scored higher on the GEFT than did participants in the other age groups. When looking at GEFT scores by age range and gender, males in their 20's were more field independent than males in other age groups (M=13.00, SD=1.73). Females in their 40's (although field dependent), scored highest on the GEFT (M=11.14, SD=4.74) compared to females in other age groups.
Participants tended to be field dependent learners. Learning style identification certainly has implications for both program delivery and professional development. In terms of program delivery, presentation and learning experiences must be differentiated based upon the learning styles of clients. As for professional development, it is essential that programs be delivered to Extension professionals that are highly structured and allow for social interaction. The results of the VAP revealed that all participants were synthesizers. Synthesizers have the goal of integration of self with others. They are often overly-demanding upon themselves and what they can reasonably accomplish. There is a need to identify the value systems of program clients in an effort to determine if value systems are similar. Participating Extension professionals in this study represented three broad program areas. Over one-third of the participants had multiple program responsibilities. The subjects included about the same number of men as women. As a whole, they were in the mid-point in their Extension careers. Over 70% of the Extension professionals attended high school in the Southeast. However, participants represented every geographic region in the country with the exception of the Pacific West. No clear patterns emerged in regards to learning style and gender, age range, or geographical region in which the Extension professionals attended high school. Extension professionals differed only slightly in regards to their learning styles and demographic characteristics.
Baker, M., Hoover, T., & Rudd, R. (1996). A comparison of learning styles, value systems, and demographic characteristics of selected teaching faculty at the University of Florida. Proceedings of the Southern Region Agricultural Education Research Meeting, Athens, GA, 144-151. Duncan, M.J., & Biddle, B.J. (1974). The study of teaching. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. O'Connor, M.J., & Massey, M.E. (1989). Values Conflict Action Planner. Minneapolis, MN: Carlson Learning Company. Performax Systems International, Inc. (1985). Values analysis system profile manual. Minneapolis, MN. Rollins, T.J. & Yoder, E.P. (1993, Summer). Agents' learning preferences. Journal of Extension, 31(2). Seevers, B.S. (1995, June). Extensionists as adult educators: A look at teaching style preference. Journal of Extension, 33(3). Witkin, H.A., Oltman, P.K., Raskin, E., & Karp, S.A. (1971). Group embedded figures test manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press, Inc.
Ohio Farmer Use Of The Pesticide Label
Steven C. Prochaska
Emma Lou Norland In Ohio, county agriculture Extension personnel expend large amounts of human (3,011 hours in 1992) and monetary resources to conduct pesticide applicator training (Waldron, 1993). A large part of initial training involves teaching applicators pesticide label concepts and importance as an information service. Pesticide applicator behaviors inconsistent with label mandates could negatively affect food safety and thus harm human health and as well as the environment (Waldron & Goleman, 1989). Reading and following pesticide label directions is intrinsic to safe pesticide use. An Illinois survey found that 68 percent of farmers read the pesticide label every or almost each time an application was made. (Pike, Glover, Knake, and Kuhlman, 1990). A component of a research project conducted in Ohio in 1993 was to describe the reported pesticide label use behaviors of Ohio Certified Private Pesticide Applicators (OCPPA), to examine their attitude about the value of the pesticide label and to determine differences of OCPPA pesticide label use by level of education and acres farmed. Three objectives of the study were: (a) Description of OCPPA reported use (reading) of pesticide label; (b) Description of OCPPA attitude towards the value of pesticide label; and (c) Determine the differences of OCPPA reported pesticide label use by level of acres farmed and education.
A valid and reliable survey instrument was developed and administered by agricultural Extension agents at county level pesticide recertification sessions. Data were collected during the first three months of 1993 using a random cluster sampling approach. The target population of the study consisted of OCPPA members eligible to be recertified in 1993 and who applied pesticides in 1992. A sample of sufficient size was used to provide a .95 confidence interval for the population parameter. Completion of the survey and instrument was voluntary. With over 90 percent of OCPPA participating in the study, non-response (an external validity threat) was not considered significant.
Conclusions Reading (use) of the pesticide label was measured using eleven pesticide label components with a set of six descriptors. The following pesticide components were used in this measure: personal protective equipment instructions, signal word, environmental hazards, container disposal; application use rates; directions for tank mixes; crop rotation; emergency medical treatment; pesticide storage, field entry intervals, and pests controlled. The six descriptors for reading of the individual pesticide label component follow: (a) I typically don't; (b) Only when I have an emergency; (c) When I am using a pesticide for the first time; (d) At the beginning of the season; (e) I usually read this part each time I use a pesticide; and (f) I always read this part each time I use a pesticide. To analyze data, the eleven component measure was summed, and a mean value was calculated for each case. The mean score for this variable was 4.29 (standard deviation of .88) which would indicate private pesticide applicators are reading the pesticide label typically at the beginning of the application season. The attitude of OCPPA towards the value of pesticide label when applying pesticides was examined with a subjective measure. The descriptors and their frequency distribution are listed in the results. The mean calculated to be 4.38 would indicate OCPPA consider the pesticide label to be a very valuable piece of information when using pesticides. To determine the relationship of the level of education on the reported pesticide use behaviors of OCPPA, a one-way analysis of variance procedure was used. There were five levels of education possible for OCPPA to choose from, ranging from some high school (1), to advanced degree (5). No significant differences existed between the levels of education on the dependent variable (p=.31), read pesticide label. A one-way analysis of variance procedure was also used to determine differences between the levels of acres farmed by OCPPA and OCPPA use of the pesticide label. No significant differences were found between the levels of acres farmed by OCPPA on pesticide label use of OCPPA. Results of this research project indicated that OCPPA considers the pesticide label to be a very valuable piece of information when applying pesticides and applicators are reading the pesticide label at least at the beginning of the season. There were no differences in OCPPA in reported label use by levels of age or acres farmed. Thus, a desired outcome of Extension teaching programs in Ohio, OCPPA reading the pesticide label before pesticide application, has been achieved.
Waldron, A. (1993). [Pesticide applicator training status, fiscal year 1992]. Unpublished raw data. Columbus: Ohio State University Extension. Waldron, A. & Goleman, D.L. (1989). Pesticide Users Guide (Bulletin 745). Columbus: Ohio State University Extension. Pike, D.R., Glover, K.D., Knake, E.L., & Kuhlman, D.E. (1990). Pesticide use in Illinois: results of a 1990 survey of major crops. Urbana: University of Illinois.
Volunteerism in Ohio Central Cities and Surrounding Communities: Frequency, Potential, and Demographics
R. Dale Safrit More citizens must assume active volunteer roles in local human and community service educational programs if the quality of community life is to be maintained and improved (Lappe and DuBois, 1994). Peterson and his co-authors from The Urban Institute (1992) emphasized that the crises facing our nation's urban communities will be addressed successfully only through strong leadership at all levels of the community. The need and demand for expanded Cooperative Extension educational programs in urban communities continues to grow. However, as Extension operating budgets hold steady or even decrease, more volunteers will be needed to assist in planning, implementing, and evaluating urban Extension educational programs. According to the Strategic Framework for the National Cooperative Extension System (ECOP, CSREES 1995): Extension's history is strongly identified with farming and rural communities. Some legislators and other community leaders have recognized Extension's success in rural America and are now insisting that Extension's expertise and methods also focus on critical issues in metropolitan districts. Extension must find ways to emphasize rural-metropolitan interdependence and serve audiences in both settings (pp. 8-9). Direct citizen involvement as volunteers with Extension educational programs that address critical human and social needs is one important opportunity to encourage and strengthen such rural-metropolitan interdependence. Little data exists regarding volunteerism in urban settings. If Cooperative Extension organizations are to build successful partnerships with volunteers in urban communities, then data is needed about the current status of and potential for volunteerism in central cities and surrounding communities, and to learn more about who volunteers and who does not. The purpose of this study was to investigate the current level of and potential for volunteerism and acquire demographic data on volunteers and non- volunteers in Ohio central cities and surrounding communities.
The population for the study was the 6,270,000 adult residents living within the central city and contiguous communities surrounding Akron, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, and Dayton, Ohio (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1991). The total study sample size was 2,116; the accessible sample size was 1,492. The researcher developed a telephone questionnaire of 19 questions organized into five sections around five research constructs: volunteer activity (level, type, and focus of activity), reasons for volunteering, barriers to volunteering/volunteering more, philanthropic behaviors, and demographics. Section 1 contained five items that investigated a respondent's level and type of volunteer activity. Section 2 investigated 18 potential reasons why the respondent may have volunteered, while section 3 investigated 17 potential barriers to volunteering or volunteering more. Section 4 included three questions that investigated respondents' plans to volunteer during the next two years and their philanthropic behaviors. Section 5 consisted of nine questions about respondents' demographics. The researcher established the face and content validity of the questionnaire through a panel of fifteen experts in urban volunteerism from the five study cities, including professional volunteer managers and actual volunteers. Reliability was established through a pilot test with 26 purposefully identified respondents in the five research cities. Trained volunteers utilized the telephone questionnaire to collect data from randomly-selected respondents. According to Fowler (1988), a telephone questionnaire methodology is especially applicable to urban and suburban areas. Data were collected in each research city during any two consecutive weeks beginning September 7 and ending October 14, 1993. All completed and partially-completed questionnaires were coded into a personal computer and analyzed statistically using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Norusis, 1988). Basic frequencies were calculated for descriptive purposes.
Response and completion rates of 71% and 52%, respectively, were achieved; a response was defined operationally as someone answering the telephone; a completion was defined as either a totally or partially completed survey. Seventy-one percent of all respondents had volunteered in the past three years. Fifty-eight percent had volunteered in the past twelve months; 37% had volunteered in the past three years, but not in the past twelve months. Volunteer respondents contributed an average of 21 hours per month. Based upon modal responses, the typical adult volunteer was a white married female between 30 and 40 years of age with a high school diploma or Grade Equivalency Diploma (GED). She was employed full-time with a total household income between $25,000 and $50,000, had resided at her current residence more than three years, and contributed an average of 21 volunteer hours per month. Ninety-five percent of all current volunteers indicated they planned to volunteer in the next two years. The typical adult non-volunteer respondent was a white married female between 20 and 30 years of age with a high school diploma or GED. She was employed full-time, had a total household income between $10,000 and $25,000, and had resided at her current residence more than three years. Although they had not volunteered within the past three years, 45% of all non- volunteers indicated that they planned to volunteer in the next two years.
Volunteerism is a highly prevalent phenomenon in Ohio's central cities and surrounding urban communities, both in current practice and future potential. A statistically significant larger percentage (58%) of adults in this study volunteered when compared to the findings of the Independent Sector (1994; 48%). The number of hours contributed by adult volunteers in both studies is similar, averaging approximately 16-20 hours per month. The results suggest that adult residents of the urban communities studied are more likely to volunteer than the general United States population. The adult volunteers identified in the study were demographically similar to those identified for the general United States population by the Independent Sector (1994). However, the adult non-volunteers identified in the study differed from the adult volunteers in being younger (age 20-30 as compared to the volunteers' 30-40) and having a lower total household income ($10,000-$25,000 as compared to the volunteers' $25,000-$50,000). Many of the critical issues facing contemporary urban communities directly affect identifiable segments of our total population, such as the elderly, youth, individuals and families with limited resources, and racial and ethnic minorities (Peterson et al., 1992). In developing and supporting educational programs, Extension educators should make concerted, focused efforts to identify and locate individuals within these population segments for targeted recruitment as volunteers. Young adults should be encouraged to contribute to their communities through volunteerism, and older adults to remain active in their communities as volunteers. Individuals with limited formal education and from households with limited income should be encouraged to identify even the most focused of roles where they may voluntarily contribute time, energies, or talents to their friends, neighborhoods, and communities, either informally and on-their-own or through formal Extension educational programs.
Extension Committee On Policy (ECOP) and Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES). (1995, February). Framing the future: Strategic framework for a system of partnerships. Urbana: University of Illinois Cooperative Extension Service. Fowler, F.J., Jr. (1988). Survey research methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Independent Sector. (1994). Giving and volunteering in the United States: Results from a national survey. Washington, D.C.: Author. Lappe, F.M., & DuBois, P.M. (1994). The quickening of America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Norusis, M.J. (1988). SPSS advanced statistics user's guide. Chicago: SPSS Inc. Peterson, G.E., Bawden, D.L., Harrell, A.V., Hill, P.T., Mincy, R.B., Nightingale, D.S., Turner, M.A., & Walker, C. (1992). Confronting the nation's urban crisis: From Watts (1965) to South Central Los Angeles (1992). Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute. (ERIC No. ED359310) United States Department of Commerce. (1991). Statistical abstract of the United States: The national data book. Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census. Usefulness of Extension News to DTN Subscribers
John M. Sperbeck
P. Joseph Kurtz
University of Minnesota Extension System
Data Transmission Network/Farm Dayta (DTN) is an electronic news, market and weather service. Farmer and agribusiness subscribers pay a one-time hook-up fee that covers use of a satellite dish, receiver, and monitor. DTN is supported by subscriber fees and advertisers. There are over 10,000 subscribers in Minnesota. Since mid-1994, the University of Minnesota Extension Service has been supplying a twice-weekly news service distributed to all Minnesota DTN subscribers. News stories are sent electronically from the Extension Service to DTN where they're sent, via satellite, directly to subscribers. Stories are typically production-related. Examples of typical titles include "Don't rely on foliar fertilizer for soybeans," "Cold spell raises crop damage concerns," and "Swine AI workshop scheduled." To help evaluate how useful the service was to subscribers, a random sample of 125 Minnesota subscribers to DTN was drawn. Then a telephone survey was conducted from December 1995 through mid-February 1996. A total of 92 useful responses was obtained (74% of the sample). All 125 names were called a least twice. Of those not reached, there was either no answer or the primary DTN user was not available. There were no refusals.
Respondents were asked if they'd read the University of Minnesota Extension Service pages (they are only a small segment of total information available on DTN). Of 90 respondents, 65 (72%) said they had read the Minnesota Extension Service pages on DTN. Those who answered no to the question either had not seen the pages (21, or 84%) or said the pages were not useful (4, or 16%). Of 64 respondents who had read the pages, 26 (41%) said they read them occasionally, or less than once a week. The same number 26 (41%) said they read the pages once a week, while 12 (19%) said they read them twice a week. There were 64 responses to the question "How useful are the University of Minnesota pages on DTN? Respondents were given three choices - very useful, somewhat useful, and not useful. Of the 64 respondents, 5 (8%) said "very useful;" 50 (77%) said "somewhat useful;" and 10 (15%) said "not useful." Subscribers preferred receiving three pages (screens) of material updated twice weekly (51 responses, 82%). The majority of respondents (43, or 64%) said the pages should be updated with new information twice a week, (the current practice). Subscribers also preferred the pages be available throughout the year (96%) vs. only during the crop growing season (4%).
Based on figures from this study, more than 8,000 Minnesota farm families and agribusiness firms regularly access information from the Extension Service every week. Furthermore, a total of 82% of the respondents found the information somewhat useful or very useful. This service appears to be an effective, efficient way to reach Minnesota farm families and agricultural businesses. The University of Minnesota Extension Service incurs no printing, mailing or other out-of-pocket expenses.
Cluster - A Great Way to Work
Rebecca J. Cropper
Rose Fisher Merkowitz Extension faculty always look for ways to increase efficiency while continuing to offer new education programs for local clientele. In the late 1980s the Ohio State University Extension Service looked at clustering counties to increase program delivery. The Adams, Brown and Highland Counties Cluster was established in 1987. The strength of this cluster has been the interdisciplinary efforts among faculty members. Through an intensive needs assessment the cluster was able to identify long- term program goals that enhanced members' specializations and program delivery. Faculty members represent all program areas: Family and Consumer Sciences, Agricultural/Natural Resources, 4-H/Youth Development, and Community Development. After ten years in the system, faculty members have been able to address a multitude of issues. County commissioners were involved in the beginning. Their support was needed to nurture the cluster formation. Commissioners helped address county needs and provided a vision for the three counties as a region. Cluster members worked in groups and individually to map out strategies to support this vision. Another factor contributing to the success of this cluster is the geographic location and the demographic similarities of each county. The population is comprised of rural towns and villages with outlying agricultural areas. The three counties are in the Ohio Appalachian region. Clientele are accustomed to traveling to the other two counties to purchase needed goods and services. How can other counties model this cluster success? One method is to involve team members in formal team-building opportunities. An extensive amount of time was devoted to team- building exercises, resulting in long-term cluster goals and professional collaboration. Team building provided the stimulus to build a high degree of trust, which is necessary for a team to be successful. District and state administration supported the cluster and its members from the inception by providing resources and administrative support. Another method that helped the team focus was a tri-county needs assessment. As data was gathered from this assessment, common threads appeared. Each program area was able to identity its own clientele needs and the entire cluster identified those needs on a broader scope. With this type of data, cluster members were able to prioritize specific programs and to mesh faculty specialization skills that would enhance educational programs. Team members reduced replication of programs and increased content by joining forces with their peers. This effort has increased both professional and personal support for team members since the beginning. Faculty members have conducted other needs assessments to be sure they are meeting local clientele needs. These assessments help the cluster redefine goals. New members are oriented to help them appreciate the cluster's goals and mission. The third method of this process was to develop interdisciplinary teams to work on specific program issues. This encouraged new audience identification and resulted in new Extension program efforts. Other Ohio counties have since developed similar clusters. Since the inception of the cluster, programs have focused on:
Through the cluster, grant dollars have been secured to support these projects. Combining the three counties builds the demographic base that is often needed for different grants. One aspect that cannot be measured is the cohesiveness of the team members. Team members have become mentors, friends, and professional colleagues through the implementation process of this cluster. The result is a high functioning team that addresses local clientele needs in the county and in the local region. Extension benefits from clusters are:
The Ohio State University Extension mission says "Our mission is to help people improve their lives through an educational process using scientific knowledge focused on identified issues and needs." The cluster embodies this mission by its use of need assessments that lead to the development of program priorities. Other counties can replicate this same process through personal introspection and professional collaboration.
Recognizing Volunteers: Right from the Start
Janet H. Hiller Recognizing Volunteers: Right from the Start. Nan Hawthorne, 1997. Easy-to-use Training Kit. $27.95 plus shipping and handling. 9594 First Ave NE, Suite 413, Seattle WA 98115-2012. For years and years we in Extension have too often recognized all of our volunteers in the same manner: dinners, programs, gifts, and certificates! This cookie-cutter approach to everyone was based on an image of the volunteer from decades past, an image that was inaccurate even then. Attracting today's volunteers and keeping them contented takes more than a simple "thank you" bash once a year. They are more focused, more clear on what they need out of the experience, and more keenly aware of where else they can go if they are not feeling rewarded by your organization. Today's volunteers, bright, talented, savvy, and self-aware, no longer accept warm fuzzies and a preprinted certificate as reward enough for taking time out of their busy schedules to volunteer. How, then do we get beyond the stale practices of the past to provide reward and meaning relevant to today's volunteers? One way is to look at recognition as a relationship, not as an event. This is the premise that is the basis for Nan Hawthorne's easy-to -use training kit. Each kit contains:
You could use these materials to help Extension or other community agencies and organizations that utilize volunteers gain new insights into why people volunteer and what makes them feel fulfilled and successful. Their increased understanding would serve as a foundation to build recognition of a volunteer's needs into every aspect of their volunteer experience (position development, recruitment, supervision, recognition) with your agency or organization. The outcome is likely to be happy, satisfied individuals that keep volunteering for your agency or organization! The training manual provides a complete guide for pre- preparation and conducting a 2-hour workshop. You are also provided with a complete listing of the workshop handouts, transparencies, possible responses to the workshop set-up, and activities. In a minimal amount of time you would be prepared to teach a dynamic workshop. These easy-to-use materials are packaged in a folder that could easily fit in your file or on a bookshelf. Conclusion: Order the "Recognizing Volunteers: Right from the Start" kit today and begin thinking about and acting on the idea that recognition of volunteers is a relationship, not an event!
Proverbs: A Path to Understanding Different Cultures
Ellen Schuster Whether called maxims, truisms, cliches, idioms, expressions, or sayings, proverbs are small packages of truth about a people's values and beliefs. Values like ambition, virtue, generosity, patience are addressed in sayings from most every culture. Yet, each culture has proverbs that are unique to it. The saying, "If you want to know a people, know their proverbs" illustrates this. For example, sayings from various Native American tribes often reflect their view of the land as sacred: "Take only what you need and leave the land as you found it" (Zona, 1994) and the importance of spirituality: "Wisdom comes only when you stop looking for it and start living the life the Creator intended for you" (Zona, 1994). Japanese proverbs often refer to morals: "An evil deed remains with the evildoer" (Zona, 1996) and discretion: "The tongue is like a sharp knife, it kills without drawing blood" (Zona, 1996). Many Mexican proverbs reflect the thinking and values of rural people or the average person on the street and hope is a common theme: "Hope dies last of all" (Sellers, 1994). Workplace diversity is and will become increasingly important for Extension to address. We can learn about a people through its sayings. Sharing these proverbs can be one way to learn about other cultures - their similarities and differences compared to ours. Towards this end, I have shared cultural proverbs with others by (a) adding them to my weekly voice mail messages on my office phone; (b) adding them to the signatures on the e-mails I send and (c) sending a weekly cultural proverb, via e-mail, to co-workers in my office. The reactions to these efforts have been enthusiastic. Some callers, after leaving a message for me, have called back just to listen to the proverb and write it down. There are other ways we can use proverbs in our daily Extension work, such as: (a) including a proverb in a memo to draw attention and reinforce a certain theme, that is, a Congo proverb to illustrate teamwork: "A single bracelet does not jingle" (Copage, 1993). (b) using a proverb in a newsletter article or a training to make a point, such as, good nutrition with the Haitian proverb: "The empty bag cannot stand up." (Copage, 1993). If you would like to use proverbs in your newsletters, trainings, articles, presentations see the reference list at the end of this article. Proverb resources are also available on the Web at the URL: http://www.utas.edu/au/docs/flonta/PHRASEOLOGY(Note : As of May 3,2001 this web page is no longer available). Here you will find De Proverbio, the Journal of International Proverb Studies and other links to African, Russian, Yiddish and Swahili proverbs. Other sources are Feldman & Voelke (1992) and Zona (l993). Proverbs are one way we can expand our multicultural repertoire. Through the sharing of proverbs we can reinforce the similarities and differences of people everywhere.
Copage, E. V. (1993). Black pearls. New York: William Morrow. Feldman, R. & Voelke, C.A. (1992). A world treasury of folk wisdom. New York: HarperCollins. Sellers, J.M. (1994). Proverbios y dichos Mexicanos - Folk wisdom of Mexico. San Francisco: Chronicle Books Zona, G. A. (1996). Even withered trees give prosperity to the mountain and other proverbs of Japan. New York: Simon & Schuster. Zona, G.A. (1993). The house of the heart is never full and other proverbs of Africa. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. Zona, G.A. (1994). The soul would have no rainbow if the eyes had no tears and other Native American proverbs. New York: Simon & Schuster.
This article is online at http://www.joe.org/joe/1998february/ent.html.
Copyright © by Extension Journal, Inc. ISSN 1077-5315. Articles appearing in the Journal become the property of the Journal. Single copies of articles may be reproduced in electronic or print form for use in educational or training activities. Inclusion of articles in other publications, electronic sources, or systematic large-scale distribution may be done only with prior electronic or written permission of the Journal Editorial Office, joe-ed@joe.org. |
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