Volume 35 Number 6
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December 1997 Volume 35 Number 6 |
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Dear Reader, Extension agents and specialists are often called "agents of change," an apt description of Extension work. However, we don't have a handy term for the changes that are occurring within the Extension System. This issue of your Journal of Extension reflects some of the changes going on. For instance, there's a great article from Penn State about integrating Extension into graduate education in forestry. The topic seems particularly pertinent as our universities seek to integrate Extension more into departments and colleges. Another example of how Extension programs have changed is reflected in the Illinois piece about education for minority entrepreneurs, a topic few would have seen in an Extension program not many years ago. The use of technology is reflected in the article about using database software in natural resource education. Changes in agricultural programs are seen in articles about IPM and the role of market research in agricultural production and processing. And, of course, there's a provocative look at administrative theory. Enjoy your Journal of Extension and I hope you get some new ideas from this and other issues. In the meantime, best wishes for a great 1998. Len Calvert, editor
Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors:
Sorrel Brown, President, Iowa, North Central Directors
Ex-officio:
Leonard Calvert, Oregon, Editor
Editorial Committee:
Joyce Alves, Arizona
Fundamentally Flawed: Extension Administrative Practice Part 1Thomas F. Patterson, Jr.
No one would base their professional career on assumptions made over a hundred years ago, right? Wrong. Most Extension administrators fall into the trap of doing what their superiors did before them by not questioning the underpinnings of their administrative practice. This commentary is the first of a two-part series to address Extension administrative practice. This first-part argues that Extension's current administrative techniques are fundamentally flawed and inappropriate in the modern work place. It will explore the underlying hypotheses that form the foundation of these practices. A second commentary will follow in the next issue of the Journal, suggesting new ways of administrating in the workplace--ways that will lead to new levels of productivity and satisfaction for all.
The administrative tasks that Extension managers perform today would show a remarkable consistency throughout the history of Extension. A recent state Extension director job posting lists the following responsibilities under the umbrella of administration: leading, developing, monitoring, coordinating, staffing, and evaluating -- essentially the same functions that have been carried out by generations of administrative predecessors. The majority of these activities are focused on "managing" subordinates and are, for the most part, measures of control, with the work of employees seen as an outcome that can be manipulated by management through such means as annual plans of work, periodic activity reports, target goals, verbal reprimands or praise, probationary periods, performance appraisals, and merit systems. Although the term "management" is conspicuously absent from most Extension literature, this commentary argues that the overriding activity of Extension administrators is, simply, to manage.
Few Extension administrators are professionally trained in the field of management, rather they have been promoted to administration because they excelled in their subject matter discipline. It is not uncommon to see former agricultural engineers, nutritionists or youth specialists serving as Extension administrators. Being promoted from a subject matter discipline into management is certainly not unique to Extension and is, in fact, commonplace throughout the industrialized world. Like most new managers, Extension administrators learn about and exercise their new craft by emulating those who proceeded them, thus perpetuating existing management practices. This on- the-job training approach is often supplemented with short courses and specialized training programs in such subjects as "how to deal with problem employees" or "how to develop and administer a budget." The training of newly minted managers is a multi-million dollar business. The context in which Extension administrators perform also plays a key role in shaping their behavior. Much of what Extension administrators do is required of them by the organizations that fund Extension work. Funding agencies all seek to accomplish their goals by prescribing and controlling how their resources are spent, and Extension, with its reliance on several funding sources in the public sector and, now, increasingly from the private sector, is unique in this aspect. Extension administrators are universally called upon to balance the "cooperative" nature of university, governmental (often on several levels) and private funding agencies.
The theoretical basis for such administrative action comes from the deep and venerable classical school of management, established around the turn of the twentieth century and anchored in the work of Frederick W. Taylor. Taylor (1856-1915) is best remembered for developing the principles of scientific management in which he called for an objective scientific analysis of the work place to determine the "one best way" to perform a task. Under Taylor, management was responsible for determining the science of each job. Employees were then trained and supervised to execute each task according to management's "one best way." Many of the time-honored management tools still used today, such as time/motion studies, job descriptions and management by objectives, are rooted in scientific management. Henry Fayol (1841-1925), another founding member of the classical management school, described five functions of management as: 1) to forecast and plan - examining the future and drawing up plans of action, 2) to organize - building up the structure, materials and human capital of the undertaking, 3) to command - maintaining activity among personnel, 4) to coordinate - binding together, unifying and harmonizing activity, and 5) to control - seeing that everything occurs in conformity with policy and practice. A comparison of Fayol's functions and the activities listed for modern day Extension administrators reveals a stunning similarity. Max Weber (1864-1920) described the ideal character of bureaucracy -- adding a structural component to the classical management school. According to Weber, bureaucratic organizations were defined by such features as hierarchy of control, specialization of function, centralization of information and control, and formal rules, policies and procedures. The bureaucrat's employment contract offered lifetime job security in exchange for loyalty to official policies and procedures. The "machine-like" nature of this model required employees to leave their individuality at the work place door, their roles and expectations being clearly laid out for them by managers. The principal structural operating domain of Extension -- universities and governments -- are often cited today as prime examples of bureaucracy.
The classical management school is based on a number of assumptions about employees and the work place:
Although these statements may seem ludicrous and silly to many people today, they form the foundation for much of current management practice. It must be remembered that these assumptions about human nature and the work place were formulated over a hundred years ago, when many workers were illiterate first generation immigrants, working conditions in industry were often dangerous, the hours long, and the work often physically demanding. There were few laws to regulate the work place and the abuses of child labor were rampant.
Fortunately, we have witnessed dramatic changes in the work place over the past hundred years. Federal laws prohibit many of the abuses that permeated the past. The very nature of work has changed, with knowledge having replaced muscle power; psychology has open new doors into the worker psyche; the work week has been shortened; and the educational level of the average employee has skyrocketed. Unfortunately, the mindset of managing people in the workplace has not kept pace with these changing demographics and work force trends, and, as has been pointed out above, Extension administrators continue to manage people using unexamined and antiquated 100 year-old assumptions. Part two of this commentary will follow in the next issue JOE and will discuss new ways of managing for Extension administrators.
Fayol, H. (1929). General and industrial management, translated by J. A. Conbrough. Geneva, Switzerland: International Management Institute. McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill. Taylor, F. W. (1911). Principles of management. New York: Harper and Brothers. Weber, M. (1946). Essays in sociology, translated by H. H. Gerth and C. W. Mills. New York: Oxford University Press.
4-H Classroom Science Programs Enriching the Learning EnvironmentRobert L. Horton
Joseph Konen
Nationwide more than three million youth were involved in 4-H school enrichment programs in 1995. The National Center for Science Teaching and Learning (NCSTL) and the National 4-H Network for Action in Science Technology (NNST) recently joined together to study ways of increasing the impact 4-H classroom science programs have on the learning environment of elementary grade students. Studies suggest that participation by community organizations such as 4-H can enrich the learning environment of elementary and middle school classrooms (National 4-H Science and Technology Committee, 1991). During the past five years, Ohio's 4 -H professionals have introduced more than 3,700 elementary teachers to the use of hands-on science activities to help students comprehend difficult concepts and apply particular skills. Conversations with teachers and Extension agents suggest that programs with follow-up support of the teacher achieve the highest level of teacher satisfaction and sustained involvement. A 1993 statewide assessment of 4-H classroom science programs (Horton, 1993) suggested the need for additional follow- up once teachers were engaged in teaching a unit. Elementary teachers in the study expressed a level of anxiety when using 4-H science units, even when comprehensive training was provided. Approximately 83 percent of the teachers sampled requested additional support in the form of classroom visitations. Apparently, these teachers viewed the workshop much like a student-teaching experience in which follow-up visitations would be made by a supervising instructor. Convinced that 4-H could play a role in enriching the learning environment of students, NCSTL and NNST researchers set out to establish a model approach for the delivery of 4-H classroom science programs in Ohio. Based on their review of the literature, the group determined that a model 4-H classroom science program should contain the following components: (a) experiential teaching materials; (b) compatible school and community partners; (c) an introductory workshop for both teachers and partners; (d) support for both teachers and partners during the workshop programs; (e) student materials and teaching supplies; and (f) program closure, including alternative assessment activities and a celebration of student accomplishments. In the pilot program, 4-H acted as a catalyst for recruiting and sustaining community partners as well as for preparing and supporting classroom teachers and partners. In spring 1995, research began on the effectiveness of this model within Ohio's 4 -H program. Cuyahoga County was selected as the initial pilot site based on its experience in developing partnerships among 4- H, community resources, and the schools. Each of the six program components was included in the pilot: 1) Experiential Teaching Materials The researchers selected the Ohio 4-H curriculum entitled "Rockets Away" as the course of study for the pilot program. This multi-disciplinary curriculum is designed to stimulate interest in mathematics, science, engineering, aerospace, and physics while incorporating verbal and mathematics skills through the exploration of rocketry science. The content covers Newton's three laws, gravity, air pressure, velocity, altitude, and other aerodynamic concepts and principles. The curriculum materials are divided into three units. Each begins with several "Rocket Run-down" facts that lead into a background information section; this discussion section provides simple demonstrations with explanations for students to understand basic science concepts. The last part of each unit focuses specifically on hands-on activities for students to explore and learn. 2) School and Community Partners The effort to support the work of the teachers with community-based partners was an important component. The five community partners who attended represented private and public organizations: B.F. Goodrich, Great Lakes Science Center, and Cuyahoga County Extension. Teachers and partners were matched by proximity; each partner was grouped with at least four teachers. Recruitment of an adequate number of community partners was not entirely successful and showed two obstacles to effective recruitment: (a) Corporate down-sizing has left many businesses without the ability to free scientists and other workers for community volunteering; and (b) recruitment of committed volunteers takes long term coalitions between the Extension program and corporations. 3) Science Enrichment Workshop Ohio State University Cuyahoga County Extension, in conjunction with NCSTL, sponsored a program to prepare Cleveland- area elementary and middle school teachers and interested community partners for a hands-on/minds-on curriculum. Twenty-two public and elementary school teachers attended the workshop. Partnering with community, business, industry, and educational leaders was used as a means to enhance and stimulate science education in the classroom. Specific workshop objectives included: (a) combining presentations, demonstrations, discussions, and practice in the workshop setting; (b) providing hands-on/minds-on activities related to conceptual themes of science; (c) introducing partnership opportunities involving teachers and community resource persons; (d) offering information on how to access free or low-cost materials and resources from Extension. The agenda was modified from NCSTL's partnership preparation program by the inclusion of curriculum and partnership development activities. The workshop program began with introductions and a brief summary of the purpose. Introduction to the curriculum followed. Units were taught through demonstrations, group and individual activities, and discussions that provided clarification of concepts and time to synthesize the material. After the curriculum was experienced, a demonstration rocket was launched outside. Later, teachers and their community partners designed their own rockets, which they launched after the partnership workshop. Many group activities during the partnership preparation session were designed to allow teachers and partners to get to know one another. The first activity asked each member of the group to introduce himself or herself and describe a typical workday. Teachers and community partners did the next activity separately. Both groups were asked to develop a list of advantages and disadvantages of working together in the classroom and a list of concerns and expectations for the partnerships Later, the lists were shared and discussed. The groups' lists were thematically very similar. For example, the teachers' list of advantages included students having better school attendance, studying more, and seeing real-life examples of what they could do with science when they grow up, and partners becoming resources in teaching. The community partners' advantages included promoting the sciences to students, helping students learn, encouraging students to study and take up careers in math and science, and involving themselves within the community. Prior to the workshop, teachers were asked to respond to the question, "What does the phrase school/community partnership mean to you?" Their responses included:
The concept of partnering was presented as a variety of different relationships between schools and community resources. Teachers were asked which of the three partnership models (adopt- a-school, project-driven, or long-term, reform-based) most closely resembled what they had in their schools and in their classrooms. Prospective community partners told the teachers of any previous partnering experiences in which they had been involved. Then followed further explanation and a group discussion about how each unique relationship between teacher and partner might evolve over time. A prescriptive approach to creating partnerships was deemed unrealistic and dismissed. 4) Support for both teachers and partners After the teacher training sessions and during the time the teachers present the materials to the students, the role of the Extension office is to support the process. Contact with the teachers and partners facilitates their interaction. Both teachers and partners tend to be busy and assistance to each of them in contacting and continuing the relationships of the workshop can be helpful. Contact with the teachers at the countywide launch day also provides an opportunity for the teachers and partners to continue informal development of their relationships and to share refinements in the implementation of the program. 5) Student materials and teaching supplies Cuyahoga County Extension supplied each teacher with a kit of materials to support Rockets Away! activities in a classroom of 30 students. Experience has shown that urban school districts are often unable to assist teachers financially in purchasing even inexpensive teaching materials. Teachers trained after the first round of training have been able to borrow launch day kits from the Cuyahoga County Extension Office. Based on the experience and success of this program the Cleveland public Schools have appropriated nearly $50,000 to purchase Rockets Away kits for all 5th grade classrooms in the district (approximately 300 classrooms). Other parochial and public school districts have provided funds for teacher purchase of classroom and launch kits. 6) Program Closure The culminating event of the program was Student Rocket Launch Day, sponsored by Cuyahoga County Extension. This all-day event, at the end of the six-week curriculum, was an opportunity for partners, teachers, and students to celebrate their involvement in the program and for students to demonstrate their two-liter bottle rockets. Eighty-six students launched rockets. Prizes were awarded for the most creative, best constructed, and highest flying. Students were required to calculate the altitude and speed of their rockets. Program Evaluation After the program, teachers and partners were asked to evaluate the workshop introduction, the Rockets Away! Curriculum, aspects of partnering, individual and group sharing, and teacher and partner action planning. They were invited to suggest steps for the future. They were also asked, "What did you like most about the workshop, and what did you like least?" "Liked most" responses included:
"Liked least" responses included:
A few obstacles to the workshop experience should be noted. The first, known prior to the program, was the time of year the program was presented; teachers suggested offering it earlier in the school year. The second concerned the partners' involvement in the delivery of the curriculum. The workshop kicked off a six- week unit of study during which teachers and partners shared in presenting the hands-on activities to students. Teachers later voiced several problems, including that "it was difficult to link up with partners due to operating on different schedules." and that "I did not hear from partner nor did I contact the partner because I was pressed for time." One of the partners mentioned being "burned out" because of past efforts that focused on behavioral management in the classroom. Conclusions and Recommendations The 4-H classroom science model used as the framework for this study appears to be a valid approach for establishing meaningful science learning experiences. The emphasis placed on providing the necessary support and follow-up for teachers and partners during the program, along with the availability of classroom-ready kits, was valuable to the success of this program. Clearly, the county Extension office's role as a catalyst for bringing together and sustaining teacher-partner relationships is worth further examination. The Extension program must devise additional methods of initiating and cultivating the partnerships. Two strategies are indicated: (a) Expectations of the partners must be clear. Partners in this pilot were only committed to sharing the training with the teachers and doing what they could afterward to assist the teachers. Partners should be expected to visit the teachers' classrooms at least twice during the process of the classroom experience. (b) Perhaps in some cases the Extension office itself might become the partner of the teacher if other volunteers (corporate and individual) are not available. Some foundations have shown interest in funding classroom visitation for support of teachers. Although Cuyahoga County Extension invested numerous hours initiating and cultivating the partnership among the school, the community partner, and 4-H, the perception was that Extension's involvement would diminish over time. Furthermore, as several successful partnerships mature and grow within a school, others in nearby schools might begin with less effort. The teacher-partner workshop fulfilled the goal of having teachers and partners learn while sharing a common experience. An assessment of the workshop experiences showed that partners gained appreciation for the role of teachers while recognizing their own capacity to help and teach others. However, there should be occasional follow-up with partners and teachers, as partners tend to put off calling teachers and some teachers go ahead without them. Also, several teachers suggested an alternative assessment technique for Student Rocket Launch Day that could prove useful for both teachers and students. Students would circulate around a number of learning stations staffed by partners. At a particular station, a student might be asked to demonstrate Newton's third law, for example, by releasing and inflating a balloon or determining an object's center of gravity and pressure. Students might also calculate the altitude and speed of their rockets, based on the number of seconds from launch to landing. Such activities would provide not only immediate feedback, but also valuable assessment data for improving the quality of teacher- partner instruction. Finally, we suggest planning adequate lead time, at least four months, to recruit and prepare prospective teachers and partners for the program. During the workshop there should be enough time for the partners and teachers to begin planning their lessons together. One of the biggest complaints was that teachers and partners did not establish a level of comfort with one another. This may have contributed to partners' reluctance to follow up with teachers. The model put forth in this program shows great promise in guiding the classroom science efforts of 4-H professionals across the country. Clearly, 4-H can play a role in initiating and nurturing effective science learning environments. However, additional study is needed to determine if this model is effective in sustaining the involvement of community partners with classroom teachers and in changing the way science is viewed and taught in elementary and middle school classes.
Horton, B. (1993, November). Assessment of effectiveness, 4-H teacher training programs in Ohio. Paper presented at the National 4-H Agent Meeting, Winston-Salem, NC. National 4-H Science and Technology Committee. (1991). 4-H enhancement of classroom environments. Washington, DC: Extension Service-U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Encouraging Marketing ResearchRonald B. Larson
One of the toughest audiences for Extension educators is a group of business people who have been successful without consciously using a new practice or technology. An example is convincing people who doubt that the value of marketing research to understand their buyers may generate higher returns than studies to improve yields and lower costs. Those unfamiliar with marketing may believe that most people are similar to their friends, that everyone is aware of their product's value and availability, or that marketing research would only tell them what they already know. To develop effective marketing outreach efforts for these audiences, Extension educators need to develop analyses that producers find both persuasive and relevant. For many years, food producer groups directed their financial resources toward production research and encouraged public support for similar projects. However, increased competition from highly-processed items lead some groups to study how to add more value to their products. The author developed presentations on the value of marketing for many regional, state, national, and international food and small business groups. These programs were intended to help the business people evaluate whether increased consumer marketing and marketing research could generate significant benefits. Perceptions of high costs and limited benefits often restrict support for these projects. Fact-based examples were developed to show how inexpensive research could magnify the effectiveness of marketing efforts. The examples were very popular and appeared to overcome the skepticism that some had for marketing. This paper highlights several examples from these presentations to help others who may speak to similar audiences. First, the sales development indices are described, examples showing regional variations are reviewed, and the importance of product form is illustrated. Then applications are discussed where the indices are used to identify possible promotion partners and to rank markets based on sales variation. The final section summarizes the conclusions. Although evaluations of the presentations were primarily qualitative (and quite positive), one group decided to conduct a national consumer survey to better understand sales trends after seeing this and other information.
Many manufacturers segment their markets and target particular buyers or geographies with extra promotions. Skews in consumption patterns help them direct marketing efforts at heavy buyers or other segments with significant profit potential. For organizations and businesses without funds for national marketing programs, selecting the best regions to target is important. Examples of regional consumption patterns may help convince producers to study their category's patterns. Arbitron/SAMI, a marketing information company, collected sales data from grocery warehouses and sold it to clients for more than 25 years. They provided very accurate sales estimates by using a near-census of warehouses and tabulating the sales when products were withdrawn from warehouses and transported to stores. Clients, both supermarkets and manufacturers, helped to define meaningful product categories and market areas. The company prepared an annual report that indexed each category's dollar sales per household by market to the U.S. average. Their 54 Selling-Areas Marketing Inc. (SAMI) markets, listed in Table 1, covered more than 88 percent of the grocery sales in the lower 48 states. The 1990 sales development (dollar sales per household) indices for 126 food categories by SAMI market were analyzed to illustrate the potential gains from marketing research and from targeted promotions.
Table 2 shows the twelve SAMI markets with the highest and lowest sales development indices for six categories. In the Peanut Butter and Peanut Butter Combinations category, dollar sales per household in the Grand Rapids-Kalamazoo market were 72 percent higher than the national average in 1990. Shreveport- Jackson had the lowest category consumption per household, 42 percent below average. Most strong markets were in the North and most weak markets were in the South (the thirty markets between the strongest and weakest markets are not shown). Three large markets, New York, Los Angeles-San Diego, and Baltimore-Washington had some of the lowest indices. The twelve low markets represented 29.9 percent of U.S. households. If consumption in these low markets could be raised to the level in Grand Rapids-Kalamazoo, national peanut butter sales would increase more than 30 percent. Regional sales patterns varied by category. Sales indices for Canned Peaches ranged from 160 to 71. Most strong markets were in the Central region while the weak markets were geographically dispersed. If consumption in the 12 weakest markets could be increased 50 percent, national canned peach sales would grow by 15 percent. For Frozen Strawberries, most weak markets were in the East-Central part of the U.S. Strawberry growers could boost frozen strawberry sales by nearly 50 percent if they convinced East-Central residents to consume the product at the same rate as those in the strongest markets. Many food categories have even wider ranges in their sales development indices.
Many factors contribute to regional sales variations. An example is the popularity of apple products varies by form. Residents of the Northeast bought the most Canned Applesauce while those in the South bought the least. Frozen Apple Juice/Cider is strongest in the Northwest and weakest in the South while Shelf-Stable Apple Juice is most popular in the Northeast and least popular in the Midwest. Differences in when and how the products are consumed along with demographics, tastes, and traditions may explain some regionality and suggest strategies for increasing sales. Failure to account for these differences could limit the effectiveness of marketing programs. For some products with multiple forms, the popularity of the forms is inversely related across markets. For example, Frozen Peas are strongest in the North and weakest in the South while Canned Peas are the strongest in the South and weakest in the North. The correlation between the indices for Frozen Peas and Canned Peas is -0.48. This surprising result suggests that pea growers should consider product form when they conduct research and design marketing programs. A similar regional reversal did not appear for Frozen Corn and Canned Corn. The Southwest is the strongest region for both forms. The correlation between the indices is +0.53. To boost corn consumption, producers might study buying habits in the Southwest and try to increase purchase frequency. They could promote similar recipes to people in other areas. From these and other examples, producers can learn about the potential payoff from regional analysis and market segmentation by product form.
Many organizations lack the funds to support complete national marketing plans and are interested in small programs with high returns. To increase the sales gains per dollar of marketing expense, marketers often target key geographies, customize promotions for local conditions, and find complementary products that can be marketed together. The response to promotional events varies by market. Wittink, Addona, Hawkes & Porter (1987) found significant differences in the price elasticity and the promotional multipliers for tuna by market. Hoch, Kim, Montgomery & Porter (1995) found large differences in price and promotion elasticities between stores for one chain in the same city. Promotions judged to be successes in one area may not succeed in others. Events can often be enhanced by studying the barriers to sales growth in an area and adjusting the event using historical, market-level promotion efficiency information. Searching the product universe for items with compatible buyer profiles may exceed the research budgets of producers. An option is to narrow the search for promotion partners to compare regional sales indices. If the goal is to find a partner whose sales are strong in the same markets as the producer's product (i.e., increase sales among current users), items with similar (positively correlated) regional indices may be good candidates. If the strategy is to increase sales among infrequent and non- users, items that are strong where the producer's product is weak may be better choices. To illustrate this approach, Pearson correlation coefficients were generated using the market-level development indices for 126 of the larger Arbitron/SAMI food categories. Categories with significant store delivery (i.e., volume may not pass through warehouses) or with limited availability during part of the year were excluded. Products with the highest and lowest correlations are partner candidates. For Peanut Butter and Peanut Butter Combinations (Table 3), Canned Soup has the highest correlation, +0.86, indicating that their regional patterns are very similar. Canned Sardines, Dried Rice, and Frozen Sweet Goods have the largest negative correlations, suggesting that they might be good promotion partners to boost sales in areas with below average indices. The categories with the highest correlations with Canned Peaches (Table 4) included Canned Green Beans (highest positive correlation) and Frozen Green and Wax Beans (highest negative correlation). This is another example that shows how important product form can be to marketers. By conducting research and forming partnerships with others who have complementary marketing goals, the efficiency of their promotional spending may be enhanced.
Some markets have higher sales indices or greater dispersion than others. Table 5 shows that many markets in the South and West had more variation in their indices while markets in the East and Midwest often had less. Differences in household sizes, income levels, product prices, preferences for pre-packaged foods, and tastes for home-cooked versus prepared meals could affect the index levels and dispersions. If marketers test new products in only part of the country, these results suggest that projecting the research to the national level may be difficult. Sales in a Southern or Western market, even when adjusted by the number of households, may not be indicative of the product's performance in other markets. If food producers rely on volume data from the East or Midwest to forecast demand and capacity requirements as products enter new markets, they could underestimate their needs. Index means and variances may help forecasters adjust their volume estimates and be more accurate. Regionality of food consumption is an important variable that marketers should consider whenever they try to generalize about product performance or about promotion efficiency across markets.
Until business people believe marketing research could generate returns as high as production research, few analyses on their buyers and markets will be done. When examples similar to those in this paper were shared with producers, they became more enthusiastic about marketing research. Although most understood that food preferences vary by region, they were surprised by large regional differences for basic foods. With this type of information, marketers can identify areas that may be good candidates for regional events. More work may be needed to understand the sales barriers and to select the best marketing tools for each area. However, the potential gains from targeting weak markets and raising their consumption rates stimulated considerable interest. Another key for making these Extension presentations effective was that the empirical measures were easy to understand. Indexes, means, correlations, and variances can be explained to business people who do not have advanced statistical training. The sales development indices made it possible to illustrate the potential value of marketing research. Simple analyses of the indices can identify when product form is a key variable, can help find compatible promotion partners who could enhance the efficiency of marketing spending, and can suggest adjustments for forecasts based on sales from a small number of areas. Although producer groups and small businesses may never spend as much on marketing as some large consumer packaged goods firms, they can learn from marketing research and develop beneficial programs.
Hoch, S., Kim, B., Montgomery, A., & Rossi, P. (1995). Determinants of store-level price elasticity. Journal of Marketing Research. 32(1), February, 17-29. Wittink, D., Addona, M. J., Hawkes, W. J. & Porter, J. C. (May 1987). SCAN-PRO: A model to measure short-term effects of promotional activities on brand sales, based on store-level scanner data. Cornell University Johnson Graduate School of Management Working Paper.
Designing Educational Programs for Minority EntrepreneursMichelle L. Pride
Bruce Stoffel
J.C. van Es
The purpose of the program was to determine the reasons minority contractors were not bidding on the housing projects and to develop an Extension program which would enable them to do so in the future. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 12 percent of the U.S. population is African-American (Boyd, 1990). Smith (1993) found that 3.1 percent of businesses in America are owned by African- Americans. His study also showed that only "one percent of revenue generated by U.S. businesses came from black-owned businesses. Forty-nine percent of all black-owned businesses were concentrated in lower pay service industries and the service sector accounts for nearly one-third of all black-owned business revenues"(Smith, 1993: D12). Mescon (1987:62) reports that "service industries and retail trade businesses comprised 68 percent of black firms and 59 percent of their gross receipts, with more minority firms concentrated in these industries than was true for firms overall". Although minority interest in business ownership is increasing, minority businesses continue to fail at a higher rate than businesses owned by whites.
Reviewing the history of African-Americans, one begins to note some reasons for the large discrepancy between the levels at which African-Americans are self-employed compared to members of other races. African-Americans have been hindered in business because of conditions they have endured that are inimical to successful business enterprise. Although there have been situations where a black business class developed (Drake-Clayton, 1963), white-owned businesses ultimately dominated the trade in profitable consumer goods because of prejudicial restrictions for African-Americans in acquiring bank loans, developing sound business management, securing favorable business locations, and even insufficient patronage by fellow African-Americans (Boyd, 1990). During the Nixon Administration, in 1969, the Minority Business Development Agency was established providing would-be minority entrepreneurs with technical and managerial assistance, direct loans and loan guarantees, financial grants, and set-aside procurement from federal agencies (Task Force on Education and Training for Minority Business Enterprise, 1974). Under the Reagan administration, public policy became less interventionist (Black Enterprise, 1992:210-1). The Small Business Administration shifted away from the predominant use of affirmative action as a tool to equalize economic opportunities for African-Americans and other minorities on grounds of reverse discrimination. As a result, programs awarded to African- Americans dropped significantly (Frazier & Gupta, 1993:R1). Under the current debate on affirmative action, further decline in governmental incentives can be anticipated. Because government agencies use general hiring standards, such as civil service exams, "blacks have gravitated to public service" (Boyd, 1990:263). Socialization literature indicates that as African-Americans hold more government jobs, the chances that there will be more African-American entrepreneurs diminish. A scarcity of African-American businesses within their own communities reduces the possibility of "power and status necessary to reduce prejudice and break down barriers to black economic progress" (Boyd, 1990:269). Yet, the long-term health of the African-American community will be significantly strengthened by the development of an African-American community (Mescon, 1987; Mann, 1990).
On the basis of reviewing other educational programs that had been successfully designed for African-Americans in business, it was decided that developing a face-to-face workshop for this audience was a viable format. The next step was to identify the specific educational content needed for this audience.
Data were acquired through a survey of minority general contractors and subcontractors in the Urbana-Champaign area. A questionnaire was developed by CES in close consultation with key informants including two minority contractors. Local governments, the University of Illinois, and referrals were used to acquire the list of minority construction businesses. A few names on the list were women. Interviews were conducted by an African-American female hired by the City of Urbana. Questions on business management background, insurance, licensing, general contracting, subcontracting, financial management, and educational seminars were asked to ascertain the objectives for the educational programs. During the months of August and September 1991, 22 interviews were successfully completed from the list of 35 contractors. While a few refused to be interviewed, the majority of those businesses not interviewed were no longer in existence.
The survey revealed that painting was the most common business among the respondents (See Table 1). Only two of the respondents identified themselves as currently being or having ever been a general contractor.
The most common job performed in dollar amounts was between $1,001 to $5,000, which was also the most common category for the largest job performed. However, there was one job reported at $3,200,000. Among the contractors, 15 worked alone and only seven hired one to three people per job. Yet, as many as 15 of the construction contractors indicated they would like to hire one or more employees. Lack of money was the main obstacle to expansion. Lack of business leads and work were mentioned by about one-third of the respondents. While 77 percent of the minority contractors indicated that they were interested in participating in the federal housing renovation programs, Table 2 indicates that they had trouble meeting the requirements (59%) and learning about specific opportunities (45%).
The contractors reported that only 7 (23%) carried any liability insurance; only 2 contractors carried at least one million dollars worth of liability insurance. The respondents did not indicate that they had trouble obtaining insurance, although two contractors indicated that they could not afford insurance and five of the contractors indicated that they had not tried to obtain insurance. Since carrying insurance is a requirement for participation in city contracts, the majority will need to obtain insurance to participate in federally-sponsored projects. Over half of those interviewed do not use banks for any of their business operations. Reasons cited for not doing so included: "bank staff possesses prejudice or racist attitudes", and "extreme credit checks are done on Minority Business Entrepreneurs (MBE) so as to discourage returning." However, the bank employees attitudes may at least be partly attributed to the fact that the respondents did not maintain good up-to-date records (see Table 3).
Respondents were asked to indicate their interest in attending seminars concerning business management and expansion. Table 4 indicates the level of interest from the 22 participants. When asked if they would be interested in the workshops if offered at a low cost, twenty-one of the twenty-two responded, "Yes".
As a result of the research, both the survey results and the review of the literature (Pride, 1993), the following recommendations were presented for use in developing programs for minority business entrepreneurs.
The University of Illinois CES and the City of Urbana invited other representatives from the public and private sector to help implement the recommendations and form an organizing committee. The goal of the committee was to increase the number of minority subcontractors working in the local government housing rehabilitation programs. In addressing the first recommendation, an educational session was organized and 30 loan officers from local banks attended a sensitivity training about diverse cultures. The second recommendation to introduce minority contractors to banking personnel and banking operations has not yet occurred. The committee decided that a bank tour may be demeaning to the contractors and it was difficult to choose a bank from the many institutions in the area. The third recommendation was carried out on three consecutive Thursday nights in January 1993. The name of the workshop was "Getting Ahead: Increasing Your Construction Business in Hard Times." Topics included licensing, insurance and bonding, legal considerations, financing, record keeping, business planning, and mentoring. The classes were taught by local experts including one attorney who is African-American. Personalized invitations were sent to all contractors registered with the cities of Champaign and Urbana for construction work. The workshop was held in an African-American neighborhood during the month of January when the work pace tends to be slower. During the three workshops, eighteen people attended, ten of whom were African-Americans. There was one woman present at the first workshop. Fourteen persons attended all three workshops. All evaluations indicated that the information was considered helpful and that the participants reported receiving information applicable to their business; the range of experience of the participants proved to be a challenge. After the last session, three-fourths of the participants said they wanted more workshops. A coalition of minority contractors and subcontractors has been formed by one of the African-American workshop participants.
In January 1995, the City of Urbana and University of Illinois Cooperative Extension Service offered another series of workshops to minority contractors. Twenty minority contractors successfully completed the course. Topics were modeled after the first workshop in 1993. Extension educators and instructors from the Cosmopolitan Chamber of Commerce, Chicago, were used. A series of successful workshops for 30 minority contractors and small business owners was held in Danville, Illinois, in the Spring 1996. The Vermilion County Unit of CES worked with a committee composed of bankers, the Small Business Development Corporation Director, the Vermilion County CES Unit Leader, a CES Community Leadership and Volunteerism Educator, an alderman and other City of Danville personnel. This committee ensured a revolving loan fund of $50,000 for small business persons who had not been successful in attaining loans through traditional banking procedures. The Vermilion County Community Development Committee will award loans to applicants who have successfully completed the course and have developed a sound business plan. The series of activities has been well-received by local minority contractors. It has provided CES an opportunity to work with an audience that traditionally has been hard to reach. It also provided CES at the local level with functional contacts to local government and the local business community. CES has been influential in helping these activities get started. Over time, local committees are taking on leadership and CES has been providing educational input.
Boyd, R.L. (1990) Black and Asian self-employment in large metropolitan areas: a comparative analysis. Social Problems 37: 258-272. Drake, S.C., & Clayton, H. (1962) Black metropolis. New York: Harcourt, Brace. Black Enterprise (June, 1992) BE 100s: A 20-year overview: 210-214. Frazier, E.F.,& Gupta, U. (February 19, 1993) Cash crunch. The Wall Street Journal Mann, P. H. (1990) Nontraditional business education for black entrepreneurs: observations from a successful program. Journal of Small Business Management, 28, (April): 30-6. Mescon, Timothy S. (1987) "The Entrepreneurial Institute: education and training for minority small business owners." Journal of Small Business Management 25. 61-66. Pride, M. L. (1993) Designing educational programs for small business minority contractors; Unpublished master's thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Smith, J.(February 21, 1993) Black and blue." Hamilton, Ohio Journal-News. D12. Task Force on Education and Training for Minority Business Enterprise (1974). Report of the Task Force on Education and Training for Minority Business Enterprise. Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Minority Business Enterprise: xxi, 1-179
Locality-Based Programming: Virginia Tech's Powell River ProjectCarl E. Zipper
Jonathan S. Rockett
Virginia's coal-mining region consists primarily of three counties -- Wise, Dickenson, and Buchanan -- and parts of four others -- Russell, Tazewell, Scott, and Lee. These seven counties constitute the PRP service region. Located in the southwestern corner of the state, the region is bordered by eastern Kentucky, southern West Virginia, and northeastern Tennessee. The region differs in character from other areas of Virginia: the terrain is rugged, coal mining and timber production are the major industries. Land use patterns and economic activity in PRP's service region are strongly influenced by terrain. This portion of the Cumberland Plateau is frequently characterized as "Appalachian." Most intensive uses of land occur in narrow valleys adjacent to rivers and streams, and transportation corridors. The dendritic landscape makes it costly to extend public infrastructure, is not conducive to agriculture, and hinders location by manufacturing facilities. Limited industrial development by firms not related to coal mining has become a major concern, as coal-resource depletion and coal-industry mechanization are causing severe declines in coal mine employment. In 1995, the coal industry employed fewer than 7,000 people, 32 percent less than in 1990 when Virginia coal production peaked, and over 50 percent less than early 1980s levels. Lack of public infrastructure accentuates industrial- recruitment difficulties and has a negative effect on local living conditions. Although usable groundwater is not plentiful and the mountainous landscape's steep slopes and shallow soils hinder placement of conventional soil-based septic systems, many communities lack access to public water and sewers. The PRP was founded in 1980 to address coal-related land-use issues. Initial funding was provided by a major owner of coal- bearing lands (Penn Virginia Corporation) for the purpose of developing mine reclamation technologies that would improve the use-potentials of company-owned lands. Some of the initial activities addressed soil reconstruction, forestry, cattle, and horticulture on reclaimed mine areas. In the mid-1980s, additional companies were invited to participate and programming was expanded to non-mined-land issues such as water quality and the region's industrial competitiveness. Additional funding from the State's General Fund was obtained in 1984; Virginia Tech also supports the program. PRP's linkage to Extension occurs through several mechanisms. Extension leaders serve on the board of directors along with other university administrators while PRP's staff are Virginia Tech faculty who occupy Extension positions. The Project's budget supports an area Extension agent whose primary responsibility is to conduct Extension programming based on PRP research. Several PRP-sponsored faculty hold Extension appointments.
Indicators A variety of factors can be cited as evidence of Powell River Project's success: Financial Support: Direct financial support by industry is the major source of funds. Corporate support has been retained and expanded since 1980. Over $2 million in direct financial support has been provided by industry to support PRP; in addition, in-kind support -- such as assistance in establishing and conducting experiments -- has been provided to research projects. During the 1990s, fifteen coal-related firms provided funding. This is from an industry that has seen real-dollar prices for its primary product (coal) decline by over 50 percent since PRP's beginning in 1980. Local Participation: The PRP is governed by a board consisting of representatives from the service region and Virginia Tech. Parties active on the PRP board include executives of sponsoring firms and cooperating organizations. Board meetings are well attended and discussion is active. An Advisory Council and a program development committee also emphasize local participation in a manner similar to Extension Leadership Councils. Demand for Education Services: The PRP provides education services at a 1700-acre Education Center within its service region. The Education Center is located on land owned by an industrial sponsor, and maintained jointly with the sponsor. The center contains active mining and reclaimed land areas of various ages, many of the PRP's research projects, and land-use and reclamation-technology demonstrations based on PRP research. About 2,000 people have attended programs annually at the center since the late 1980s; most have been students at local schools. Others include personnel from industry and regulatory agencies, educators, environmental professionals, and overseas visitors. In recent years, requests have exceeded PRP's capacity to provide educational programs. Program Evaluations: The program was evaluated favorably by Virginia Tech's Commission on Research in 1994. In 1996 Virginia Cooperative Extension's initiative to rank and target all programs ("Higher Ground") evaluated the program as having "high attractiveness" and a "strong competitive position," recommending that PRP should be "continued or enhanced." During a strategic planning process conducted by PRP staff in 1994 and 1995, external clientele consistently ranked current activities more highly than a range of potential alternatives.
Perhaps the best indicator of program success has been its impact on environmental protection practices by the coal industry and on other natural-resource problems in the region. A key factor leading to technology utilization has been the emphasis on developing technologies that improve industry's ability to protect the environment while achieving cost-effective regulatory compliance. Based on a 1995 coal industry survey, staff estimated that cost savings to industry easily exceed $1 million annually. A number of improved land-reclamation and environmental protection technologies have been developed through research; Extension outreach programs have led to successful adoption by industry. For example, the coal industry routinely revegetates coal-processing wastes using technologies developed by PRP. Reforestation of surface mined areas is typically accomplished using tree-compatible ground covers recommended by PRP, while reduced-compaction grading (a PRP-recommended practice) is becoming far more common. A "passive" technology for treating acid mine drainage which uses microbiological and geochemical processes to replace the chemical water-treatment reagents typically used by coal-mining firms. Coal mining and reclamation are highly-regulated activities. Changes in technology must often be accompanied by changes in regulations or regulatory agency policy. Several regulatory agencies have worked closely with PRP in modifying their approaches to accommodate research results. In 1994, for example, Virginia Department of Environmental Quality modified regulations governing use of coal fly-ash as a soil amendment during reclamation in close cooperation with a PRP-sponsored researcher. In 1996, the Virginia Division of Mined Land Reclamation (DMLR) issued a regulatory program amendment that is explicit in allowing reforestation practices recommended by PRP. The Kentucky Department of Surface Mining followed suit in 1997. Also in 1996, Virginia DMLR and US Office of Surface Mining (OSM) established a "regulatory flexibility" initiative to encourage environmental restoration of abandoned coal-mines by active operations; in 1992, PRP research documented benefits likely to result from this type of change. Because the coal industry is an important source of employment, activities that support more cost-effective environmental protection also serve the larger community by allowing local industry to remain competitive. PRP activities have also addressed non-mining concerns. Because of geological conditions and effects of past mining, water resources are a particular concern. In 1993 and 1994, PRP sponsored a water- quality education program for area residents who do not have access to public water supplies; the program evaluation showed that many residents took action to improve the quality of their water supplies. In 1996, the Virginia General Assembly established a sub-committee to address regional water supply issues; results of PRP research had a major impact on subcommittee findings. Environmental restoration also provides public benefits. In 1993, the Powell River Project and the Nature Conservancy initiated an effort to identify and document the worst impacts of acid mine drainage from pre-1977 abandoned mines in a watershed that harbors endangered aquatic species. In 1996, Virginia DMLR completed a plan to address the major impacts identified, using resources from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and OSM's Clean Stream's Initiative to complement the environmental restoration that will be achieved by an active mining operations.
Tangible Impacts and Accomplishments From the beginning, Powell River Project has emphasized applied programs to generate tangible results. The documented success of Powell River Project in identifying problems of local concern, and in generating information useful to clientele dealing with those problems, has been essential to its retention of both financial and political support. Industry participation in the board of directors has helped PRP maintain a practical and applied focus. Extension - Research Linkage An essential component is a strong linkage between Extension and research. As in most Extension programming, PRP staff work with researchers to disseminate research results in appropriate forms including publications, technical workshops, and field tours. The PRP model also seeks to take advantage of the knowledge of Extension field personnel, who are closer to local concerns than campus-based researchers, in establishing research priorities. The campus-based component of PRP operates at the University level; it is not confined to an individual college or department. Therefore, the PRP has access to a wide range of disciplinary research expertise with which to address community concerns. Local Presence and Involvement The PRP supports an Extension position in it service region. This Extension professional maintains an active liaison with other Extension personnel and local organizations. The insight gained through this approach enables that person to provide informed input to the research development process. Education programs provided to students in local schools through this position are supported by local communities and provide visibility for Powell River Project activities. This local visibility is important to maintaining local sponsorship, as sponsors see the funds for research coming back into the region in the form of educational programs. All sponsored programs have local-activity components. Sponsored researchers travel frequently to the coal field area, interacting with service-area clientele while conducting research. Mine-reclamation and environmental protection research is usually conducted in close cooperation with the coal industry, often on active mining sites. Administrative activities are strongly linked to the local level. The board of directors has a strong local membership component and real decision-making power. Funding requests submitted to PRP are reviewed by a program development committee, whose membership represents key constituencies and organizations of PRP's service region. The committee's recommendations are key factors considered by the board in allocating funds. Partnerships The Powell River Project has formed a variety of partnerships. Working closely with mine-reclamation regulatory agencies helps to assure that technology-development research is targeted towards objectives that have a real potential to be put into practice. Partnerships also extend the PRP's funding. Most research is co-sponsored by other organizations with similar interests; in many cases, the research is initiated by PRP, and co-sponsorship funds are sought by PRP and sponsored faculty. These arrangements help PRP have a major impact despite a limited funding base.
What can be learned from this example? How does the Powell River Project program and organization relate to the traditional Extension model? This question is especially relevant to Cooperative Extension in urbanizing states such as Virginia, where the declining role of agriculture and rural communities causes many to question Extension's relevance to the 21st century. One observation is that the basic elements of the Extension model work. Communities and industries face a wide variety of problems and concerns; information and knowledge generated through university research can help these entities to deal positively with problems. Extension professionals have a role to play in both identifying research priorities and in disseminating results. A problem for Extension, in some areas, is the lack of a mechanism to communicate research needs from the local level to University level and to influence the research agenda. Powell River Project has established a locality-based organizational structure to raise and allocate funds. Cooperative Extension's continuing success in serving the agricultural industry shows that the Extension model works best when field personnel are able to influence the research agenda as well as disseminate research results. An important feature of the Powell River Project is that its primary organizing feature is service to a locality. Real-world problems typically extend across a variety of academic disciplines and Powell River Project's structure allows it to employ the talents of faculty from across the university in addressing real-world concerns. Personnel representing seven of Virginia Tech's eight colleges have been funded by Powell River Project over the past 10 years. Involvement of parties from the service area in decision-making has helped to maintain the PRP's locality-based focus.
The success of Virginia Tech's Powell River Project shows the vitality of the land-grant research-Extension concept in the late 20th century. The PRP has retained financial and community support by linking research and Extension to address community needs, emphasizing local involvement in establishing priorities, and encouraging faculty participation from throughout the University. As a result, PRP has had major impacts within its service region and retained financial support for nearly two decades. Note: A number of PRP's Extension publications can be accessed at the Virginia Cooperative Extension world wide web site (http://www.ext.vt.edu/resources/) through "Natural Resources and Environmental Management" and then "Mine Restoration and Development."
Integrating Extension In Natural Resources Graduate EducationStephen B. Jones, Director
James C. Finley
Historically and presently, the typical tenure track university faculty member carries a split research/teaching appointment, assuring that research-based scholarly endeavor undergirds classroom activities. The traditional model also holds these same faculty responsible for graduate education and research. Until recently, Extension faculty often held 100% outreach appointments. Their linkage to research was limited to the literature and access to work of their institutional colleagues. Few were part of their university's graduate faculty. However, since the early 1980s, a joint research/Extension, tenure track appointment (25:75 is a common split) has become the norm, with most Extension specialist positions requiring a Ph.D. Performance and evaluation criteria include refereed publications, grantsmanship, graduate student advising, and other scholarly activities. Unlike their predecessors, today's Extension faculty are, to the fullest extent of the term, 'professors.' Trained as scientists, they are serving the university (and its students) and society. Extension education does not occur in the university classroom, and several subtleties distinguish Extension faculty from their teaching colleagues. The subtleties arise from the obvious distinction. First, a classroom that extends across an entire state enriches the Extension educator's understanding of the state, its natural resources, and the issues drawing from their use and management. Second, Extension 'students' bring a wealth of practice and experiential knowledge to the workshops, seminars, and tours that comprise natural resources Extension. Third, the community of natural resources opinion leaders (e.g., landowners, industry, agency, etc.) grow to know Extension faculty members, gaining confidence in their abilities and appreciating the advantages of cooperative ventures. These circumstances position the Extension faculty well for opportunistic grantsmanship and collaborative applied research. Graduate students working with Extension educators are key benefactors of this productive synergy.
The elements necessary for creating the productive synergy that culminates in a graduate education opportunity are:
Several case examples of how these elements converged to create an opportunity that led to a graduate degree are illustrative. Since 1988, we've had several opportunities to develop outreach-based graduate projects for graduate students at Pennsylvania State. The three examples below present these efforts toward Extension-based graduate education. *Presence/timing -- Promoting sustainable forestry on Pennsylvania's non-industrial private forests (NIPFs) has been the mainstay of our Extension efforts. This ownership class (513,000 properties) accounts for 72 percent of the state's forest land and supplies 80 percent of the raw material to a wood products industry that employs 100,000. The question among many resource professionals was whether timber harvesting incorporates science-based forestry and meets the minimum criteria for timber resource sustainability. By virtue of our ongoing involvement with the issue, we learned in 1994 of New York's plans to conduct a statewide timber harvesting assessment. University faculty, state agencies, and forest industry worked collaboratively on New York's project, suggesting that the timing there, and by inference here, was favorable. *Need -- We had little empirical data from which to evaluate harvesting relative to timber sustainability. Our Extension program addresses forest stewardship and concerns about resource sustainability. Therefore we recognized the need for evidence that our Extension programs addressing harvesting practices are not simply a cry of "WOLF!" as some detractors suggested. Many others shared our desire to conduct a Pennsylvania version of New York's assessment. The newly established Forest Industry Committee on Sustaining Pennsylvania's Forests viewed the Assessment as a means to establish baseline data and demonstrate progress towards realizing sustainable forestry across the state. *Key Players -- We convened an ad hoc Timber Harvesting Assessment Task Force to explore the possibility of conducting a Pennsylvania assessment. Several factors, including our university base, generally high credibility across the state, and active ongoing involvement on this and other issues, gave us 'license' to create the task force. We involved key players from industry and agencies, including the State Forester, Executive Director of the Pennsylvania Hardwood Lumber Manufacturers Association, and representatives of several major wood industry firms. *Funding -- With guidance and support from the Task Force, we secured partial funding from the Center for Rural Pennsylvania, a branch of the State Assembly, with leveraged funding from the Pennsylvania Hardwoods Development Council, as well as cash support from seven individual wood products firms. Combined, the funding supported a graduate assistantship, wages for three summer field crew members, and travel and office expenses associated with data collection and analysis. *Entrepreneurial Faculty -- The Timber Harvesting Assessment is a model project, bridging research and Extension. Deciding to lead the research project required little deliberation. Our Extension program in sustainable forestry needed the information that the research would provide. The entire sequence of events leading to project implementation exemplifies the spirit of selective opportunism. *The Right Student -- Josh Pell, a 1994 West Virginia forestry graduate began a Masters program in the Fall semester of 1994. Part of the attraction for Josh was the possibility that the Assessment would be funded. We discussed the possibility and our efforts to bring the project to fruition openly with Josh, along with several other possibilities. Josh brought field experience, an excellent work ethic, and a strong quantitative/analytical acumen to the project. We are not expecting Josh to develop the Extension spin-off for the project; his work ends with the data analysis and recommendations. Josh will complete the requirements for his Masters during Summer semester, 1997. The circumstances surrounding the evolution of the Assessment project fit the theme of integrating Extension in graduate education, even though the project itself does not require the student to extend the research beyond analysis. Josh's project not only serves our Extension outreach effort in sustainable forestry, but it also strengthened the relationship that we are nurturing with industry across the state. Over the course of the project, the forestry community, especially the industry, closely monitored activities, including field work. Josh performed well under the scrutiny of this sometimes skeptical audit. He has also presented preliminary and final results to our Timber Harvesting Assessment Advisory Team. Again, he gained invaluable experience and confidence interacting with leaders of the state's forestry community under occasionally stressful inspection and inquisition. Although not a pure integration of graduate education in Extension, Josh's project was a truly interactive endeavor that yielded results relevant to a "real world" application. The next example is a more direct integration of Extension in graduate education. *Presence/timing -- Again, our principal Extension focus is sustainable forestry. Our sustainable forestry and wildlife outreach efforts have been closely linked with the state's Forest Stewardship Program since 1991 (Jones & Finley 1993). This ongoing cooperative relationship with the U.S. Forest Service Forest Stewardship Program positioned us well for developing projects related to sustainable forestry. *Need -- Because field demonstrations are a proven education tool in agricultural Extension, we felt that our forestry Extension efforts could benefit from a network of demonstration sites across the state, accessible to county educators, Service Foresters, landowners, and others. The State Forester and the state Forest Stewardship Advisory Committee (FSAC) shared our interests in developing a series of Stewardship Demonstration Forests. In addition to establishing the demonstrations, we wanted to determine whether field tours could enhance the education experience beyond what we could achieve with lectures and seminars. *Key Players -- We approached the U.S.Forest Service Northeast Forest Experiment Station Laboratory at Warren for help in creating a model demonstration forest; Jim Redding, a researcher at the Lab, enthusiastically endorsed the concept and helped design the model. The State Forester, Pennsylvania's FSAC, and individual wood products firms similarly offered spirited endorsement and, in some cases, the pledge of in-kind services and land for establishing the demonstration. *Funding -- In early 1993, we secured full project support from the USDA Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program (SARE). Funding included a graduate assistantship, field crew wages, and travel and materials costs for establishing the sites. Cooperators (Bureau of Forestry, Game Commission, State Parks, and private landowners) provided in-kind support and land for our use. *Entrepreneurial Faculty -- Several elements of this example presented risks that a non-entrepreneurial faculty member might avoid. The involved graduate student, a biologist and environmental educator, was interested in forestry more as a vehicle for earning a Masters degree, and less as a disciplinary objective. Education in the natural sciences was her academic focus. Her research project was somewhat afield of our disciplinary expertise, but our Extension program needed the results. However, through course work in Leisure Studies, she was able to find a faculty member with the appropriate expertise to round out her committee. *The Right Student -- Concurrent with our developing the SARE proposal, Alison Hiller expressed interest in doing a Masters. Alison was employed at an environmental education center in northeastern Pennsylvania. With a biology Bachelor's degree and a keen interest in environmental education applications in forestry, Alison was attracted by the potential offered by the SARE grant. Her interests and experience in delivering environmental education programs to diverse audiences seemed well suited to the project demands. She accepted when the funding was confirmed. Alison's research examined the comparative efficacy of slide presentations and field tours, both of which she delivered admirably, for effecting a shift in knowledge (of forest ecology and forestry) and attitudes (toward timber harvesting and clearcutting) of workshop participants (landowners principally). Alison will soon complete a Ph.D. in nutrition education. The final example also addresses a pressing issue associated with our sustainable forestry Extension program, particularly as it relates to NIPFs. We were promoting sustainable forestry to one-half million landowners who we knew little about. What do they know of forest stewardship as a concept and a program? Are their beliefs about forest stewardship reflected in the practices they adopt on their property? These questions and many others led to this fourth example of graduate education in Extension. *Presence/timing -- The same situation holds for this project as for the preceding example. *Need -- Again, we were attempting to promote sustainable forestry through Extension education, yet we had little evidence that increasing landowner knowledge could effect either an attitude shift or translate to implementation of sustainable forestry on NIPFs. *Key Players -- We convinced the State Forester and the Pennsylvania FSAC that the need was real, and that addressing it was a necessary requisite to effective implementation of the state Forest Stewardship Program. *Funding -- Through the Bureau of Forestry, we secured funding from the U.S. Forest Service, State and Private Forestry to support a graduate student to work on this project, and to provide overall assistance to the Penn State-directed education and outreach components of the Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program. *Entrepreneurial Faculty -- This project was relatively low risk, except that the methodology involved several techniques from the social sciences. Drawing colleagues from Sociology and Rural Sociology to serve on the Ph.D. committee compensated for our disciplinary shortfall. Another interesting facet of this example is that the work on the overall Extension elements of the Forest Stewardship Program served as the student's Extension assistantship duties, along with actually carrying out the research. This tactic of supporting students with Extension assistantships, although parallel to teaching faculty securing teaching assistantships, affords maximum entrepreneurial flexibility to the Extension professor who is willing to aggressively pursue non-traditional funding sources. *The Right Student -- Andy Egan responded to a Journal of Forestry posting of our Forest Stewardship Graduate Assistantship. The notice was not specific to this project, but instead suggested flexibility in selecting the research topic, and it stated implicitly that maturity and experience in forestry were preferred. Andy brought an undergraduate psychology degree and a forestry Masters to his Ph.D. program along with several years experience as a logger and five years as an instructor in the forestry program at New York's Paul Smiths College. The combination of maturity, teaching and logging experience, and a clear sense of academic objectives suited him well to the specific project that eventually evolved. Exceptionally qualified, Andy was able to interact effectively with landowners, foresters, loggers, and others as required. Andy's project represented a direct melding of Extension and graduate education. A principal element of success in Andy's project was our recognition that we had recruited a unique individual with special talents. He understood the broad arena within which his research fit, and he recognized the real potential for applying results to thousands of landowners in Pennsylvania and elsewhere. Advising Andy was a classic example of "leading from behind." Our role was to guide and direct, but mostly stay out of the way. Andy is now an Assistant Professor (teaching/research appointment) in West Virginia University's Division of Forestry, demonstrating that an Extension-based Ph.D. is valid currency for research-based faculty positions.
Extension faculty are now part of the academic mainstream. They conduct scholarly pursuits, publish refereed articles, and advise and direct graduate students at both the Masters and Ph.D. levels. Opportunities for integrating graduate education in Extension abound, provided the right ingredients are in place. This "right stuff" includes:
Extension-based graduate education offers students opportunities for professional and personal growth that more traditional projects often do not provide. There is a corollary benefit to the Extension faculty member -- working with graduate students keeps us sharp and provides a level of job satisfaction that no other tasks can surpass.
Jones, S.B. and J.C. Finley. 1993. Public forest stewardship ethic: Extension's role in the forest program. Journal of Extension. Vol 31 Fall 1993. pp. 8-10.
The Journal of Extension Goes Electronic: Results of a Subscriber Evaluation SurveyMichael Lambur
The year 1994 was a landmark one for the Journal of Extension because it was the first year the Journal began publication in an electronic format only. The decision to move to a totally electronic publication was prompted by the following factors: (a) The Journal's Board of Directors found that it was difficult to produce and distribute an attractive hard copy publication while holding subscription costs at an acceptable level, (b) Subscriptions and related sources of revenue had not covered the costs of publication, and (c) A careful review of ways to increase and supplement operating revenue to assure continued hard copy publication (i.e., selling advertising space, charging reviewer fees, assessing page charges to authors, selling mailing lists, and increasing subscription fees) was found to be inconsistent with the Journal's philosophy or failed to generate income sufficient to merit implementation (Pigg, Summers, Sacks, Daniels, and Carrier, 1994). In 1992, the Journal's directors authorized a pilot project to test the feasibility of producing and distributing the Journal electronically. The pilot project was conducted in 1993 by the University of Wisconsin-Extension with the assistance of 13 land- grant universities in 12 states. Following a careful study of results of the pilot project and a related evaluation, the Journal's Board of Directors decided to discontinue publishing the Journal in hard copy and to publish the Journal only in electronic form (see Pigg et al., 1994 for a thorough description of the pilot project and evaluation). Virginia Cooperative Extension (VCE) was selected as the host institution for the first editorial and publication operations of the electronic Journal of Extension (1994-95). VCE editorial staff worked with the University of Wisconsin-Extension pilot project staff to convert the editorial and publication operations of the Journal to a totally electronic format. This process was successfully completed in approximately six months. The Journal became fully operational in its new electronic format in mid-1994. In its electronic format, the Journal is published six times per year versus four times per year in hard copy. The decision to increase the publication cycle was based on a shorter manuscript submission to publication time because of the electronic format. In hard copy, the manuscript submission to publication time was typically one year or more. In the new electronic format, the manuscript submission to publication time has been shortened to six to eight months. The electronic Journal can be accessed in two ways: electronic mail (e-mail) and World Wide Web. In the e-mail format, users subscribe to the Journal and receive an announcement of the current issue via e-mail. The e-mail announcement includes the contents of the current Journal issue with abstracts of the articles. Subscribers access full articles by sending requests via e-mail. In the World Wide Web format, users access the JOE home page (http://www.joe.org/)and can "point and click" to retrieve the current issue and articles. In an effort to gain feedback about the new electronic Journal of Extension, it was decided to conduct a survey of current Journal subscribers about their use and perceived usefulness of the electronic Journal. Results of this survey are presented here, along with conclusions about the electronic Journal.
A survey instrument was developed and e-mailed to all electronic ID's on the Journal subscription list as of September, 1996 (N=2,037 subscribers). Individuals were given the option of responding by e-mail reply, fax, or surface mail. The survey consisted of six items: (a) Extension responsibility, (b) state, (c) last access of the Journal, (d) how the Journal was accessed, (e) the Journal article last accessed, and (f) perceived usefulness of the article in Extension work.
Response to the survey was much greater than anticipated. A total of 534 surveys were returned. The majority (83.5%) were returned by e-mail reply. Of the remaining surveys returned, 10.3% were returned by surface mail and 6.2% were returned by fax. Of the 486 respondents indicating Extension job responsibilities, 43.6% were agents, 28.6% were specialists, and 11.9% were administrators. Among the 522 respondents reporting state or country of origin, 47 states were represented, as well as the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and seven foreign countries (Newfoundland, Australia, Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Canada, Argentina, and South Africa). Most respondents last accessed the Journal in 1996 (402 of 418 reporting or 96%). The month most accessed was August, 1996 (42.1%). Of the 468 respondents indicating how they accessed the Journal, 32.9% accessed it through the World Wide Web, 29.5% accessed it through e-mail, 11.1% accessed it through Gopher, and 5.8% accessed it through a state developed local bulletin board. The remaining 20.7% of respondents indicated Other. There are four sections of the Journal: Feature Articles, Research in Brief, Ideas at Work, and Tools of the Trade. When asked to indicate the type of article last accessed, the majority of respondents indicated accessing Feature Articles (89 of 140 or 63.6%). This was followed by Ideas at Work (14.3%), Tools of the Trade (12.1%), and Research in Brief (10.0%). For perceived usefulness, the majority of respondents reported that the article they last accessed provided general information on a topic (171 of 406 or 42.1%). Of the remaining respondents, 35.7% indicated that the article provided information they might use in the future, 8.1% indicated that the article provided information they could put into use immediately, and 14% indicated Other. Finally, an analysis of comments from 203 respondents indicated that 72.9% liked the electronic Journal and used it, 20.2% didn't like it and didn't use it, and 6.9% lacked the capability to use it.
Conversion from hard copy to a totally electronic format for the Journal of Extension represented a major change for Extension users. Results of this subscriber evaluation survey provide useful data for making an initial determination of the extent to which this change was successful. Some conclusions from this study are: Response to the survey was much greater than anticipated. While we had no idea of the number of responses we would receive, we did not anticipate a response of the magnitude we did receive. Having 534 individuals respond greatly exceeded our expectations and we feel was indicative of the relevance and importance readers feel the electronic Journal is as the official peer reviewed publication of the Cooperative Extension System. Access of the electronic Journal is equitable. As reported above, 43.6% of the respondents were agents, 28.6% were specialists, and 11.9% were administrators. In addition, 47 states were represented as well as the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and seven foreign countries. One of the concerns expressed as the Journal went electronic was that it would be exclusionary and not be accessible by all in the Extension system. While the electronic format may be somewhat exclusionary in the short run, it would appear from these results that there is more electronic equity in the Extension system than many had realized. Access of the electronic Journal is achievable. Initially, the electronic Journal was accessible by e-mail only. In 1995, the Journal developed a World Wide Web home page. Throughout the entire electronic conversion process, assistance was offered to all states to develop mechanisms to make the Journal electronically accessible to all Extension personnel. As reported above, 32.9% accessed it through the World Wide Web, 29.5% accessed it through e-mail, 11.1% accessed it through Gopher, and 5.8% accessed it through a state developed local bulletin board. From these results, it would appear that there has been much effort to make the Journal electronically accessible through a variety of means. The electronic Journal is a useful publication for Extension work. Regardless of the format, the true value of the Journal is in its usefulness to Extension work. Of those answering the survey questions, 35.7% indicated that the article last accessed provided information they might use in the future and 8.1% indicated that the article provided information they could put into use immediately. Additionally, 72.9% indicated that they liked the electronic Journal and used it. Given this, it would appear that the electronic Journal continues to be an effective publication to further the work of Extension. In its new electronic format, the Journal can better serve the Extension system through publishing articles in a shorter time frame. The relevance of the Journal as a peer reviewed publication is still critically important. However, in its new electronic format with shorter submission to publication times, its significance as a timely communication mechanism becomes more pronounced especially for agents seeking and reporting new ideas for programs. Having almost half of the respondents being agents (43.6%) supports the relevance of the Journal as a timely communication mechanism. Finally, in its new electronic format, the Journal can better serve the Extension system through providing a more diverse perspective of ideas from increased international exposure. Subscribers from seven foreign countries responded to the survey. In addition, user statistics for 1996 indicated that 17 different countries accessed the Journal. Submission of international manuscripts with relevance to the US Extension system are on the increase. Consequently, the new electronic Journal is enhancing its effectiveness through broadening its diversity of ideas through increased international exposure.
Pigg, K. E., Summers, J. C., Sacks, T. C., Daniels, C., & Carrier, J. (1994). The Journal of Extension goes on line. Columbia, MO: Extension Journal, Inc.
Implementation of a Statewide Poinsettia IPM Educational Program in ConnecticutLeanne S. Pundt
There are more than 413 farms producing floriculture crops in Connecticut. These include bedding plants, foliage, potted plants, and cut flowers. Poinsettias are an important potted crop; the wholesale value of the crop in 1996 was 2.5 million dollars (Floriculture Crops, 1997). Growers are concerned about producing a high quality crop while maintaining environmental quality. Integrated pest management (IPM) programs were developed in response to this need. The fundamental difference from traditional approaches to pest control is that IPM uses two or more management techniques (i.e., cultural and environmental control), and applies chemical control measures only when necessary (Abbey et al., 1997). In 1993, a Poinsettia IPM Program began emphasizing grower education. Training focuses on the identification and biology of key insects and diseases, scouting techniques, and pest management decision making. Growers are encouraged to use pesticides with lower toxicity, to use alternatives to traditional pesticides, and to use cultural and environmental controls for disease management whenever possible. Weekly sessions are held at a participating grower's greenhouses from August to December with training continuing for up to two growing seasons. This intensive training provides participants with the knowledge, skills, methods, experience, and confidence they need to maintain an effective IPM program. This is critical for ornamental plants because of their high value combined with an extremely low tolerance for pests (Parella & Jones, 1987). Hands-on training like this is valuable for two reasons. First, it enables growers to become more comfortable using specific scouting tools, such as a hand lens, to monitor for pests such as whitefly immatures that are too small to be easily seen with the naked eye. Confusing the whitefly pupae with eggs is common leading to improper timing of pesticide applications. Showing growers how to regularly inspect plants for key insects and diseases is critical to developing a consistent scouting program. Second, growers learn how to use pest-infested plants as "indicator plants" to track pest development and to evaluate treatment effectiveness. Treatment decisions are made based upon pest population trends, the stage of the crop, and the grower's judgment (Pundt & Smith, 1994). IPM program evaluations are based on the change in pesticide use patterns and post training surveys. Pre- and post- IPM spray records are reviewed to see if less pesticide was applied. Since 1993, 13 pounds of pesticide active ingredient have been withheld from a total of 274,000 square feet of production. This also contributed to maintaining water quality in Connecticut by reducing the application of pesticides with severe or moderate potential for leaching into the ground water. This is also a total savings of $1230 for the 12 participating growe | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||