Volume 34 Number 3
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June 1996 Volume 34 Number 3 |
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Editor's PageDear Reader, Welcome to the June, 1996 issue of the Journal of Extension. I'm excited about this issue. I think it contains many articles of interest to Extension staff members. If you've wondered about how to evaluate educational video tapes, perhaps the article from Colorado will help. Nearly every state is struggling with how to work with Spanish-speaking audiences. Florida's experience in designing a food safety program for youth should be of interest. In the Commentary section, we are pleased to have a Letter to the Editor regarding a previous article about "New National Program Information System for Cooperative Extension: Lessons from Experience." This is one of the first Letters to the Editor received by the Journal and we hope we will see more in the future. Your Journal of Extension should be a place to exchange ideas as well as information. Of course, try as everyone does, an occasional mistake occurs. In the February issue, the name of a co-author of the article "No- Till Yield Contest Demonstrates Environmental Stewardship" was accidentally omitted. Peter R. Thomson, Associate Professor, The Ohio State University, should have been listed as a co-author. Read, learn, and enjoy! Len Calvert, editor
Editor's PageJournal of Extension Offers Job Listings from CSREES If you're one of our readers accessing the Journal of Extension from our World Wide Web (WWW) site, look for a new feature on our home page. It's a listing of positions throughout the Extension System as maintained and up-dated by CSREES, USDA. Click on the button, and the wonders of electronics will send you to the current listing of Extension positions. The Journal is pleased to offer this access to the positions listing as part of its efforts to improve service to our readers and also to help the states and others make as many people as possible aware of positions they might fill in Extension.
Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors:
Judith Jones, President, Virginia, Southern Directors Ex-officio:
Leonard Calvert, Oregon, Editor Editorial Committee:
Joyce Alves, Arizona
Letter to EditorTo the Editor: I read Claude Bennett's article, "New National Program Information System for Cooperative Extension: Lessons from Experience," when it came out in the February edition, and was very impressed. Several faculty and staff members here in Penn State's College of Agricultural Sciences had recommended it to me as an excellent article. I recently found a few minutes to read it again. As the person who pulls together the information for federal plans and reports in Pennsylvania, I can attest that Dr. Bennett is right on the mark in his assessment of the problems with past and current systems. It is definitely my experience that "state program staffs . . . (do) not see whether, or how, collection and use of data for national indicators directly reflects, guides, or benefits their respective state program." The federal indicators are sometimes so far removed from the focus of state/local programs that the reporting faculty member has no idea where to find the numbers or even how to make an educated guess. I commend the article's recommendations for increased communication between states and the federal partner. If the states continue to be responsible under GPRA for gathering data identified at the federal level, it will not be enough to have a few people from a few programs from a few states come to a few meetings. That is why I especially like recommendation #3 concerning state administrators' approval of "proposed program indicators and sub-indicators -- and the resources needed to collect, assure quality, and analyze the indicator data as well as use the resultant program information ." Laying out that whole package for state consideration will be the key to success in the next round. Things tend to jam up as deadlines draw near, and "nice ideas" such as state administrator approval tend to get lost in the time crunch. It will be unfortunate if that happens again in this round. I hope to see evidence that the "Lessons from Experience" Dr. Bennett has laid out so clearly and succinctly have been taken to heart by the Extension system. Sincerely,
Anne Cornell
Career Education and the Role of Work
Jeff Byars Work is about daily meaning as well as daily bread. For recognition as well as cash; for astonishment rather than torpor; in short for a sort of life rather than a Monday through Friday sort of dying.... We have a right to ask of work that it include meaning, recognition, astonishment, and life. Studs Turkel The establishment of the National 4-H Workforce Preparation program to address present and future employment competencies required by business prompted Allen County (Ohio) 4-H to offer a career education program for middle school students in cooperation with local schools and businesses. As the program evolved, we began to examine our goals and philosophies and realized that a small developing career club must question some basic assumptions about the world of work. How does work enhance life? Should work enhance life? What rewards should one expect from a job? Despite the fact, in general, we live longer, are healthier, more knowledgeable, and have material luxuries well beyond the imagination of our ancestors, many people feel bored and unfulfilled. While in graduate school at DePaul University, the School of Education was experiencing incredible growth from students fleeing the corporate world. Student after student testified to the dehumanizing world of work and the emptiness they felt upon completing a day's work. They chose to leave corporate life and to enter the world of education and child development in search of greater personal satisfaction. In contrast to the corporate world, people involved with Extension, education and other similar professions have their own list of concerns; low pay, overworked, lack of respect, etc. As people move through life, passing from the hopeful ignorance of youth into sobering adulthood, they inevitably face an increasingly nagging question: Is this all there is? Childhood can be painful, adolescence confusing; most people, expect that in adulthood things will get better. During the early years of adulthood the future still looks promising. But inevitably the mirror' shows the first white hairs and confirms the fact that those few extra pounds are not about to leave; eyesight begins to fail and mysterious pains begin to shoot through the body. Where's all that money I was to have made? Where are all of the good times I was going to have (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)? As people age, they begin to address their mortality in various ways; some join health clubs; others get cosmetic surgery; some buy bigger cars and homes; others throw themselves into a hobby; and some fall into alcohol and other illicit substances. While these may help temporarily, eventually people must again face the questions of life and mortality. Despite the fact that our society is the most technologically advanced ever, and one of the wealthiest, social ills still predominate. In the United States, the frequency of violent crimes--murder, rape, robbery, assault--increased over 300% between 1960-1986. Violent crime rose 54 percent from 1983 until 1994. In the same period the rate of divorce has risen 400 percent from 31 per 1,000 couples in 1950 to 121 per 1,000 couples in 1984. In 1955 the number of clinically diagnosed mental patients numbered 1.7 million. By 1975, that number had risen to 6.4 million. Do we continue to lead youth down the misinformed path of prosperity and happiness; get a good education, which will help you get a good job; so you can earn a good living; buy a home; have a family; and be happy? Children and youth are bombarded with messages communicating that they can be a success and achieve their wildest dreams. Teachers and parents proclaim that a good education and hard work will allow one to be successful. Television and print media outlets bombard kids with products that will help them: look attractive--use this shampoo; become popular--wear these clothes; live an exciting life--drink this beverage. However, very few kids are informed about the road to happiness. Do we address the reality of adult discontentment and help youth develop skills and techniques that allow them to enjoy life. Or does 4-H ignore this reality and continue to offer work and career education as the way to a self-fulfilled life? Think about the best times in your life. Were they those times when you passively enjoyed the material luxuries afforded to by your career? Or, were they times when you were actively involved in a task that provided challenges tat stretched your mental and physical abilities? These challenging experiences may be unpleasant at the time; however, upon reflection these events -- running a marathon, writing an article, creating a work of art, landscaping a garden, -- one begins to appreciate the challenges offered. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi has spent the last 25 years investigating what makes one happy. He has concluded that happiness stems from optimal experiences (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). Csikszentmihalyi's investigation reveals that optimal experiences challenge and match one's skills to his/her abilities. In addition, one must understand the complexities and subtle nuances of each task. For example, the highly skilled surgeon is so consumed with her surgery that the five hour operation passes by in what seems minutes. Or the artist who is so absorbed with his craft that he forgets about time. Finally, a reader who gets lost in a good book and becomes oblivious to the happenings around them. These are examples of optimal experiences: the activity is so engrossing that there is not enough capacity in the mind to allow one to consider the past, the future, or any external circumstances. While career exploration and education is essential to help teens prepare for the inevitable world of work, it must involve more than workplace skill development. Career education must inform youth of the challenges of adult life. Reaching adult life does not necessarily guarantee happiness, success, and personal fulfillment. Teens must understand, and 4-H career education programs must provide, a greater understanding of work. Yes, work is important; however work can provide more than a paycheck. And, life consists of more than a career.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow; The psychology of optimal experiences. New York: Harper Collins. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow consciousness. New York: Cambridge University Press. Statistical Abstract of the U.S. 1994 ed. National Data Book. (1993) (p.215) U.S. Dept. of Commerce. U.S. Dept. of Justices Uniform Crime Reports. (1993) (p.11) October 3, 1993. U.S. Dept. of Justices Uniform Crime Reports. (1987) (p.41) July 25, 1987.
Instructional Video Evaluation Instrument
Bart P. Beaudin
Don Quick A problem facing many Extension educators is how to evaluate videos for instructional content. This was apparent when the advisory committee for the High Plains Intermountain Center for Agricultural Heath and Safety (HI-CAHS) and Extension agents strongly recommended videos be used in the education programs developed by the HI-CAHS and several videos were identified that might be adapted for use in educational programs. That need resulted in this research and development of an evaluation instrument used by the center and its advisory committee.
For this project, videos are considered "products and product evaluation methods are needed to help extension agents and video producers arrive at better decisions based on reliable, accurate, and complete information (Krink & Gustafson, 1986). From idea inception through final product and beyond, evaluation needs to be incorporated into the production and viewing process. Formative and summative evaluation should "have a place all through the production process: before, during and after" (Hausman, 1990, p. 124). Evaluation is needed to provide the industry with more direction about what constitutes effective, high-quality educational agricultural video products. Until evaluation becomes an integral part of the video design and production process, there will be no experienced-based knowledge of what video approaches work, with what type of audiences, under what kinds of conditions, and in what type of content areas (Sneed, 1991). Evaluation of products, including formative and summative procedures, is an important aspect of production, with the aim of "making administrative decisions and decisions about course improvement" (Krink & Gustafson, 1986, p. 217). The lack of quality evaluation techniques, the emphasize on the negative, and too many variables to measure are barriers to evaluation reaching its intended goals. The lack of quality evaluation techniques is partly responsible for the misconception about what evaluation is and how to achieve it. In the real world, it is impossible to "isolate the effects of a video program on a particular outcome, like increased sales or improved job performance" (Sneed, 1991, p. 5). From its formative and summative roots in the design and production process, evaluation can be accomplished by the Extension agent to decide whether a tape is suitable for their particular instructional program. The instructional video product "should be a realization that there is a need for moving visual material of this type in a particular instructional situation either in a supporting role or as the main vehicle of instruction and that no suitable material is already available" (Ellington, 1985, p. 176).
Compiling the suggestions for quality indicators for videos found in books, articles, and forms by various authors (Dube, 1980; Ellington, 1985; Handbook of Forms, 1985; Hart, 1984; Hausman, 1990; Hunter, 1990; Hutton, 1984; Krink & Gustafson, 1986; National Career Development Association (NCDA), 1992; Pett, 1989; Sneed, 1991) and synthesizing the instructional design methodology of Brookfield (1985, 1986), Friere (1970), Galbraith (1991, 1992), and Seels and Glasgow (1990), an instrument was developed to aid the reviewer in evaluating a video for its instructional quality (Appendix A). This instrument is divided into four general areas of importance--Content, Instructional Plan, Technical Considerations, and Supplemental Materials.
Content is a prime concern in an instructional setting. The video must be accurate, useful, and free from bias. If the content is not correct and up-to-date, then the video is not ideally usable for learning. The content must be accurate and current (NCDA, 1992). The video must portray current and useful situations in today's world. The content of the video must be useful. The video should stimulate, motivate and inform the learner to act on the information. Ideally, learners should consider and incorporate the ideas presented (Krink & Gustafson, 1986; NCDA, 1992). The video should be bias-free, avoiding stereotyping because of age, gender, ethnicity, race, physical impairment, values, dress, language, or social class (Krink & Gustafson, 1986; NCDA, 1992). If the video is not free from bias, the educational objectives may be greatly effected or compromised. Individuals depicted in the video should not be shown as a role stereotype for the task being enacted or illustrated. "A video lacking a progressive social orientation would also be deficient in objectivity and accuracy of information" (NCDA, 1992, p. 6).
Instructional design models are used to control the design process. These models generically include five steps: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. During analysis the instructional designer might perform a needs assessment and create a problem statement. The design entails creating a plan of operation that would guide the designer in setting competencies and outcomes, writing objectives, creating assessment strategies and a selection of the proper media (videotapes, texts, facilitation aids, etc.). Development means turning that plan into reality, creating the necessary session plans, study guides, workbooks, job aids, etc. that are needed for delivering the instructional program. When the program is ready it is implemented on a trail basis and evaluated so improvements can be made (Seals & Glasgow, 1990). Our concern with the selection of the proper video to use in a learning activity is with this design phase. During the design, a plan must be established that results in the learners' needs being met through the use of the video. This plan can be generically outlined as having an introduction, a body, and closure. The introduction should include the objectives of the session, benefits that will be derived from the session, and some sort of "attention getter." The main body should have a presentation of the content and some demonstration or application of the content. It should also allow time for learner reflection on the content and application. Continue this presentation- application-reflection cycle until all the objectives expressed in the introduction are met (Brookfield, 1985, 1986; Friere, 1970; Galbraith, 1991, 1992). Closure should review what has been learned and motivate the learner to apply the content to their lives. Quality indicators for instructional design are organized around this structure and are considered important when evaluating a video's worth for instructional purposes.
The technical quality indicators are derived from good design practices of the producers of video products for instruction. The video industry is charged with producing materials that give quality methods to the instructional process. Characteristics inherent to the medium are: (a) products foster unification and involvement between the viewer and the subject matter, (b) video viewing provides one-way communication that transcends space and time, (c) the viewer is enveloped with sound with visual perspectives, (d) video viewing involves all of the senses simultaneously, and (e) video demands participation from the viewer (Dube, 1980). Hunter (1990) identifies specific characteristics of a quality video product as transcendence, attention manipulation, detail, special effects, economy, independence, and interdependence.
The information accompanying a video is important in the instructional design of the product. It must be accurate and useful to the learner and the facilitator. It must state the purpose of the video, give a summary of the content of the video, clarify any terms or procedures that may not be clear from the video, and provide the learner and facilitator with a guide to using the video (NCDA, 1992). Video is not a "magic bullet" (Hart, 1984, p. 87). For the product to be of high quality and effective, a program can require considerable facilitation and hard-copy support materials. "Programs that achieve the most successful educational results are known to have supplemental materials that correspond to the [video]" (Hunter, 1990, p. 20).
The main purpose of the evaluation instrument is to allow Extension agents and other reviewers to establish baseline information related to a video before a decision is made to recommend the product for inclusion in a learning event. The instrument can be copied and distributed to several Extension agents, subject matter experts, instructors, and end users for independent review of the video. Each quality indicator is normally weighted the same, however, an evaluation coordinator could weight higher one or more indicators to add emphasis. With this information, the value of the video for instructional purposes can then be quantified.
Brookfield, S. D. (1985). A critical definition of adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 36, 44-49. Brookfield, S. D. (1986). Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Dube, C. (1980). A study in instructional television. Performance and Instruction, 24(5), pp. 24-29. Ellington, H. (1985). Producing teaching materials. New York: Nichols. Friere, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed (M. B. Ramos, Trans.). New York: Herder & Herder. (Original work published 1968). Galbraith, M. W. (1991). The adult learning transactional process. In M. W. Galbraith (Ed.), Facilitating adult learning: A transactional process (pp. 1-32). Malabar, FL: Krieger. Galbraith, M. W. (1992). Nine principles of good facilitation. Adult Learning, 3(6), 10-11, 20. Handbook of Forms. (1985). Irving, TX: International Television Association. Hart, I. (1984). Video and the control of knowledge. In O. Zuber Skerritt (Ed.), Video in higher education. London: Kogan Page. Hausman, C. (1990). Institutional video: Planning, budgeting, production and evaluation. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Hunter, P. E. (1990). A designer's guide to script writing: Video capabilities and limitations. Performance and Instruction, 29(3), 18-22. Hutton, D. (1984). Video technology in higher education: State of the art? In O. Zuber Skerritt (Ed.), Video In Higher Education. London: Kogan Page. Krink, F. G., & Gustafson K. L. (1986). Instructional technology: A systematic approach to education. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. National Career Development Association. (1992). Guidelines for the preparation and evaluation of video career media. Alexandria, VA: Author. Pett, D. W. (1989). Design of the audio track for slide sets and filmstrips. Performance and Instruction, 28(9), 1-4. Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1990). Exercises in instructional design. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Sneed, L. (1991). Evaluating video programs: Is it worth it? White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry. Author Notes: This research has been made possible through a grant from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Appendix A
Instructional Video Evaluation Instrument
Video Title: ___________________________________________________
Name of Evaluator: _____________________________________________
Phone: ________________________ Date Viewed: __________________
Please rate the video according to the following quality
indicators by CIRCLING one response for each item (1 equals Poor
and 5 equals Exceptional). Give comments where appropriate.
Poor-----Exceptional
Content
1. Accurate 1 2 3 4 5
Was the content of the video accurate and up-to-date? If
not, then the video is not ideally suitable for learning. There
may be portions of the content that should NOT be used, as well
as sections that are usable. Please note unusable content in the
space provided or on a separate attachment.
Comments:______________________________________________________
2. Useful 1 2 3 4 5
Was the content of the video generally useful? The video
should stimulate, motivate and inform the learner to act on the
information that was being presented. Will you incorporate the
ideas presented into your life?
Comments:______________________________________________________
3. Bias-Free 1 2 3 4 5
Was the video bias-free, including stereotyping with
regard to age, sex, ethnicity, race, physical impairment, values,
dress, language, or social class?
Comments:______________________________________________________
Instructional Plan
4. Stated the Objectives 1 2 3 4 5
Did the video begin with a motivating introduction to
stimulate interest? Were the objectives or key elements made
clear in the introduction?
Comments:______________________________________________________
5. Content Presentation 1 2 3 4 5
Was the content detail controlled to promote
understanding? Did the video simplify complex tasks and avoid
introducing extraneous information? Did it try to cover too much
material or introduce too much detail?
Comments:______________________________________________________
6. Learner Application 1 2 3 4 5
Did the video suggest methods for the learner to apply the
newly acquired knowledge? Were suggestions for practice of what's
being discussed considered? Practice can be designed into the
overall program design as well as into the video itself.
Comments:______________________________________________________
7. Learner Reflection 1 2 3 4 5
Did the video allow for learner reflection? Was
reflection, silence, or time allowed for the learners to react to
a scene or statement? It is also important for the facilitator to
interact with the student to provide feedback on the learner's
application of the material.
Comments:______________________________________________________
8. Met the Objectives 1 2 3 4 5
Did the video meet the learning objectives and needs of the
learner? Did what was being visually depicted fit the learning
objectives? As in the introduction, people also remember the
last things that are presented in a program, therefore, did the
video have the key learning elements repeated in the summary or
conclusion.
Comments:______________________________________________________
9. Learner Interaction 1 2 3 4 5
Was the video conducive to learner interaction? Videos can
often be used to promote active learning.
Comments: _____________________________________________________
10. Integration into the Learning Environment 1 2 3 4 5
Can the video be easily integrated into the learning
environment by adding emphasis to or supplementing more
traditional methods? Did the video bring remote experiences and
places to the learner?
Comments:______________________________________________________
Technical Production
11. General Video Design Characteristics 1 2 3 4 5
Was the video well planned, organized, and structured?
Was the technology transparent and non-threatening to the
learner? Did the video demonstrate its ability to transcend space
and time? The camera can go where the learner cannot and the
video is an excellent media for presenting information or
demonstrations that are timely, however, care must be taken to
prevent giving a false idea of reality.
Comments:______________________________________________________
12. Focused on Intended Content 1 2 3 4 5
Did the video avoid content not related to the subject
matter stated in the introduction? Digressions could lead to
confusion and may be a waste of video time.
Comments:______________________________________________________
13. Visual Quality 1 2 3 4 5
Is the camera looking at the scene from the learners'
point of view? This is especially important when psychomotor
skills are being taught. Did the scene changes appear to be
appropriate? Were special effects used to enhance learning by
drawing attention to specific attributes of what is being seen?
Were varying types of camera shots, close-ups to long shots, used
to provide variety in the video?
Comments:______________________________________________________
14. Audio Quality 1 2 3 4 5
Was the vocabulary of the narration appropriate for the
intended audience? Was the speed of the narration slow enough to
be understood? Was the music fitting for the visual affects or
audio narration? Were background noises used that were conducive
to learning? Were sound effects used to add emphasis to the
visual tract of a video to enhance learning?
Comments:______________________________________________________
15. Audio-Visual Relationship 1 2 3 4 5
Was the audio-visual combined well? The audio and visual
components should not contradict one another but complement each
other. Were there a variety of differing types of sounds and
visuals to attract and hold attention?
Comments:______________________________________________________
Included Supplemental Materials
16. Provided Introductory Information 1 2 3 4 5
Did the included supplemental materials include the
purpose and objectives of the video? Did the video accomplish
what is stated in the supplemental materials?
Comments:______________________________________________________
17. Clarifies and Summarizes Content 1 2 3 4 5
Were job aids or diagrams provided to help in
understanding the material? Were terms defined? Were sources for
further investigation included? Are there suggested activities in
the materials to aid in understanding? Such as, discussion
questions, role plays or simulation exercises. Is the summary
useful in understanding the nature of the video and does it match
what is on the tape?
Comments:______________________________________________________
Total (Sum the Scores, 85 Max.) ___________
Additional Comments:---------------------------------------------
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Exploring Curriculum to Meet the Food Safety Needs of Bilingual Youth
Tracy Hoover
Anne Cooper
Mark Tamplin
Janice Osmond
Kelli Edgell
Bilingual education in the Unites States has been in existence for centuries with programs emphasizing language maintenance and assimilation of individuals or groups into the mainstream of society. Although forms of private bilingual schools were used by different European groups for the retention of mother languages, these attempts among the immigrant groups were not successful (Paulston, 1980). There was a great difference in the experiences of the Europeans compared to the Hispanics, who make up 80% of the students enrolled in bilingual education programs. Reaction to failures of minority school children forced the government to acknowledge bilingualism and legislate bilingual education programs (Siguan & Mackay, 1987; Paulston, 1980). One of the first pieces of legislation relating to bilingual education was Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Paulson, 1980). This became a primary weapon of minorities in their battle to establish bilingual education (Teitelbaum & Hiller, 1977). Closely following, was the 1968 Title VII amendment, known as the Bilingual Education Act, that provided the first federal funds for bilingual education and the Bilingual Education Act of 1974. It was reported that the Bilingual Education Act of 1968, intended for children of low-income families was not necessarily what its name indicated since the actual goal was not bilingualism, but English proficiency (National Institute of Education, 1975). Legislators viewed these programs as compensatory in nature and their primary objective was a more rapid and efficient acquisition of English. However, ethnic groups involved in the implementation refer to the programs as bilingual and see the objectives as stable bilingualism with maintenance of the original culture and the original language (Paulston, 1980). The landmark case in bilingual education was Lau vs. Nichols, in which the parent of a Chinese student sued the San Francisco School Board. The case questioned whether non-English- speaking children received an equal educational opportunity when instructed in a language they cannot understand. The plaintiffs claimed that the absence of programs designed to meet the linguistic needs of such students violated Title VII. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Lau relying solely on Title VII which suggested equal treatment does not constitute equal opportunity (Paulston, 1980). Based upon the Supreme Court Ruling, the Office of Civil Rights (OCR) of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) appointed a task force to set guidelines for implementing the Lau decision, also known as the "Lau Remedies," which have caused considerable confusion. For instance, at the elementary level, the "Lau Remedies" reject English as a Second Language saying that it is not an acceptable bilingual education program (Paulston, 1980). The future of bilingual education programs in the United States is uncertain. Inevitably, when federal funding for these programs is reviewed, the efficiency of these programs in teaching children English is questioned. Others target bilingual education programs as disturbing to national unity and question their worth as well. As the Cooperative Extension Service continues to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse and multicultural client group. It is important that educational materials both written and verbal be made available to those individuals in their primary language.
With the number of children cooking in the home rapidly increasing, the need to educate them about food safety has become a necessity (Stanley and Mason, 1993). Almost one-third of the households in the United States report that family members other than the adult female are responsible for meal preparation at home (Food Marketing Institute and Better Homes and Gardens Magazine, 1989). The International Food Information Council (1991) reported that 87% of all the children surveyed prepared some of their own meals. Children's increasingly active role in food preparation often occurs with little formal or non-formal education about safe food preparation and handling techniques. Most schools do not offer food handling and/or home economics classes until the middle/high school level. A need for an increase in food safety practices is evident because of the increased incidence of foodborne disease illnesses. It was predicted that without increasing the knowledge of consumers, the incidence of foodbourne illness would continue to increase into the next century (Raithel, 1988). Both children and their parents have a limited knowledge about safe food preparation. A 1992 consumer survey on food safety knowledge showed that those under 35 years of age had the lowest scores. As the age of consumers in the survey increased, food safety knowledge scores also increased (Williamson, Gravani, and Lawless, 1992).
This project addressed the food safety and food handling needs of Hispanic youth. Four methods were utilized to determine the most effective means of addressing the food safety issue. This project adapted the "Mystery of the Poison Panther Picnic" youth educational materials, video and five lesson unit on safe food handling developed by Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service (1990) to more adequately address the needs of bilingual youth. Subjects: One hundred thirty-two Hispanic/bilingual youth in grades 4- 6, participated in the study. The children were enrolled in after -school care programs or were from intact classes in Hialeah, Dade County, Florida. Hialeah (population 188,000) is a predominately Hispanic community (97.8%) located in the metropolitan area of Miami. Video Script Translation: The Poison Panther Picnic video script was translated into Spanish and shared with a focus group comprised of individuals with extensive and varied Hispanic back grounds. Appropriate modifications were made to reflect cultural and contemporary language differences. Educational Method: In order to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum in both English and Spanish four educational method groups were developed. Sociodemographic and cultural characteristics of students were obtained through teacher/instructor-gathered information of the groups. Teachers were asked cultural background (e.g. Cuban, Mexican) of the students and the approximate percentage of youth in the group who were receiving free/reduced cost lunches. The information related to school lunches was used as an estimate of socio-economic level. Educational Method One: This group served as a control group for the study. Twenty- seven youth attending three YMCA after-school programs took the pre-test. All children were Hispanic with one-third of the children from middle income and two-thirds from lower income households. Educational Method Two: This group viewed the English version of Poisoned Panther Picnic Twenty-nine children from three YMCA after school programs participated. All children were Hispanic with three-fourths of children in this group from low income households, and the remainder from middle income households. Educational Method Three: This group received the five lesson unit and English video. Forty-six sixth graders in an English for Speakers of Other Languages class participated in this treatment. All were Hispanic, with 75% from Nicaragua. All children were from low income households. Due to the limited English proficiency of the youth all lessons and pre- and post-tests were translated into Spanish by the classroom teacher. A potential limitation affecting the test scores for this group is that they recently finished a science unit on micro-organisms and their growth, however, they had not covered food safety and microbial growth in food. In addition to the Purdue materials, A USDA publication ("Como Hector Se Enfermo" - How Hector Got Sick) was distributed to the students. Children took this brochure home to share with family and relatives at the end of the unit. Educational Method Four: This group only viewed the Spanish version of the video. Twenty-nine children in four YMCA programs viewed the Spanish translation of the Poisoned Panther Picnic. All students in this treatment from lower economic households were from Central America and the Caribbean. Instrumentation and Data Analysis:
An evaluation instrument of ten multiple choice questions developed by Purdue University, was used to determine the student's food safety knowledge was utilized in the study. The maximum score a student could receive was a 10. Data were analyzed with SAS using a paired - t test.
One hundred thirty two Hispanic youth in grades 4-6 from Hialeah, Florida participated in the study. Four educational method groups were utilized. Students in the control group took the evaluation instrument to assess food safety knowledge. Twenty -seven youth from three different YMCA after school educational programs comprised Method 1. Students in Method 1 had an average score of 8.7 on the exam, scores ranged from 7-10. Method 2 consisted of a pre- and post-test with the English version of the Poison Panther Picnic serving as the educational method. Twenty-nine children from 3 YMCA after school educational programs in method 2. Their average pretest score was a 7.5 with a range (2-10) and average post test score 9.0 with range (4-10). This was the only group to show a significant increase from pre- to post-test score (p < 0.5). Method 3 consisted of a pre- and post-test with the five lesson unit and English version of the Poison Panther Picnic video serving as the educational treatment. There was no significant difference between pre-test 9.5 with a range (6-10) and post-test 9.7 with a range (7-10) scores. Forty-six sixth graders from an English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) class participated in this method. All materials were translated into Spanish for the youth. Method 4 consisted of a pre- and post-test with the Spanish version of the Poison Picnic video. There was no significant difference between pre-test 7.6 with a range (6-10) and post-test 7.6 with a range (6-10) scores. Twenty-nine youth from four YMCA programs participated in this method. Even though Spanish was the primary language spoken at home, the children in this group said they would have rather watched the video in English. However, they did understand the Spanish version. The results of each educational method are portrayed in Table 1. The only group that showed a significant gain from pre- to post-test scores was group 2 (English version of video). The students in Group 3 were engaged in the most comprehensive food safety lesson. (Five lesson plans and video). This coupled with their previous exposure to a unit on micro-organisms may have attributed to inflated pre- and post-test scores. The results of each method were considered independently. This is due to the varied and statistically different scores obtained on treatment pretests. Based upon demographics of the groups, such as, cultural differences (distinctively different Hispanic groups in the Miami area), socioeconomic status and type of program (after school versus intact public school class), youth who participated in this study differed significantly from each other on pretest scores. Additionally, students in the ESOL class (group 3) had all materials translated into Spanish due to their limited English ability. This modification may have biased pre and post-test scores
Utilization and minor adaption of existing curricula to meet the food safety needs of Hispanic youth is a viable option. The adaption of the Poison Panther Picnic and related materials into Spanish will provide increased opportunities to reach and educate yet another clientele group. While findings do not support the need to translate materials into Spanish they should be interpreted with caution due to the lack of control of extraneous variables. Subsequent analysis and research is needed to build into the research design extraneous variables (e.g. generations the family has been located in the U.S., socio-economic status, primary language spoken at home, etc.).
Food Marketing Institute and Better Homes and Gardens Magazine. (1989). Dinnertime U.S.A. New York, NY. National Institute of Education (1975). Spanish-English Bilingual Education in the United States: Current Issues, Resources and Recommended Funding Priorities for Research. Washington, D.C. Paulston, C.B. (1980). Bilingual Education Theories and Issues. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers, Inc. Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service (1990). Producer Through Consumer: Partners to a Safe Food Supply - Youth Curriculum. Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN. Raithel, K.S. (1988). Concerns, challenges of keeping nation's food supply safe in the 21st century being studied now. Journal of the American Medical Association, 260, pp.15-16. Siguan, M. & Mackay, W.F. (1987). Education and Bilingualism. London: Kogan Page Ltd. Stanley, M. & Mason, A. (1993). Effects of Educational Treatment on the Gain and Retention of Food Safety Knowledge by Fifth-Grade Students. Research Summary, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University. Teitelbaum, H. & Hiller, R.J. (1977). The Legal Perspective, In Bilingual Education: Current Perspectives, 3. Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics. The International Food Information Council (1991). How children are making food choices. IFIC Review, Washington, D.C. Williamson, D.M., Gravani, R.B., & Lawless, H.T. (1992). Correlating food safety knowledge with home food-preparation practices. Food Technology. 46, pp.94-100.
Family, School, and Community Involvement in School-age Child Care Programs:Best Practices
Karen DeBord
Marilyn Martin
Tony Mallilo Nationally there are 21.2 million children in need of child care because their parents work (Casper, Hawkins, & O'Connell, 1994). Primarily children age 5-to-14 comprise the school-age child care population with a reported 1.7 million enrolled in before and after school programs (Department of Education, 1993) and about 1.6 million reported to be in self-care (Casper, Hawkins, & O'Connell, 1994). Children in self-care present some concerns for parents and communities. According to research evidence, children at home alone reportedly are more bored, lonely, isolated (Long & Long, 1982), have lower academic achievement, are less social adjusted (Woods, 1972), and are more vulnerable to people from the outside taking advantage of them (Kraizer, Witte, Fryer, and Miyoshi, 1990). Limited community support and complex family characteristics compound these elements to create vulnerability in school-age children. Bogenschneider, Small, & Riley, (1990) identified poor parental monitoring, uninvolved parents, and unclear expectations by other significant adults to be risk factors for children. These factors coupled with low socio-economic status, low neighborhood attachment, and community disorganization place children at risk of school failure and social turmoil. What types of communities shield children from these risk elements? Research (Bogenschneider, Small, & Riley, 1990) has found that programs focusing on protection factors such as coping and problem-solving skills contribute to creating both family and child resiliency. Programs that build intellectual competence, create an environment where children feel as if they belong, create positive experiences, and develop opportunities for children to contribute in a positive manner supports children's development creating a protective community. However, this cannot happen in isolation. A community is comprised of individuals connected by some common thread of interest, proximity, or characteristic. Distinctively, communities vary in a range of individual factors -- ages, ethnicities, family sizes. They also vary by the services available, economic conditions, job opportunities, health, and child care options. But within communities, there is commonality -- what Bronfenbrenner, Moen, & Garbarino (1984) term as "interlocking or integrated functional subsystems" (pp. 286). Understanding the culture of families and community systems is critical to building protective communities. To address concerns for children located in high risk communities, the Extension Service-USDA in cooperation with multiple land grant universities across the nation examined the interlocking sub-systems of family and community. Extension made it a priority to work in high risk communities to build protective environments for school-age children. High risk is defined as communities that have one or more of the following factors: low socio-economic status, complacent or permissive community laws, low neighborhood attachment, and generally negative media influences (Bogenschneider et al.,1990). Using federal dollars for community-based school-age child care programs, local efforts to build partnerships between school, families, and communities were started in 30 projects across the nation. Each project was designed to serve families defined as "at-risk" using the Bogenschneider et al. (1990) definition. A national evaluation of these projects to identify effective practices and document the three-year impact of these programs was initiated. Project directors of the 30 Extension school-age child care programs were asked to participate in the evaluation to collect a set of recommended practices for use by others interested in establishing programs to create protective communities for school -age children. Directors were asked to identify practices they found successful in working with high risk children and families that enhance child care program support and foster involvement of the school, the family, and the community.
A survey questionnaire was developed, edited, and reviewed by an evaluation committee of the National Network for Child Care (NNCC), a national partnership connecting Extension professionals sharing information and resources to strengthen the national impact of child care. The questionnaire was mailed to all 30 USDA funded school-age sites. A recognition certificate accompanied the survey as an incentive to return the questionnaire. Project directors were asked what they had learned meeting the needs of high risk youth and families and they were asked to list three effective practices or lessons they had learned while working with high risk children and their families through school -age care programs. The questions were divided into three sections: practices to facilitate family involvement, practices that enhance school investment, and practices to encourage community ownership. Eighty-three percent of the 30 school-age care program site directors responded to the survey. Predominately, the sites serve children age 5-to-14 years of age. Over half the sites serve 50- 200 high risk families. Most (17) service fewer than five schools and communities.
Lessons learned about the child and family The greatest number of "lessons learned" related to the child and the family. Directors affirmed that parents from families considered at-risk have diverse needs. Not all families have the same resource needs nor participation needs. Families cannot always attend meetings because they need transportation, need child care for younger children, have inflexible work schedules, or have court disputes. Directors noted that most of the families are distrustful of anyone on the school staff. Numerous families were identified as pre-occupied or "not educationally, socially, financially, or interpersonally equipped" to provide for child's needs. Parents require a variety of resource and developmental needs to perform their job as parents. Program staff quickly learned that the term "parenting classes" is unpopular and instead camouflaged educational efforts with creative titles and scheduled them at the most convenient times for parents often packaging them as family activities such as family video and popcorn nights or theme (i.e., costume parties or children's parades) events. Even though directors originally targeted specific protection factors for the children, these foundations were validated consistently by the staff. First was the underlying realization that the home environment affects learning. Children come to the program with multiple pre-existing problems and concerns (divorce, violence, blended families, few resources) from home. Directors noted that children proved to be very adept at accepting home and school challenges. When staff realized the complexity of children's stressors, they responded by devoting time to developing trust between the child and the staff members, presenting children with challenges while giving them opportunities to practice making decisions under the guidance and support of a concerned adult. Lessons learned about community involvement Program directors indicate that community school-age care programs need human and financial resources in order to influence change. To be effective, an investment of time, energy and resource sharing is essential. A recommended practice is to establish a network or support group of related agencies and organizational representatives, educators, local decision makers, and business members to develop a network of support. People in the larger community must be informed about the benefits the program contributes to citizens of the community. Often citizens are unaware of the barriers faced by families and do not appreciate prevention or service programs. Creating public awareness by speaking to community organizations, and using the media to inform the public, is recommended. To establish a successful school-based program, cooperation with school administration and school staff was described as a necessity. Program directors recommend including school officials on the advisory task force in addition to meeting frequently with the school administrators in the initial stages. Keeping school officials and decision-makers informed and inviting them to visit the program seems to assure understanding of and support for the effort. Making additional efforts to visit with school staff and solicit their input into the program creates goodwill and builds additional public awareness and support. With multiple stakeholders, good record keeping and regular evaluations of the program are essential elements. This allows for continued improvements to serve the needs of the audience. Recommended practices from program directors focused on practices to build parent involvement to the extent possible. By offering options such as a parent advisory board, obtaining letters of program endorsement from parents, holding open houses, and establishing a parent volunteer program, parents may opt into program activities where they are most comfortable. Offering a high quality program is essential to serve as a model of interaction between adults and children and to garner support from all factions. In order to continue to learn and improve environments for children, frequent evaluation of the program is necessary. Evaluations can lead to improvements to keep the program vibrant. These lessons are inter-related and dependent upon actions by other functioning systems. That is, action in the community affects the school and action in the school program affects the family and subsequently the child.
Understanding the interlocking subsystems of the community, school, and family can assure that programs indeed place the child at the center of focus. The school-age care programs in this study were the common thread of interest among these families. This common thread strengthens the community as well as the family system for the child. Understanding the needs of the family in addition to the uniqueness of the community contributes to the success of the program and enhances quality. To encourage public ownership, parent involvement and family trust, it is essential to present an array of options for involvement, offer supportive youth practice in decision making, and maintain a flow of information to the families and community. An established sense of trust contributes to the public understanding and value in the program and may add the program's life while understanding the needs of the family and integrating these needs with the uniqueness of each community contributes to the success and quality of the program. Early childhood educators profess that children need to learn how to make choices and develop decision making skills. By offering a range of opportunities where personal control can be exercised, children and families will become more empowered.
Bogenschneider, K. Small, S., Riley, D. (1990). An ecological risk-focused approach for addressing youth-at-risk issues. Presentation National Extension Youth at Risk Summit, Washington, DC. Bronfenbrenner, U., Moen, P. & Garbarino, J. (1984). Children, family, and community. In R. Parke (Ed.), The family: Review of child development research (Vol. 7, pp.283-328). New York:Sage. Casper, L.M., Hawkins, M. & O'Connell, M. (1994). Who's minding the kids? Child care arrangements:Fall, 1991, U.S. Bureau of Census, Current Population Reports, P70-36, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Department of Education (1993). National Study of Before and After School Programs Final Report. RMC Research Corporation. Kraizer, S, Witte, S, Fryer, G.E. & Miyoshi, T. (1990). Children in self-care:A new perspective, Child Welfare, 69 (6), 571-581. Long, L. & Long, T. (1982) Latchkey children: The child's view of self-care"Washington, DC:Catholic University of America (ED 211 229) Woods, M. B. (1972). The unsupervised child of the working mother, Developmental Psychology. 14-25. The Network for Child Care (NNCC) integrates the expertise of the cooperative extension system with appropriate external partners to support at-risk children, youth, and families. University Extension representatives from 42 out of 53 states and territories have joined in the discussion of the National Network for Child Care. For more information about NNCC, send an electronic inquiry to NNCCINFO@mes.umn.edu or call Karen DeBord North Carolina State University 919-515-2770 or Ina McClain University of Missouri 314-882-4319.
Enriching the Future: Extension Youth Program in Summertime Learning
Dennis Floyd Jones
Extension administrators and educators are finding new avenues to impact quality of life issue at the edge of the 21st century. The writer, a former 4-H member, Extension agent, and assistant Extension specialist, offers a program that some view as a new "paradigm." This article describes and presents results of an innovative inter-disciplinary community-based summer enrichment program for socially-disadvantaged children. After four years of implementation in rural and urban communities, significant data show summer education, fitness, and health programs conducted with poverty-stricken communities can support learning and self-control.
Certain demographic groups have been associated as at-risk for negative social behavior (Berlin & Sum, 1988). Hyens (1987) has shown that most developmental differences (such as poor health, violent tendencies, academic deficiencies, teenage pregnancies) between these youth at risk and their peers occur during the summer. It can be concluded that development and refinement of summer intervention programs will play a key role in thwarting these negative behavioral influences (Howell, 1988; Zykowski, 1991). Summer youth programs for rural children lacking guidance and support for social, cultural, and academic development traditionally have been patterned on programs begun in 1915 in Randolph County, West Virginia. These traditional programs fall into three categories: custodial, sports, or task-specific models. As programs of intervention, all three types fall short of accomplishing the goal of guiding "at-risk" youth. If a summer intervention program is to aid youth-at-risk, the program design must directly address the academic and self- esteem issues (Coopersmith, 1967; Roundtree, 1979; Marsh & Shavelson, 1985; Marsh & Holmes, 1990). Because of the link between physical well-being, academic success, and self-esteem, a successful summer intervention program must include components of physical and health education. The multidisciplinary design, described herein, is the basis of Project YES. The specific goals of Project YES are:
Project YES was first implemented in Charleston, WV, in 1990 as an attempt to remedy the developmental problems of "at-risk" youth. The program had 112 participants and 15 teen mentors at two sites. The project was conducted by West Virginia University and the Charleston Housing Authority, with contributions made by county and local government. The first year included only self- esteem and academic components. In its second year, Project YES began in a low-income area of Wheeling, WV, with 160 participants and 15 teen mentors, and for the first time included physical and health education components. The academic component added a computer division. The 1993 program, a repeat of the Wheeling program, added three new program sites in Pittsburgh, PA, Bluefield, WV, and Fairmont, WV.
The program is directed at low income, high crime sectors of towns and cities. This implies that the Project is usually implemented in, or near, public housing. The Summer 1993 program even used vacant apartments in public housing projects to conduct some of the activities. A rehabilitated vacant house and community centers have also served as Project locations. The program is conducted five days per week, from 8:30 a.m. to 4 p.m. The current design runs for six weeks in the summer. The participants are grouped by age and divided into groups of around 15 to 20 each. The typical day begins with a nutritious breakfast. The bulk of the day involves sessions of 40 minutes each, with about 10 minutes between sessions to get to the next one. There is a 30-minute break for lunch. The day is planned so that periods of low physical activity are followed by high energy sessions. The curriculum is customized for each age group. For example, the 12-year-olds may learn about word processing on the computers, while the 6-year-olds may be using the computers to develop basic literacy skills like spelling. Ninety percent of the participants at the three sites were African-American. Roughly sixty percent were female, and the average age was ten years old.
The multidisciplinary approach is what makes Project YES unique. There are several disciplines represented, all of which have the possibility to evolve or be refined to meet the group needs
The possibility of future summer camps of this type relies upon demonstrating the benefits of the project, and this is best done quantitatively. Professionally accepted tests are chosen to evaluate key aspects of the project, such as self-concept and physical fitness and health. For example, the Physical Best test is used to evaluate participants' fitness. Any tests used are administered before the program begins, possibly at the sign-up or orientation meetings, and at the end of the program, on or near the last day. Staff members and teen mentors are trained to assist in administering the tests. The tests are also administered to a group of children at the control site. Test results can be scored and analyzed after the program ends. The initial testing has already found some areas of concern that must be addressed as the program evolves. Score declines indicate areas the program needs to address most. Its multidimensional nature allows the program to be tailored to the specific needs of the community. The session of Project YES described herein detected score declines for African-American girls in areas of social acceptance, behavioral conduct, global self-worth, and two specific physical tests. White girls showed score declines in the same non-physical areas, accompanied by a decline in their assessment of personal appearance. They also experienced a decline in one physical area. African-American males, on the other hand, did not experience declines in scores of social parameters (such as behavioral conduct, self-worth, and social acceptance), but did show declines in several physical tests. White males also showed declines in several physical tests (fewer than African-American males, however), as well as scholastic competence. The program director must schedule all activities so conflicts do not occur. There must be contingency plans for uncontrollable situations, such as uncooperative weather. The director must also set up some hierarchy of command for the program. It should be expected that decisions will have to be made without planning, so staff member and mentors must know how much authority they have to make decisions. Finally, the director must hold daily meetings to address problems and clarify short term plans.
Project YES is constantly evolving, as indicated by the evaluation aspect of its description. Some problems for which the summer camp was designed did not show significant improvement. It is clear that curriculum must be changed to address specific areas of concern. Two other changes may help improve program analysis. First, the short duration of the camp may make relative changes difficult to measure. A longer program, possible only through increased funding, might help, as might long term measurement efforts. Neither of these changes is currently planned, due to funding and implementation difficulties. Second, preliminary analysis shows that the size of the control group plays a very crucial part in assessing project effects. Efforts will be made to ensure that the control group contains large numbers of all subdivisions for which separate analysis is desired. This change is a relatively easy one to effect. The dynamic design feature of Project YES is such that the program can only improve in time.
The collaborative nature of Project YES encourages various groups to contribute. It provides a perfect opportunity for Extension to enter the year-round schooling and summer intervention debates. Project YES is currently expanding in the number and size of sites in which it was initially established. The eventual success of the program relies on the involvement and input of capable professionals from all disciplines represented, physical as well as academic. Project YES has more potential to be successful than many other programs, partly because of its focus on quantitative evaluation. As all programs of this type, success relies on future funding. With recent reductions in government spending, project organizers must be resourceful in securing funding. One should note, however, that the multidisciplinary approach of the program may help it appeal to many different funding sources. As the project cannot rely on large amounts of money being available, performing the tasks requires dedication towards all of the program goals by all involved. Cooperation and hard work are essential in presenting an effective, professional intervention program.
Berlin, G. and Sum, A. (1988). Toward a more perfect union: Basic skills, poor families and our economic future. Ford Foundation Project on Social Welfare and the American Future, New York. Coopersmith, S.A. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. Howell, V. (1988). An examination of year-round education: Pros and cons that challenge schooling in America. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED298 602. Hyens, B. (1987). Schooling and cognitive development: Is there a season for learning? Child Development, 58 (5). Marsh, H.W. and Holmes, I.W. (1990). Multidimensional self -concepts: Construct validation of responses by children. American Educational Research Journal, 27 (1), 89-117. Marsh, H.W. and Shavelson, R.J. (1985). Self-concept: Its multifaceted, hierarchical structure. Educational Psychologist, 20, 107-125. Roundtree, G.A. (1979). Self-esteem and social adjustment. Calcutta: Minerva Associates PVT. Sambol, B.J. (1991). The urban child. Third National Conference: Health care for the poor and undeserved "children at risk." Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Undeserved, 2 (1), 59-73. Zykowski, J., Mitchell, D., Hough, D., and Gavin, S. (1991). A review of year round education research. Riverside, CA: California Educational Research Cooperative.
Incentive Systems and Their Influence on the Capacity for Change
Rebecca Dollman Extension agents have been historically recognized as individuals imbued with such qualities as: faith, enthusiasm, courage, vision, judgment, and integrity (Smith and Wilson, 1930). Current Incentive Theorists would classify these agents as "purposive" employees. Incentive Theory can be traced to Chester Barnard, who first described organizations as cooperative groups with mechanisms for distributing incentives to members (Barnard, 1938). Peter Clark and James Q. Wilson expanded this concept by classifying and defining incentives as follows (Clark & Wilson, 1961; Wilson, 1989):
Clark and Wilson claimed that an understanding of organizational dependence on particular incentive systems would lead to the prediction of organizational behavior, especially in the area of organizational flexibility. Organizations can be classified according to their dominant incentive systems. For example, utilitarian organizations rely on material incentives. These organizations can be very flexible since activities may be changed when needed, as long as adequate material incentives are provided to members. Solidary and status organizations provide fun, fellowship, or special honors as incentives. Solidary/status organizations are less flexible, since actions meant to improve the group's image may conflict with actions needed to promote change. Purposive organizations are the least flexible since they rely upon their stated goals as incentives to attract and hold members. Yet, it is often difficult to delineate specific goals that are acceptable to all members. Flexibility is further reduced when small groups within the organization attempt to specify ends that alienate other members. Attempts to change stated purposes may drive out members who are dedicated to a particular goal, since such commitment is difficult to redirect. Though Extension's historic importance has been acknowledged, its current purpose and contributions are in question (Cigler, 1984; Feller, 1987; Flint, 1994). Goals, programs, and activities which were appropriate in the past may appear to be less important or even irrelevant to members of today's changing society. Thus, the goals of this study of Incentive Systems in the Alabama Cooperative Extension Service (ACES) were to determine how members are motivated and how their interest in particular incentives affects the organization's capacity for change.
The initial research instrument contained questions adapted from numerous sources from academic literature dealing with participants' interest in purposive, solidary, status, and material incentives (dependent variables). To help to refine the final questionnaire, ten ACES employees participated in one of three focus groups and four employees were personally interviewed. These individuals were selected to represent the "typical" employee, since they represented three different levels of educational attainment and four different geographic locations. The final version of the questionnaire utilized two formats: forced ranking and a Likert-like scale. Ten questions requested personal data (independent variables) utilized in grouping responses. A coding system was used to preserve the confidentiality of individual responses. Questionnaires were mailed to all ACES employees in June, 1995.Six hundred and forty employees (83%) returned usable questionnaires. SPSS software (UNIX version) was used for data analyses. Principal Components Analysis was used to select the research questions which most accurately measured the concepts being studied. Mean scores for each group considered in this analysis were converted to standardized scores. These standardized scores were utilized in determining a factor score for each case. Factor scores were used in t tests and Least Significant Difference tests to determine statistical differences between pairs of variables (Only t test results are displayed here because of the format constraints of this journal).
This research attempted to apply the incentive typology developed by Clark and Wilson (1961) and extended by Wilson (1989) to the problem of implementing organizational change in ACES. Two issues were investigated: a) whether the types of incentives traditionally used to recruit and retain employees now constrain ACES's ability to adapt to a new environment, and b) whether subgroups among ACES employees differ significantly in their reliance on various types of incentives. Age: Interest in material incentives from ACES seems to remain high until an employee reaches 51 years of age and approaches retirement eligibility. According to the Clark and Wilson theories of organizational flexibility, employees aged 22- 50 (who express considerable interest in material incentives) could be expected to be fairly flexible. These employees should accept change if material rewards are offered as incentives for implementing that change. Employees who have reached 51+ years of age may be less inclined to accept organizational change that affects their valued incentives. Though some research points to the value of hiring older workers (Horton & Eidgahy, 1990), this study indicates that older employees may be more effective in carrying on existing programs than in initiating new ones. Position in ACES: Support staff are probably the most flexible employees in ACES, since they respond positively to material incentives. Support Staff are also less interested in purposive, solidary, and status incentives than most other groups. Thus, promoting change among Support Staff should be greatly enhanced through the provision of material incentives. Gender: An Academic/Field staff employee's gender appears to have some influence on preferences for incentives received from ACES, but these differences were less pronounced than expected. Males may be more influenced by status incentives, while females may be more influenced by purposive incentives. Females may be somewhat less interested in material incentives than males. There were no significant differences observed in interest in solidary incentives. Thus, the data suggest that males (who appear to be less purposive and more materialistic) may be more receptive to change affecting valued incentives than females. (Note that the results were very similar when employees were grouped according to job assignments in either Agriculture (mostly males) and Family Programs (mostly females). Ethnic Origin: The data support the conclusion that African -Americans in ACES are more interested in purposive incentives than Caucasians. Additionally, African-Americans in ACES may be somewhat less interested in material incentives than Caucasians. One may speculate that African-Americans seeking other incentives (such as abundant material incentives) may choose to work in other organizations where these incentives are more readily available. Based on Clark and Wilson's theories, these findings would lead one to expect African-Americans in ACES to be somewhat less receptive than Caucasians to changes that affect their perceptions of the organizational purpose. Caucasians were found to be more interested than African-Americans in solidary incentives. There appeared to be no differences in preferences for status or solidary/status incentives. Thus, considering all these findings, one would expect African-Americans to be somewhat less accepting of organizational change that affects valued incentives than Caucasians. Note that the differences based on ethnic origin were less pronounced and in the opposite direction from the researcher's expectations. Conclusion: attracting and retaining ACES employees may require that all four types of incentives (material, purposive, solidary, and status) be continually offered by the organization. Though material incentives are desirable to promote organizational flexibility, the current scarcity of material resources may necessitate enhancement of other incentive systems which also appear to be highly valued by some ACES employees.
Barnard, C. I. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cigler, B. A. (1984). [Review of The Cooperative Extension Service: a national assessment]. Public Administration Review, 44(6), 540-545. Clark, P. B. & Wilson, J. Q. (1961). Incentive system: A theory of organization. Administrative Science Quarterly 6, 129- 166. Feller, I. (1987). Technology transfer, public policy, and the Cooperative Extension Service--OMB imbroglio. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 6(Spring), 307-27. Flint, W. (1994). The farmer's friend: Cooperative Extension in Alabama. Paper presented at Understanding Alabama: A professional development conference on Alabama history, Auburn, AL. Grimm, L. G. & Yarnold, P. R. (Eds.). Reading and understanding multivariate statistics. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Horton, G. R. & Eidgahy, S. Y. (1990). Retirement should be obsolete. HRMagazine, 35(12), 61-62. Smith, C. B. & Wilson, M. C. (1930). The Agricultural Extension System of the United States. Camden, New Jersey: Haddon Craftsmen. Wilson, J. Q. (1989). Bureaucracy: What government agencies do and why they do it. Basic Books.
An Evaluation of the Wisconsin Rural Leaders Perspective Program
V.G. Dhanakumar
Boyd Rossing
Gerald R. Campbell
Division of Cooperative Extension Although the Cooperative Extension system has along history of work in rural leadership development, there is little widespread understanding of the range of knowledge and skill taught or the amount of efforts directed towards leadership effectiveness. In meeting these challenges, rural America's greatest resource is its leaders. They must be able to view change in a broad perspective and be prepared to provide the wise leadership that 21st century challenges demand. This article summarizes a recent study of the Impact of the Wisconsin Rural Leadership Program (WRLP; Campbell, Dhanakumar & Rossing, 1994; Dhanakumar, Rossing & Campbell, 1993; Rossing & Heasly, 1987).
The objective of this study was to answer the following key questions:
To examine these questions and to derive a better understanding of the dynamic forces currently affecting the relevance and effectiveness of WRLP, a recent study titled "Evaluation of the Impact of the WRLP" reported by Dahankumar, Rossing, and Campbell (1993) helps set the stage for this article. Two types of survey instruments (part 1 - quantitative and part 2 - qualitative) were designed to obtain data for achieving the objectives of the study. The instruments were validated by a jury of three experts on the staff of the Department of Continuing and Vocation Education at the University of Wisconsin - Madison and Cooperative Extension Service and Community Dynamics Institute. Revisions were made following this jury review. The instruments were then pilot tested via telephone and face-to-face interviews with 10 WRLP graduates. Revisions were made following this procedure. This study was descriptive, exploratory, and analytical in nature and relied on both qualitative and quantitative data. Part 1 of the instruments was a set of rating items, which were completed by WRLP graduates and returned to program staff by mail. Part 2 was a set of open-ended questions to explore rural leaders' community activities through telephone and/or face-to- face interviews. In September 1993, both part 1 and 2 of the survey were sent to all 118 alumni of Groups I to IV WRLP. Three weeks later, a letter and another copy of the survey was mailed to non respondents, encouraging them to complete and return the surveys and/or talk with the researcher over the telephone. The data were analyzed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) package. Factor analysis (rotated factors) and multiple regression analysis were the primary statistical procedures used. the variables for analysis were 10 dependent variables (alumni values and satisfaction with RAP and community participation levels) and the association with 26 independent variables (11 educational factors, seven demographic factors, four group factors, and four key non program influences). All 36 variables were examined to answer two key questions. First, which knowledge and skills were significantly learned? And, second, what factors (e.g., knowledge/skill/key influence and demographics) influenced the level of alumni participation in civic and community activities. Regression association were determined between independent variables (alumni knowledge and skills, group status,' demographic characteristics, and key non program influences) and each dependent variable (overall value and satisfaction with the program and degree of participation in eight civic and community development activities). The results are summarized below.
Major themes and patterns emerging from this study were:
This study joins with a few others to show that knowledge and skill gained in the areas of communication skill and networking with other community members, alumni quality of decisions and effort in public affairs and confidence, and active involvement and attention to public issues (beyond local community) played greater roles on enhancing WRLP alumni leadership effectiveness, and their level of participation in civic and community activities. Factors that had little bearing on program outcomes were: interest in public and policy issues; organization and group skills and activities;and alumni views on public, social, and society issues (beyond community level). WRLP sought to increase knowledge of public affairs and skills in group problem-solving and to enhance the capacities of rural leaders to deal effectively and constructively with public issues. Rural leaders were admitted without regard to socio- economic status and the curriculum gave no particular attention to the effects of the socio-economic and educational status. In this study, multiple regression results suggest that rural leadership development and rural leaders' economic status has a negative effect - the greater the income, the lower the value and satisfaction with the program. Multiple regression at the 0.15 level revealed that the greater the income, the lower the level of alumni' participation in local community accomplishments; involving other people in addressing community and public concerns; and enhancing leadership capacities of other people. In the case of alumni activities, association changes, and higher income means more alumni association activities. Substantively, this means that leadership development in Wisconsin mediates the association between civic and community development participation and economic status. Leadership development, therefore, may spark less community participation among those of higher economic status than among those of lower economic status. This result is consistent with many previous interpretations of the relationship between civic affairs participation and socio-economic status. Time brings out differences in participation between people at different status levels because of access to resources, opportunities for involvement, socialization experiences, and other factors affecting civic participation.
These findings suggest several implications for adult education and civic development. A central concept in the civic and community development literature emphasizes the importance of participation as a means of strengthening rural leadership. Leadership development can enhance the ability of individuals to participate and to develop the necessary leadership skills. While most studies on civic affairs participation and socio-economic status show strong, positive relationships, this study suggests that rural leadership development can serve to change that relationship. Reasons why those of higher economic status may tend to participate less in civic and community activities than those of lower economic status in rural leadership development efforts need to be addressed. This study also suggests that rural leaders learn best by a process of action and reflection. Learning and participation results from both success and failure in attempting to achieve particular goals. This is one reason why the process of rural leadership development in Extension is as important as the product. In this research, it has been documented that rural leadership education is a product of the process. The process is adult and Extension education!
Campbell, G. R., Dhanakumar, V. G., & Rossing, E. B. (1994, February). Factors influencing rural leadership effectiveness and civic and community development activities. Paper presented at WRLP Board of Directors Workshop, Madison, WI. Dhanakumar, V. G., Rossing, E. B., & Campbell, G. R. (1993). An evaluation of the impact of the Wisconsin Rural Leadership Program. Madison: University of Wisconsin - Extension. Rossing, E. B., & Heasly, D. H. (1987). Enhancing public affairs participation through leadership development education: Key questions. Journal of Community Development Society, 18(2),' 98-116.
Extension's Free Lunch
Cheryle Jones Syracuse Looking for a way to increase advisory committee satisfaction? Need to keep legislators up-to-date on your programming? Need to reach new audiences? Invite them to lunch. As with many consumer extension planning and advisory committees, the family and consumer science committee in Lake County, Ohio wanted to do more than just advise and offer suggestions for programming. The group was interested in taking an active role in the community and conducting educational programs and events. They developed the idea of an annual Leader's Luncheon to acquaint local leaders with the programming opportunities of the Extension family and consumer science program. The advisory committee helps select who is invited. Community leaders are identified and sent a special invitation to participate in the luncheon. The invitation is followed-up by a telephone call from a committee member. Typical individuals invited to the Leader's Luncheon include local legislators, county commissioners, presidents of local women's groups and junior leagues, clergy, librarians, and home economics/family and consumer science (FCS) instructors. Individuals who are being considered as future members of the advisory committee are also invited to provide them with background information on the FCS committee and programs. On the day of the event, advisory committee members do the room set-up, provide refreshments and serve as hostesses and presenters. Guests are asked to participate in this two hour event with the added incentive of a free lunch. The agenda includes introduction and recognition of advisory committee members, general over-all Extension information including funding sources, and a brief overview of current programs and activities conducted and sponsored by the FCS Extension program. Participants are then asked to spend some time exploring the needs for future FCS programs in Lake County. This Leader's Luncheon has succeeded in achieving many positive outcomes. These luncheons increase awareness of Extension and update local legislators about Extension FCS programs. It also provides local legislators an opportunity to explore with community leaders the needs for such programming. Advisory committee members are recognized as strong supporters and volunteers of Extension and community leaders are recognized for their leadership positions. In addition, the Leader's Luncheon provides extension FCS in Lake County with a broader based yearly needs assessment and recommendations for programming activities. Results of the Leader's Luncheon include: Creating awareness among local legislators and political leaders Increased awareness of Extension programming Recruitment of new volunteers Recognition of current volunteers Broad-based recommendations/ideas on local programming needs Increased use of Extension taught programs by groups who have participated. This event has been held for the last two years in Lake County, Ohio. Evaluation surveys have been completed by 21 "guests" at the two Leader Luncheons. Evaluations showed of those attending: 4% were not familiar with Extension prior to the luncheon 8% were involved with Extension in other areas, but had not been aware of the FCS programs 14% had heard of Extension prior to the event but were uncertain of our responsibilities 14% had heard of Extension, but never used our services 29% were occasional users 19% had indicated they were frequent Extension users 71% (15 of the participants) indicated activities they would do as a result of what they learned at the luncheon. These actions included: 1 - share with staff; 2 - educate my friends and neighbors and familiarize others; 3 - make sure our library has this information available to the public; 4 - consider more volunteer time; 5 - use one of the videos available; 6 - several clubs/organizations which I belong are always looking for new programs; 7 - I will pass on this info; 8 - provide info to parents and have them sign up for newsletters. Of the 21 participants, four indicated they would be willing to serve on the FCS/home economics advisory committee. Two are currently active members. Ten others indicated they may be interested in serving in the future. Other evaluation comments included: So glad I was invited as I learned how the organization has improved and doing so many services for the community. I did not realize how wide range the programs from your office are to the community. I did not know how broad your services are and exactly what is available to us in the community. I certainly am impressed with the extent that the organization involves current and basic needs and the availability of this knowledge to the county.
NEW EXTENSION PROFESSIONALS - SURVIVING THE START
Robert M. Ritchie How many times have we heard these words, "When I started in Extension, I felt like I would never get everything sorted out" or "Where do I start?" This is not unique to the Cooperative Extension Service. However, how many other agencies and organizations have a 6-month, 1-year, or 2-year beginner training plan? The Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service 4- H/Youth Department felt we could no longer stand by and only help new employees in times of crises. We needed staff development opportunities that would speak to the basics of the 4-H program to be a foundation for all to come. The Cooperative Extension Service Central administration presents a staff orientation package that discusses the mechanics of being a Cooperative Extension Service Employee in Indiana. These sessions cover such items as required reports, official picture taking, History of Purdue and the Cooperative Extension Service, and meeting departmental staffs. Also included are discussions on Stress Management, Personal Growth and Development, and How to Balance Your Life and Extension. In addition to the general orientation offerings, each of the four program areas (4-H Youth, Consumer/Family Sciences, Agriculture/Natural Resources, Public Policy) offer several staff development opportunities based mainly on program issues. These seminars are available at national, regional, and state levels and many are visionary in scope, continually challenging the growth of present programs and personnel, including youth, volunteers, and professionals. What was missing was basic program information and survival skills, i.e., organizational, program, political. What was it that new employees in the 4-H/Youth Development program needed to strengthen basic knowledge needed in beginning a career? What was it a new employee must give attention to and thoroughly understand immediately? With these questions in mind, the Indiana 4-H/Youth Staff at Purdue University built a non-sequential Staff Development Program for new employees in their first two years of tenure. Non -sequential means that you may pick up anytime during the cycle as one session does not build upon the previous session. The first plans for this package included four topics: 1) Working With Volunteers; 2) Program Planning, Financial Management, Accountability and Evaluation; 3) Sources/ Resources; and 4) Communications. More recently the Agriculture/Natural Resources, Public Policy, and Consumer/Family Science arms felt a need to join with 4-H/Youth in this cycle. After some discussion, Sources/Resources was altered and renamed Collaboration while a fifth session was added to cover concepts related to Human Development. The Collaboration module emphasizes the importance of collaboration and helps in the initial steps of building agency files. Working with Volunteers works from the base of recruiting, screening, developing, and recognizing. The Program Planning, Financial Management, Accountability, and Evaluation module speaks in more detail about each segment, paying close attention to laws and insurance. The remaining modules of Human Development and Communication cover information dealing with working with people from youth to adults and all the communication opportunities - TV, radio, E- mail, Internet, written, verbal, non-verbal, etc. Planning the specifics to be presented for each of these 3- day Staff Development sessions (alternating between fall and spring) are representatives from each of the four arms of the Cooperative Extension Service. Planning flexibility is noted in that many things are common to all four; however, there are differences. Thus, the sessions are joint at times and parallel at others. What is learned, in a subtle way, is how our programs can work together many times for the good of all - presenters as well as receivers. Even though this package is built mainly for new employees in their first 2-to-3 years of service, many tenured staff return for updating. This unique blend of tenured with new staff certainly adds to the growth of each participant. We continue to upgrade each session as it returns to the forefront of the cycle. We still may not have the perfect package, but it is far down the road from what it was. We are now much more helpful to our new staff. If the Cooperative Extension Service is to survive as well as the staff within, we, as staff developers, must perform a top- notch job in getting our employees off on the right foot. It is truly our belief we are making the right steps with this 5 session package. Hopefully, we are doing a better job of answering that big question "Where do I start?"
A Practical Approach to Managing Cost Reimbursable Grants
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