Volume 34 Number 6
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December 1996 Volume 34 Number 6 |
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Editor's PageDear Readers: Happy New Year from your Journal of Extension. We hope that you have found your Journal useful and informative during the past year and we look forward to bringing you more articles that will help you during 1997. The Journal welcomes articles from all parts of the Extension System. In fact, we might issue a challenge to the other 49 states to match the output of Ohio Extension agents and specialists. We look forward to hearing from you in 1997 as your Journal works to become an even better resources to Extension people. Leonard J. Calvert, Editor Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors:
Judith Jones, President, Virginia, Southern Directors Ex-officio:
Leonard Calvert, Oregon, Editor Editorial Committee:
Joyce Alves, Arizona Barriers to Adopting Sustainable Agricultural Practices
Daniel Drost
Gilbert Long
David Wilson
Bruce Miller
William Campbell
Departments of Plants, Soils and Biometeorology (PS&B) and Numerous studies have evaluated sustainable farming systems (Lockeretz, 1988; Roberts & Lighthall, 1992; Taylor & Dobbs, 1990). Most found that farmers adopt sustainable practices because they want to be good stewards of the soil, to reduce ground and surface-water pollution, to produce quality produce with reduced amounts of chemicals, and to reduce health risks to farm families and livestock. Regardless of perceived benefits, transition problems often limit the adoption of sustainable farming practices (Auburn, 1994; Taylor & Dobbs, 1990), as do marketing options and a lack of useful up-to-date information. Furthermore, individual farm production practices, environmental constraints, and perception problems often limit the adoption of many sustainable practices. Improved knowledge of the present farming system will allow researchers, Extension educators and farmers to develop research agendas and adopt practices that meet present and future farming needs (Roling, 1988).
This study assessed current farming practices and barriers to adoption of more sustainable practices by farmers in Utah.
Extension agents and Natural Resource Conservation Service directors from each Utah county identified a group of 12 farmers perceived to be using sustainable practices. Information from these farmers was used to construct a questionnaire that would be used in a random survey of farmers. Additional questions were developed from existing literature. The questionnaire was designed to elicit information about present production practices and farmers' feelings about sustainable agricultural. A total of 964 farmers were selected from a population of 7009 Utah farmers and ranchers. The questionnaire and follow-up mailings followed Dillman's (1978) total design method. Part one assessed farmers' feelings and beliefs about sustainable agriculture. Farmers were asked to rank the level of importance of different components of sustainable agriculture. Part two asked farmers and ranchers to answer 31 questions about their present agricultural practices, including such areas as cultural, pest, manure, livestock and range, and irrigation management. Unsolicited comments along with specific demographic and economic information was also collected.
Of the 634 (66%) surveys returned, 351 (55%) indicated that they were presently farming or ranching. Those classified as absentee owners or those not currently farming (283) were not analyzed. The study showed Utah's typical farmer or rancher is 53 -years-old, has some post-high school education, has been farming for 31 years, and earns approximately 51% of the family income from farming operations. A series of questions on general farming practices asked farmers and ranchers whether they "had used," "were using" or "will use" a particular cultural practice. Forty percent were using minimum tillage, 19% practiced no-till, and 41% used fallow periods. Cover crops were used by 56% and double cropping by 31% of the farmers. Eighty one percent applied manure to their land and 71% rotated manure applications among fields. Most of the responding farmers and ranchers (86%) had long term crop rotations in which alfalfa (93%) was the dominant legume in the rotation. Many indicated that they would increase their use of crop residues, cover crops, double cropping, and rotations in the future. Seventy percent of the respondents stated that they have not reduced fertilizer and pesticide use during the past three years. Although integrated pest management (IPM) practices have been strongly emphasized in Utah, adoption of IPM does not appear evident. Clearly farmers develop and use cultural practices they are comfortable with and therefore minimize production risk associated with crop failure or yield reductions. Decisions to adopt more sustainable practices, therefore, must be compatible with the existing production system and overcome the resistance to change farmers possess (Roling, 1988). For example, of the responding farmers, 52% and 45%, respectively, do not credit alfalfa plowdown or animal manure when calculating nutrient needs. Of those farmers who credit nutrient contribution, only 8% decreased the fertilizer inputs accordingly. Moreover, 42% of the respondents did not use soil tests, 76% did not conduct field trials, and 91% did not use strip tests to determine nutrient needs or rates. In Utah, animal manure continues to be viewed as a disposal problem rather than a nutrient resource. Few farmers have adequate manure storage facilities, and many apply manure to frozen ground, where it is vulnerable to runoff. Farmers who earned a larger proportion of their income from the farm tend do a better job of crediting the nutrient contribution of manure than farmers who earned a smaller proportion of their income on farm (Table 1). However, neither group properly evaluated the contributions of cover crops to the desired crops nutrient requirements.
Many of the farmers believed they practice sustainable farming. However, as one respondent commented, "By your definition of sustainable agriculture I'm doing a fine job. By my definition, agriculture is not sustainable. It won't pay the bills. Therefore, I work off farm full time." Another stated, "If you tried to report back to me in an essay about my farming operation, it would be a lot different from what actually takes place. Things are not as black or white as you would have them." It is clear that farmers understand sustainability requires economic viability as well. Roberts and Lighthall (1992) outline a three tier model of the decisions farmers make about change to alternative production systems. The tiers are market and policy imperatives (market competition, innovations, regulations), the production and accumulation system (land, labor, capital), and the agro- ecological environment (soil, topography, climate). When combined with the operators' characteristics (age, experience, values, risks), the model can predict whether a production strategy will increase profits through economies of scale or improved efficiencies. Farmers in Utah and elsewhere use these factors to make decisions in their farming practices. All farmers have a unique set of farming practices and characteristics with which they are comfortable; this can impede change. Farmers and ranchers were asked to rank the barriers commonly believed to limit their adoption of sustainable practices (Table 2). Most farmers perceive these practices to be too costly. Ikerd (1990) states that economic considerations and incentives are needed to encourage change to a different system. Several respondents agreed. "Sustainable agriculture must sustain the farmer and must be voluntary. Any farmer that is still in business is doing a good job of maintaining the soil that supports his livelihood."
Minimizing financial risk was clearly an important factor in adopting sustainable practices (Table 2). Older farmers were more resistant to adoption of low-input practices and perceived them to be unfeasible or impractical. Many felt the transition to sustainable practices may not occur in their lifetimes and doubted sustainable practices would be beneficial or profitable. In addition, those approaching retirement are unlikely to risk learning and applying new production practices, especially if there are added costs with adoption. Roberts and Lighthall (1992) reported similar findings. When asked to rank those factors that are required to convert to sustainable practices (Table 3), farmers cited more time, information, and management were required if the system was to be successful. Batte, Jones & Schnitkey (1990) noted that Ohio farm size, farmer age, and information source as important factors in determining the resource used. It is apparent that Utah farmers act on the same set of principles.
Ninety percent of those surveyed considered themselves sustainable. Most expressed interest in being good land stewards, maintaining their quality of life, insuring the health of families and livestock, and working towards the continuity of the family farm. However, many farmers felt that they were being squeezed by the government, urbanization, and environmentalists to make changes that were not necessary or not feasible. As one stated, "If farmer's pay was better, he could operate less land and do a better job of practicing sustainable agriculture practices."
Utah's farming practices are not easily changed. For example, while farmers and ranchers practiced nutrient cycling, fewer than half credited the nutrients in legume plowdown or animal manure when calculating their fertilizer needs. Many farmers need to utilize nutrient management diagnostic tools available to them. As King, N. Rollins & T. Rollins (1995) noted, the usefulness of information is positively related to developing working relationships with the information provider. Unfortunately, down-sizing by Cooperative Extension may limit information transfer. With reduced manpower it will be necessary to focus efforts on farmers or groups of farmers who are receptive to change and willing to participate in the research or Extension process. Since specific groups of farmers (fruit, vegetables, grain, beef, dairy) have specific needs, extra effort is needed to focus on these groups individually to help them adopt sustainable agricultural practices. We recently completed a study of Utah's vegetable growers to provide this focus. Those findings show that increasing farmer participation in selecting and conducting appropriate research facilitates adoption of new and sustainable practices. Utah farmers did not express alarm over environmental issues. This lack of concern, economic constraints to change, and traditional farming practices are barriers to adoption of sustainable techniques. Alternative farming practices usually require more skill, time, information, and management (National Research Council, 1989). Extension must explain the benefits of sustainable practices and tailor studies toward the interest of farmers. Without grower participation in the design and implementation process, growers will be reluctant to adopt sustainable practices.
Auburn, J.S. (1994) Society pressures farmers to adopt more sustainable systems. California Agriculture, 48(5), 7-10. Batte, M.T., Jones, E., & Schnitkey, G.D. (1990) Farm information use: An analysis of production and weather information for midwestern cash grain farmers. Journal of Production Agriculture 3(1), 76-83. Dillman, D.A. (1978) Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. Wiley Press, New York, New York. Ikerd, J.E. (1990) Agriculture's search for sustainability and profitability. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 45, 18 -23. King, R., Rollins, N., & Rollins, T.J. (1995, August) Factors influencing the adoption of a nitrogen testing program [7746 bytes]. Journal of Extension [On-line serial], 33(4). Available E-mail: almanac@joe.org Message: send joe research 2 august 1995. Lockeretz, W. (1988) Open questions on sustainable agriculture. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 3, 174- 181. National Research Council. (1989) Alternative agriculture. National Academy Press, Washington, DC., 448 pp. Roberts, R.S. & Lighthall, D. (1993) A developmental approach to the adoption of low-input farming practices. Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture 2, 93-96. Roling, N. (1988) Extension science: Information systems in agricultural development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Taylor, D.C. & Dobbs, T.L. (1990) Sustainable Agriculture: Focus on producers. South Dakota Farm and Home Research, 40(1), 15-18.
Research funding for this study was provided by the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4810 (journal paper no. 4444) and the Utah Department of Environmental Quality, Office of Policy and External Affairs. The study was entitled " Measuring Sustainable Agriculture in Utah." Questionnaires are available from the authors on request.
Drawings as a Method of Program Evaluation and Communication with School-Age Children
William Evans
Jackie Reilly
University of Nevada, Reno As interest in community-based and locally-directed prevention programs have grown, so has the competition for resources and the accompanying need to document program effectiveness. For childhood prevention programs that hope to include children's attitudes and feelings into the evaluative process, evaluators often must be creative in their search for methods that are developmentally appropriate and valid. Unfortunately, program evaluators traditionally have struggled with how to incorporate children's perceptions into program evaluation plans. Research has shown that evaluation plans and instruments that are not appropriate for their audience can yield results which are tenuous and often unusable (Cronbach, 1982). The projective drawing technique described here to aid in program evaluation is based in part on the work of Koppitz (1983). She believes that drawing is a natural mode of expression for young children: "During the elementary school years, boys and girls can express their thoughts and feelings often better in visual images than in words" (p. 2). In addition, this technique also reflects the work of others, including Buck (1948), Machover (1949), Burns and Kaufman (1970), and Knoff and Prout (1985), who have developed conceptual frameworks to interpret children's drawings. Many investigators have demonstrated that children's drawings can reflect self- concept, attitudes, wishes, and concerns (Golomb, 1992; Burns, 1982; Klepsch & Logie, 1982; Koppitz, 1968). Although art activities have long been associated with children's programming, little has been written about using drawings as an evaluation tool of children's programs. Several authors (Koppitz, 1983; Rubin, 1984; Burns, 1982; Allan, 1978) have developed methods with which to interpret information from children's art work and drawings. These methods, as well as the use of other projective techniques have been used mainly for individual diagnostic purposes in clinical or educational settings. In such contexts, children's drawings have been used for a variety of assessment purposes, including intellectual development (Harris, 1963; Goodenough, 1926), learning disabilities (Cox & Howarth, 1989), personality (Prout, 1983; Wade, Baker, Morton & Baker, 1978; Hulse, 1951; Machover, 1949), and emotional adjustment (Koppitz, 1968). The drawing activity described here, while conceptually linked to such individual diagnostic purposes, focuses on program effectiveness rather than individual assessment. The activity is one element of a multi-modal childhood education program evaluation that includes qualitative and quantitative components in an effort to comprehensively assess the program's objectives.
The program is a five year, federally-funded, locally developed and directed school-age educational program to teach life skills to limited resource families in Washoe County, Nevada. It is a collaborative venture between Nevada Cooperative Extension and several community agencies including the local housing authority, city recreation division, school district and Salvation Army. More than 1,000 children and their families participated in the first two years of the program at seven sites at housing authority projects, homeless shelters, and local schools. Programs have included an after school program, a summer day program, parent education workshops, a parent newsletter, family activities, and training youth service providers, staff, and volunteers. Curricula for youth highlights life skills such as decision- making, communication, cooperation, conflict resolution, self- responsibility, literacy, nutrition and consumer education. The parent and staff curricula focuses on the same life skills as well as child development and guidance. In addition, the staff received training on the effects of poverty and homelessness, and how to recognize and report child abuse and neglect.
The premise of the program evaluation plan was based on the need to use multple sources and times for gathering data (Patton, 1982, 1990). Multiple sources and times allow compilation of a more comprehensive picture of program impact (Cronbach, 1982). Evaluators gathered information from school records, parents, teachers, program staff, and the youth themselves at various times each year of the program. Data collected for the treatment group included school records (including academic grades, citizenship/academic behavior, citizenship/social behavior, and attendance); teacher, parent, and staff ratings (these were social skills rating inventories completed on each child [the Social Skills Rating System, Teacher and Parent Elementary Forms, Gresham & Elliot, 1990]); staff notes (staff documented case study vignettes as part of the qualitative data collection process); child ratings (children completed a short attitude survey regarding school, family, friends, and the after-school program); and the drawing activity--in which children engaged in an art activity drawing pictures about their thoughts and feelings regarding (a) school, (b) their family, and (c) the after-school program. All of these data collection activities (except staff notes, which were done weekly, and school records, which were collected only at the end of the school year) were administered at the beginning and end of the school year for each child. In addition, the program evaluation described here was conducted only with those children enrolled in the after-school component of the program (about 100 children per year). The evaluation attempted to determine the effectiveness of the program's objectives with regard to (a) increasing children's grades, school attendance, and perceptions towards school and the after school program, and (b) increasing childrens' life skills and positive perceptions toward family and friends. As part of the formative evaluation process, program staff also wanted to know what aspects of the program the participants liked or didn't like and why. Only school records and teacher, parent and children ratings were collected for the control group. All instruments selected for the evaluation were normed on similar age populations. In addition, all letters, consent forms and questionnaires were translated into Spanish for those participants whose first language was Spanish. Program staff, who were bilingual, presented the projective drawing activity in Spanish as necessary.
This activity was conceived as a qualitative data collection process as well as an educational process--for children to learn about feelings and ways to appropriately express them. Staff were trained in the projective drawing technique by the authors who also helped initially administer the activity to children at each program site. The process for the art activity was as follows:
Although this activity was conceptualized principally as a qualitative formative assessment, the evaluation plan also proposes to have the sets of children's drawings from the final year of the project (when we anticipate having the largest number of matched sets of drawings) evaluated by three independent raters trained in child development and this drawing activity. This will be based on a point system according to the following criteria: (a) the color/feelings template meaning to the drawing, (b) the drawing content, (c) children's comments about their picture, and (d) age of child. Once completed, inter- rater reliability will be established. These results, as well as short written reports on selected sets of drawings will then be compiled and summarized with the other program evaluation data.
For the drawing activity, children were grouped according to age. It is important to developmentally group children for this activity, since younger children (first and second graders) in our sample generated fewer feelings and needed more help with the concept of drawing with feelings. Older children (grades three through seventh), produced more sophisticated drawings and needed less guidance from program staff (thus, in Piagetian terms, the authors recommend that for this structured drawing activity children be at least in the concrete operational stage [ages 7 to 11], since children not yet in this stage will have difficulty with the concept of drawing with feelings instead of colors [Ginsberg & Opper, 1979]). In general, all age groups exhibited growth in the number of feelings they could generate and accurately describe over the span of the program. However, because the control group did not engage in the drawing activity, we do not know if this is a result of the program or maturational processes. As program developers, we believe that the greatest benefit of this art activity lies in the immediate and direct information and feedback the drawings can provide to program staff. Rich qualitative data have emerged with regard to the children's attitudes and feelings about the program and their social world. Specifically, program staff report that the drawings have been tremendously helpful in conveying changes in family structure and environment, areas of concern, conflict or success at school, and attitudes about various aspects of the program. In addition, this activity has been used as a measure of how effective the program has been in enhancing participant's life skills across social settings and as a screening device to detect abuse or neglect. This has helped program staff to be more responsive to individual children's needs and problems, and to modify program content and curriculum accordingly. Since portfolio evaluation methods use art work, project reports, and/or journal entries, we believe this activity also could be useful in conjunction with these methods of evaluation which stress self-directed learning (Paulson, Paulson & Myer, 1991). As with any data gathering activity involving children, protocols should be in place to address confidentiality issues and indications of abuse and neglect that may emerge. In addition, despite the seeming simplicity of this drawing activity, we caution that the individual interpretation of projective drawings requires extensive training and knowledge of psychological assessment and child development. We advise those interested in pursuing this activity for the purposes of program evaluation to consult with a professional who has the requisite graduate preparation and training. Evaluators of children's educational programs must be creative in their attempts to meet the challenges posed by working with at-risk audiences. We found the projective drawing activity to be a developmentally appropriate method to gather data and to help with many of the evaluation challenges presented by our program's target audience: low literacy, primary languages other than English, varied educational levels, and diverse cultural backgrounds. This drawing activity was developed as a fun, structured exercise to bring young children's views and feelings into the program evaluation process. As developers and evaluators of children's programs, we have found this activity useful as an educational and evaluative technique. If used as a component in a multi-modal design, childhood program evaluators can compare the projective drawing activity findings with other assessment sources. This allows for a richer and more sensitive assessment of a program's efficacy, as well as a better understanding of the children who participate in education programs.
Allan, J. (1978). Serial drawing: A therapeutic approach with young children. Canadian Counselor, 12(4), 223-228. Buck, J. N. (1948). The H-T-P technique: A qualitative and quantitative scoring manual. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 4, 317-396. Burns, R. C. (1982). Self-growth in families. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Burns, R. C., & Kaufman, S. F. (1970). Kinetic family drawings (K-F-D): An introduction to understanding children through kinetic drawings. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Cox, M. V., & Howarth, C. (1989). The human figure drawings of normal children and those with severe learning difficulties. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7, 333-339. Cronbach, L. (1982). Designing evaluations of educational and social programs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ginsberg, H., & Opper, S. (1979). Piaget's theory of intellectual development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Golomb, C. (1992). The child's creation of a pictorial world. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Goodenough, F. L. (1926). Measurement of intelligence by drawings. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World. Gresham, F., & Elliott, S. (1990). Social skills rating system. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service. Harris, D. B. (1963). Children's drawings as measures of intellectual maturity. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. Hulse, W. C. (1951). The emotionally disturbed child draws his family. Quarterly Journal of Child Behavior, 3, 152-174. Klepsch, M., & Logie, L. (1982). Children draw and tell. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Knoff, H. M., & Prout, H. T. (1985). Kinetic drawing system for family and school: A handbook. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services. Koppitz, E. M. (1968). Psychological evaluation of children's human figure drawings. New York: Grune & Stratton. Koppitz, E. M. (1983). Psychological evaluation of human figure drawings by middle school pupils. New York: Grune & Stratton. Machover, K. (1949). Personality projection in the drawings of the human figure. Springfield, IL: Thomas. Patton, M. J. (1982). Practical evaluation. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Patton, M. J. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Prout, H. T. (1983). School psychologists and social- emotional assessment techniques: Patterns in training and use. School Psychology Review, 12, 377-383. Rubin, J. A. (1984). Child art therapy. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Wade, T. C., Baker, T. B., Morton, T. L., & Baker, L. J. (1978). The status of psychological testing in clinical psychology: Relationships between test use and professional activities and orientation. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42, 3-10.
The Influence of Experiential Instruction on Urban Elementary Students' Knowledge of the Food and Fiber System
Rachel Mabie
Matt Baker
Richardson (1994) reported that although John Dewey is best known as the primary advocate of experiential learning, Seaman Knapp also believed that clients learned best when they were provided the opportunity to practice new skills. Richardson summarized by stating "our desire is to create experiential educational opportunities for our clientele by planned design rather than experiential opportunities by accident." There is increasing concern regarding the public's literacy of the food and fiber system (W.K. Kellogg Foundation, 1984; Russell, 1993). Concurrently, Extension's involvement in formal education programs has increased. McKenna (1987) asserted that Extension has a role in formal education. In a study to assist Cooperative Extension professionals in working with public schools, Smith, Hill, Matranga, and Good (1995) reported that curriculum infusion efforts by Extension should be more than simply sharing instructional materials. The purpose of this study was to assess two types of experiential activities to improve students' literacy of the food and fiber industry.
Data were collected in two urban, inner-city Los Angeles schools during the spring of 1993. One school, in East Los Angeles, had a student population about 99% Hispanic. The other school, in South Central Los Angeles, had a student population that was 75% African-American and 25% Hispanic. Five fifth grade, sixth grade, or fifth/sixth combination classrooms participated in the study. These groups were randomly assigned to the following treatments: (a) a ten-week garden project consisting of a fifth/sixth combination class and a sixth grade class (56 students), (b) a ten week series of three short in-class projects (including bread baking, chick rearing, and seed germination) for two of the fifth grade classes (57 students), and (c) one control group, a fifth/sixth combination classroom that received no treatment (31 students). The treatments (gardening project and short in-class projects) were developed for integration into a 10-week instructional unit in science. The teacher of the control group did not include the specific food and fiber competencies in the curricula. Gardening instruction was structured as a 15-20 minute session of lecture, discussion, and demonstration in the classroom, followed by group gardening activities. Lessons were one hour each week for the ten-week period. Three days (one day per week) were spent on each of the short, in-class projects (bread baking, chick rearing, and seed germination). An emphasis was placed on observing each project as it progressed, recording observations, making predictions, and discussing outcomes. The data collection for this descriptive study involved researcher observation of student written responses to a series of questions on a pre-test and post-test instrument developed by the researchers and reviewed for validity by a panel of experts. The instrument was designed to find out how much children knew about where food comes from, their level of awareness of careers in agriculture, and their understanding of the social, economic, and environmental significance of agriculture. The instrument was piloted-tested with fifth graders at another inner-city Los Angeles school. The Kuder-Richardson 20 reliability coefficient was .74. The data were analyzed using the SPSS+/PC statistical package.
The students participating in this study appeared to know little about the food and fiber system. When asked "What is agriculture?" on the pre-test only 32% of students in the control group, 21% of students in the garden group, and 3% of students in the short projects group could give a basic definition. After participating in the ten-week program, many more students were able to answer the question. While only 43% of control group respondents gave an appropriate response (11% increase from pre- test scores), 91% of participants in the garden group (70% increase), and 83% of the students in the short projects group (80% increase) gave acceptable answers. The students showed little understanding of the food and fiber system in their state. On the pre-test, 42% of control group students, 25% of garden group students, and 36% of short project students knew that California was the nation's leading farm state. On the post-test, 50% of control respondents (8% increase from pretest scores), 78% of garden respondents (53% increase), and 78% of short project respondents (42% increase), were aware of their state's status in agriculture. Students were asked to list three crops growing on California farms. On the pre-test, only 39% of control group respondents, 16% of garden group respondents and 30% of short project respondents could list three California crops. Although there was no change in the control group, 54% of garden group participants (38% increase from pretest scores), and 50% of short project participants (20% increase) were able to list three crops grown by farmers in California. Most students were unfamiliar with important terminology associated with the food and fiber system. They were largely unfamiliar with a list of careers relating to the subject area, including forester, entomologist, landscape architect, dairy farmer, and plant breeder. Both methods of instruction seemed useful in raising their awareness. However, the students did understand the origin of most common food and fiber products. Most students were aware that tortillas come from corn, bacon comes from pigs, tee-shirts come from cotton, and wool blankets come from sheep. Sixty-nine percent of control-group participants, 45% of garden group participants, and 42% of short project participants said that agriculture was interesting on the pre-test. On the posttest, the percentage of "yes" respondents in the control group declined to 54% (-15% decrease), and increased to 83% in the garden group (38% increase), and 85% in the short projects group (43% increase).
The urban fifth and sixth graders participating in this study knew very little about the food and fiber system before completing a ten-week series of experimental activities. Very few children could give a basic definition of the word agriculture itself. Students for the most part could not name crops grown by producers in their state. They were unfamiliar with related careers, and common terminology, such as irrigation, pesticides, and drought. The students' knowledge increased through participation in the activities. Many more were able to identify related careers. As a result, students went from knowing very little to becoming quite knowledgeable. Based on this research, Extension professionals should assist teachers in introducing experiential activities into their science curriculum. The method selected can be based on their own preference, or that of the students. Some teachers may prefer gardening as it gets students outside and can be used as a focal point throughout the school year for studying science, math, and social studies. In-class projects may be more appealing to other teachers because of the shorter time frame involved in preparing for and completing the projects. In addition, many schools may not have the resources needed for a gardening project. It is critical to ensure that today's youth grow up with a basic understanding of the food and fiber system. People should be capable of making educated decisions on issues in the voting booth as well as in their personal lives. Such knowledge should be a part of every child's education, starting in kindergarten and continuing through higher education. Unfortunately, many literacy programs place little emphasis on experiential activities. Lesson plans often focus on crossword puzzles and fill-in-the-blank worksheets. In this format, the subject matter seems to lose the qualities that make it exciting. The food and fiber industry must look closely at how to make instructional materials more valuable to children. How can the subject best be used to help generate excitement for learning? Hopefully, future research will look closely at these issues.
McKenna, P.G. (1987). Extension goes to high school: Bringing agriculture to the inner city. Journal of Extension, 25 (4). Richardson, J.G. (1994). Learning best through experience. Journal of Extension, 32 (2). Russell, E.B. (1993). Attracting youth to agriculture. Journal of Extension, 31 (4). Smith, M. Hill, G.C., Matranga, M., & Good, A. (1995). Working with high-risk youth: A collaborative approach. Journal of Extension, 33 (3). W.K. Kellogg Foundation. (1984). Cultivating agricultural literacy: Challenge for the liberal arts. Battle Creek, MI: W.K. Kellogg Foundation.
Leadership in Nonformal Youth Groups: Does Style Affect Youth Outcomes?
Kirk A. Astroth
Since publication of 4-H in Century III by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1976, 4-H has been challenged to demonstrate that it provides benefits to youth participating in the program. Demonstrating such results, however, has been difficult and reported advantages to participation are often more suggestive than definitive. Many non-formal youth programs share the same challenge--how to show that participation makes a substantial difference for its members.
A number of studies have tried to determine if participation in out-of-school programs, like 4-H, is better for youth than not participating. Except for a handful of studies (Boyd, 1991; Heinsohn & Cantrell, 1986; Ladewig & Thomas, 1987; Sawer, 1987; Steele & Everson, 1978), researchers have been unable to demonstrate significant benefits to participation in such programs. Why is this? Why do the results from numerous research studies seem to fly in the face of what we believe to be intuitively logical about the benefits of extra-curricular participation? Many studies have failed to detect benefits for youth who participate in nonformal youth programs because they've ignored what we know about human development. Human development (often called human ecology) says we have to pay attention to the quality of the environment in which people live and participate. Therein lies the key. If we simply take a random sample of young people who participate, say, in 4-H and try to find out if they're better off than youth who don't participate in 4-H (which is what most studies in the past have done), we've overlooked a critical element--leadership. We've forgotten that the kinds of 4-H groups in which each individual participates may be the most important element affecting the experiences of young people. The failure to include leadership as a key variable is the flaw of many previous studies. Many studies failing to find significant differences between 4-H and non-4-H participants did not take into account the quality of the groups in which specific youth participate. Such studies have simply taken a random sample of youth who participate in non-formal youth groups, compared them to youth who do not participate in such groups, and have not found significant benefits to such participation (e.g. Fetsch, et al., 1993; Hanna, 1988; Miller 1991). It's little wonder: we've failed to consider the most important factors in our sampling strategy--leadership and group climate.
Over the past year, a descriptive ethnographic study of 4-H clubs using both qualitative and quantitative methods was conducted in Montana to examine the impact of extreme styles of leadership on member outcomes. All counties in the state were classified by population size into one of three categories: urban (a density of >10 persons per square mile), rural and frontier (<2 people per square mile). One county in each category was randomly selected for further study. Within each of the three counties, all 4-H club organizational leaders were administered an instrument designed by Edward Deci at the University of Rochester that measures an adult's orientation as either highly controlling or highly supportive of autonomy. The instrument provides "an internally consistent, temporally stable, and externally valid" measure of an adult's basic style of working with young people (Deci, Schwartz, Sheinman and Ryan, 1981, p. 649). Reliability coefficients for each of the four subscales of the instrument range from .77 to .82. The test-retest reliability of the instrument is .70. A total of 41 of the 49 club leaders returned the Deci instrument for an overall return rate of 84%. Each survey was analyzed using a self-designed computer program based on analysis procedures provided by Deci. Scores can range from -18 (high control orientation) to +18 (high autonomy orientation). Based on the scores of these surveys, a total of five clubs were purposely selected for the research project. Three clubs led by adults who scored toward the high autonomy end of the Deci scale, and two clubs led by adults who scored toward the high control end of the scale. Originally, a third control-oriented club was to be included in the design, but conflicts with meeting dates made this impossible. The five clubs were intensively studied over a 12 month period beginning in January 1995 and ending in December 1995. This time period was selected to ensure that each club was observed for a significant period of time as well as through each club's annual reorganization in the fall. In total, more than 160 hours were spent in non-participant observation of clubs in action--at monthly meetings, at community service activities, at project meetings, at county fairs, at fundraising events, and at play. Extensive field notes and observations were recorded during and after each event. In addition, 53 people were interviewed--club leaders, youth members, parents, county agents and others. More than 45 hours of interviews were taped and then transcribed, coded, and analyzed. Official club documents, record books, and history books were also studied. Finally, photographs were taken to record interactions between youth and adults, signage, and behaviors. In addition, sketches were made of the physical set-up and physical layout of each club meeting. At the end of the study, all club members completed two quantitative instruments. All youth members completed the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Scale (Coopersmith, 1981) and all youth members age 12 years and older completed an instrument adpated from David Olson's FACES III instrument which measures group cohesion, adaptability, and satisfaction (Olson, 1986; Olson, Portner & Lavee, 1985; Olson, Sprenkle & Russell, 1979). For the purposes of this study, this modified instrument was called CASES IV. All these multiple data sources were used to triangulate observations and discern emergent patterns and trends which would suggest the research conclusions.
Is one style of leadership better than another? Does leadership style affect the kinds of skills and abilities youth develop in 4-H clubs? The answer to both questions is yes, and often to a significant degree. While the results of this study are too numerous to recount in this one article, some of the significant findings related to adult leadership in 4-H clubs are discussed. Leadership Preferences Consistently, adult 4-H club leaders expressed a preference for an autonomy-oriented approach even though they found it hard to "walk the talk." Leaders who ranked higher in autonomy behavior were more often observed practicing such a style; more control-oriented leaders more often lapsed back into controlling behaviors that tended to direct and dictate to youth despite their expressed preferences to the contrary. 4-H club members of all ages felt that an autonomy-oriented approach was the ideal situation for the club. One youth in an autonomy-oriented club expressed it well:
In contrast, listen to the observations of this youth from a control-oriented club:
Importance of Order Still, there is a balance that effective groups achieve between too much control and too much autonomy. Effective youth groups are those that are firm yet flexible. Members of both types of clubs and leaders talked about the necessity for some order in the club so that things didn't devolve into chaos. One leader, for example, gave this description of a really good club meeting:
Oddly enough, at certain stressful times that they seemed unable to manage, control-oriented leaders were observed periodically giving up and allowing the club to erupt in chaos. As if to prove that the youth members were unable to conduct their own affairs, control-oriented leaders let chaos reign for a time and then re-established control through the use of yelling, threats, or even physical sanctions (pinching, grabbing a youth, etc.). Not surprisingly, maintaining order and minimizing confusion was a theme which emerged in interviews with members of the control-oriented clubs as this 12-year old noted:
Satisfaction Using the CASES IV instrument, a measure of satisfaction using the ideal-perceived discrepancy score with the club environment was obtained for each club. Several ANOVA tests revealed that there were significant differences between club member's satisfaction scores between club leadership types. Post- hoc analysis using Duncan's test reveal that club members' satisfaction in the most control-oriented club differed significantly from the satisfaction scores of members in the three autonomy-oriented clubs (F = 2.76; df = 4/54; p = .0373). Club members in the more control-oriented club were highly dissatisfied with their 4-H club experience. There were no significant differences based on age or gender. These quantitative results were supported by the qualitative data. Members of the more control-oriented club consistently talked about how disorganized and chaotic their club was. Members of this club rarely mentioned fun as a reason for belonging to 4- H and focused more on the side benefits to participating in 4-H, such as being able to go to the fair and attend camp. Self-Esteem Previous studies (Harter, 1983; Lepper & Greene, 1975; Prawat & Nickerson, 1985; Ryan, 1982; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986) have indicated that leadership style affects students' self-esteem and self-confidence. However, this research found no such relationship. Several one-way ANOVA tests of the Coopersmith results found that there were no significant differences between member's self-esteem scores based on club leadership type. In addition, there were no significant differences based on age or gender. Qualitative interviews and other data substantiated this finding. Only a few key informants mentioned the impact 4-H had on their self-concept or self-esteem. One 13-year old member responded: I'm probably the same, but I believe in myself a little more. This study found that self-esteem is neither enhanced nor harmed by the kind of club leadership style practiced by adults. In part, this result is probably due to the fact that self-esteem depends on a number of variables. As suggested in the self-esteem research, overall self-esteem may be more global in nature, and it is difficult to identify specific contributors or detractors to an individual's assessment of self-worth (Coopersmith, 1967; Harter, 1983; Wylie, 1961). In reality, self-esteem may be relatively resilient to various leadership orientations. As Erickson (1983) put it, non-formal youth groups' touch may be too light to make much impact on self-esteem. Leadership 4-H is quite effective at developing leadership skills in 4- H members. This pattern consistently emerged in the data, and nearly all those interviewed spoke about the way that 4-H helped them learn leadership skills. In autonomy-oriented clubs, members held both the formal leadership positions and also exercised leadership authority informally, although some members still resented the smallest intrusion of adults into "their" program. In these clubs, youth were really in charge of the meetings and were not simply serving as figure heads or pawns. In clubs led by more control-oriented leaders, members simply held the formal positions of leadership but had less actual authority. In many instances, their authority was usurped by leaders and parents. In these clubs, officers felt little investment in the club's meetings and consistently turned to the adult leader for direction and leadership. Life Skill Development In addition to developing leadership skills, 4-H clubs can be effective at helping youth develop critical life skills such as decision-making, responsibility, interpersonal skills, an ethic of service, and how to get along with others. Yet again, youth in autonomy-oriented clubs developed these kinds of skills to a much greater extent than youth in control-oriented clubs. Members in autonomy-oriented clubs spoke more often about learning speaking skills, responsibility, and social skills than members of the other two clubs. Autonomy-oriented leaders were concerned with youth development outcomes--developing positive self-concept and self-worth, teaching decision-making skills, developing communications skills and fostering a sense of personal pride in accomplishments. Such leaders were unconcerned about noise or playfulness if they knew that youth were learning and having fun in the process. In contrast, control-oriented leaders spoke much less often about youth development outcomes and instead tended to be more concerned about procedural rules and organizational needs. Control-oriented leaders, when asked about their goals for youth, focused on project completion, record keeping, and keeping peace in the club. Control-oriented leaders were more task-oriented. These leaders rarely spoke of enhancing interpersonal skills or of fostering self-directed learning. These outcomes were viewed as offshoots of getting things done right. Control-oriented leaders were bothered by noise and play, and they saw these as counter- productive to reaching club goals. Noise was equated with lack of focus and direction. Practical Skill Development In addition to developing life skills, 4-H places nearly equal emphasis on developing practical, technical skills. Members often cited 4-H's opportunities to work in hands-on ways with a variety of materials and tools that they could use throughout their lives. One youngster mentioned having developed the knowledge and abilities in 4-H to become a professional rabbit breeder. Another member learned how to train dogs. However, as in the case of self-esteem, leadership style did not seem to affect the extent to which youth developed these non- cognitive skills. In fact, members of control-oriented clubs mentioned this kind of skill development just as often as youth in autonomy-oriented clubs. Evidently, despite a controlling leader, youth members are able to seek out and develop subject matter knowledge they can apply. Still, it is important to remember that these kinds of skills were the primary skills youth in control-oriented clubs developed. Youth in autonomy-oriented clubs developed both life skills and practical skills.
In 4-H, as in other nonformal youth programs, youth have the unique opportunity to exert influence over the success or failure of various parts of the program. Non-formal youth programs like 4 -H are rare settings, then, "where what a twelve- or thirteen- year old does really matters" (Kleinfeld & Shinkwin, 1984, p. 69). In these programs, what youth do can influence the success or failure of certain activities--a situation that is rare for youth in schools. In schools, only a very few youth can hold any positions of leadership, and most of the important decisions are made by adults without consulting youth. This situation is particularly true in middle schools. 4-H is able to teach the skills that schools cannot precisely because of the voluntary and low-risk nature of non- formal programs. Autonomy-oriented leaders can foster both life skills and practical, noncognitive skills, and they do so better than control-oriented leaders. Autonomy-oriented leaders bring certain sets of skills and interests to youth groups that maximize youth potential for healthy growth and development. Control-oriented leaders impede, and in some cases detour, this development. Members of control-oriented clubs are significantly less satisfied with their 4-H experience and are less likely to characterize 4-H as enjoyable. In the end, effective youth programs help youth develop skills through actual practice not through control or domination. As Kohn (1994) observed, youth "acquire a sense of significance from doing significant things, from being active participants in their own education" (p. 282). 4-H will be challenged to help leaders practice more autonomy-oriented behaviors and reduce their control-oriented behaviors if we hope to "make the best better."
Boyd, B. L. (1991). Analysis of 4-H participation and leadership life skill development in Texas 4-H club members. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. College Station: Texas A & M University. Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co. Coopersmith, S. (1981). Self-esteem inventories. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Deci, E.L., Schwartz, A.J., Sheinman, L. & Ryan, R.M. (1981). An instrument to assess adults' orientations toward control versus autonomy with children: Reflections on instrinsic motivation and perceived competence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 642-650. Erickson, J.B. (1983). Directory of American youth organizations. Boys Town, NE: Father's Flanagan's Boy's Home, Communications & Public Service. Fetsch, R.J., Carey, J., Cramer, S., Arnhold, L., Swartz, A., Peterson, W. L., Elliot, B., Hoffman, G., Cooper, W., Salzer, R., Earley, L., Crumpton, E., LaBarr, C., & Gully, K. (1993, March). A 4-H, family life, and school collaboration to determine program effectiveness--preliminary results. Paper presented at the Western Extension Specialists Conference, Denver, CO. Hanna, G. S. (1988). Kansas 4-H impact study: 1983-1987. Unpublished report by author. Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University, Department of Education. Harter, S. (1983). Developmental perspectives on the self- system. In E.M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Volume 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed., pp. 275-386). New York: Wiley. Heinsohn, A.L. & Cantrell, M.J. (1986). Pennsylvania 4-H impact study: An evaluation of teen's life skill development. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University. Kleinfeld, J. & Shinkwin, A. (1984). Making good boys better: Nonformal education in Boy Scouts. Fairbanks, AK: Institute of Social, Economic and Government Research. Kohn, A. (1994). The truth about self-esteem. Phi Delta Kappan, 76, 272-283. Ladewig, H. & Thomas, J. (1987). Does 4-H make a difference? College Station, TX: Texas A & M University System. Lepper, M.R. & Greene, D. (1975). Turning play into work: Effects of adult surveillance and extrinsic awards on children's intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 479-86. Miller, J. P. (1991). Four-H and Non-4-H Participants' Development of competency, coping, and contributory skills. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Pennsylvania State University. Olson, D.H. (1986). Circumplex model VII: Validation studies and FACES III. Family Process, 25, 337-351. Olson, D.H., Portner, J. & Lavee, Y. (1985). FACES III. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota. Olson, D.H., Sprenkle, D.H., & Russell, C.S. (1979). Circumplex model of marital and family systems: I. Cohesion and adaptability dimensions, family stypes, and clinical applications. Family Process, 18, 3-28. Prawat, R. & Nickerson, J. (1985). Relationship between teacher thought and action and student affective outcomes. Elementary School Journal, 85, 529-540. Ryan, R.M. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 450- 461. Ryan, Richard M. & Grolnick, W. S. (1986). Origins and pawns in the classroom: Self-report and projective assessment of individual differences in children's perceptions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 550-58. Sawer, B.J. (1987). What 4-H members learn in animal science projects. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Department of 4-H and Youth Development. Steele, S. M. & Everson, N. (1978). What youth gain from 4- H animal projects. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-- Extension Service. Wylie, F. (1961). The self-concept. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska.
Predictors of Effectiveness of Collaborative Relationships of the USDA Youth At Risk Coalitions
Daney G. Jackson
Richard W. Clark Since 1914, Extension professionals have sought to bring together individuals and groups to address complex community issues. Collaboration and Coalitions are words that have been used to describe this process. Shrinking budgets and shortages of resources have made working together even more important. Making effective use of our resources to have real impact in our communities should be our primary reason for building effective relationships with other individuals and groups. In 1991, 69 sites throughout the country were funded through the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to conduct innovative programs for Youth-At-Risk (YAR). The programs were funded through competitive grants to Extension Service field offices and were made up of three types: Science Technology and Literacy, School Aged Child Care, and Building and Developing Coalitions. These programs all had one common requirement, they must have a collaborative component. This study examined selected situational factors and structural characteristics of the coalitions to determine if relationships exist between the perceived effectiveness of the collaborative relationships within the coalition and those situational factors and structural characteristics. The situational factors selected appeared to assess the conditions under which individual members try to build collaborative relationships. In this study coalition size, coalition type, resource dependence, awareness, consensus and domain similarity were used. Coalition size referred to the number of active collaborators in the coalition. Coalition type was the type of Youth-At-Risk site studied (science, technology, and literacy; school aged child care; or developing and building coalitions). Resource dependence is the extent to which members needed resources from the other members of the coalition in order to accomplish their goals. Awareness referred to prior knowledge of or relationships with other agencies or individual members of the coalition. Consensus was the extent to which coalition members agreed on needs, problems, solutions and methods. Domain Similarity was the extent to which members shared like goals, funding sources, staff skills, clientele and services. Structural characteristics were characteristics of a coalition which appeared to capture its structural essence. In this study resource flows, formalization, communication frequency, and communication quality were used. Resource flows referred to the direction and intensity that resources were shared among coalition members. Formalization was the extent to which written, verbal or legally binding agreements were used by the coalition. Communication frequency was how often members communicated; either written, as a group, individual face-to-face discussions, or by telephone. Communication quality referred to the members' perception of the quality of communication between themselves and other members of the coalition. Perceived effectiveness referred to members' perception of the effectiveness of the coalition relationship. The extent to which members carry out their commitments and believe the relationships are worthwhile, productive and satisfying. The findings from this study may help the coalition builders to maximize those situational factors and structural characteristics that promote effectiveness of the collaborative relationships, resulting in better services for youth and families. The findings may also help decision-makers in funding those projects that have the greatest likelihood of success. Many have touted coalitions and collaboration as methods that can increase efficiency and effectiveness when addressing complex societal issues (Quick, Flashman & Gibeaux, 1981; O'Connor, Albrecht, Burton & Newquist-Carroll, 1984; Lippett & Van Til, 1981; Stevens, 1990; Rossi, Gilmartin & Dayton, 1982; Black, 1983). Different situational factors and structural characteristics have been identified which may influence the effectiveness of the relationships. Different levels of these factors and characteristics could positively or negatively affect the effectiveness of the relationships (Van de Ven, 1974; Astroth, 1990; Bennard, 1991). Characteristics of members and coalitions was also described as being an important component of effective collaborative relationships (Black, 1983; Miller, 1983; Hord, 1986; Lieberman, 1986; Johnson, Bruininks & Thurlow, 1987; Yukl, 1989; Bennard, 1991). The structural framework for this study was developed using characteristics of members and coalitions and the structural characteristics and situational factors identified by Van de Ven and Ferry (1980). Van de Ven (1974) suggested that there were structural characteristics and process dimensions to interorganizational relationships. Van de Ven's work with child service agencies and their partners piloted the use of these situational factors and structural characteristics.
The study sought to understand if situational factors and structural characteristics were associated with perceived effectiveness. It also examined the nature and strengths of any relationships. The following research objectives were formulated to guide the study:
The study is limited in that the results are generalized only to the population studied. This study sought to explore the effectiveness of the collaborative relationships and in no way sought to examine the effectiveness of the YAR sites, their projects or the overall USDA/YAR initiative. No such inferences should be made.
This study was ex post facto in nature and was designed to gather data concerning the nature and strength of relationships between variables. The independent variables for the study were the Situational Factors and Structural Characteristics of the coalitions and characteristics of the coalitions and its members. The dependent variable was the effectiveness of the relationships among coalition members as perceived by the active collaborators. The population of this study consisted of 58 Youth-At-Risk grant sites funded for their second year in 1992. The active collaborators involved in each site were surveyed. This study was a census, thus the major threats to external validity were frame error and non-response error. The frame was constructed using a list of USDA-funded YAR sites and was considered to be complete and accurate. A comparison of early respondents to late respondents was conducted; the t-test yielded no significant difference on any of the variables selected (Miller and Smith, 1983). In an attempt to control measurement error as a threat to internal validity, a panel of experts reviewed the mail questionnaire for content and face validity. The instrument used was adapted from a similar instrument used by Van de Ven and Ferry (1980). The instrument was pilot tested with a YAR site not included in the study. Chronbach's alpha was used to measure the internal Consistency of the survey instrument. A .50 Chronbach's alpha (Nunnally, 1967) was established a priori as being a satisfactory level of internal consistency. Calculated Chronbach's alpha ranged from .60 to.93. Therefore the instrument was judged to be reliable. Data were collected using a variation of the mailing procedures recommended by Dillman (1978). Useable data was received from 39 of the 58 YAR sites for a 67% response rate. The design of the study was a one shot case study. Data were analyzed using the SPSSPC+ computer program using descriptive statistics and correlations. Stepwise multiple regression was used to determine the best predictor(s) of the dependent variable--perceived effectiveness of the collaborative relationship. The independent and extraneous variables entered into the regression model included: resource dependence, personal or agency awareness, consensus, domain similarity, frequency of communications, resource flows from respondent, formalization of agreements, quality of communications, race, sex, education level, employment status, length of time employed, and community type. The total R2 was computed to determine the amount of variance accounted for by the linear combination of the independent and extraneous variables.
The study included a description of the population, the active collaborators, and how the structural dimensions and situational factors were experienced by the respondents. The respondents reported that they experienced effective collaborative relationships. The item asking if the time and effort spent maintaining the relationships was worthwhile, was rated highest among the effectiveness measures (M = 4.18 on a 5 point scale). YAR site size had a negligible association with the dependent variable (r = -.07). The type of YAR site and domain similarity had low positive associations (r = .23 and .27), resource dependence and agency or personal awareness both had moderate positive associations (r = .35 and .43) and consensus had a substantial positive association (r = .52) with the dependent variable. Relationships between the structural dimensions and the dependent variable ranged from low to moderate. Frequency of communications had a low positive association (r = .23), resource flows to and from the members, quality of communications, and formalization of agreements all had moderate positive associations (r = .49, .45, .43, and .31 respectively) with the dependent variable. Stepwise multiple regression was performed to determine the best predictor(s) of the dependent variable. All of the independent and extraneous variables described in the objectives were entered into the regression model. Sixty-four percent of the variance in the dependent variable was explained by the linear combination of the variables consensus, formalization of agreements, and resource flows from the respondents to the coalition. These variables uniquely explained 46%, 13%, and 5% of the variance in the dependent variable respectively. The regression indicates that for every one point change in consensus there will be a .70 point change in the dependent variable. Likewise a one point change in formalization will be a corresponding change of .23 in the dependent variable, and a one point change in resource flows from the respondent will have a corresponding .10 change in perceived effectiveness of the collaborative relationship.
The best predictors of perceived effectiveness of the collaborative relationships were found to be consensus, followed by formalization of agreements and resource flows from the respondent. If these factors are known, perceived effectiveness of the collaborative relationships can be predicted. By maximizing these variables, coalition builders can increase their likelihood of building effective collaborative relationships. A model was constructed to indicate which situational factors and structural characteristics had the most influence on perceived effectiveness of the collaborative relationships. The model suggests maximizing resource dependence, awareness and consensus as situational factors. The model also suggests maximizing resource flows between members and the coalition, formalization of agreements, and quality of communications as structural characteristics. YAR coalitions should be built around specific issues, developing mutual dependence on resources among members, making efforts to increase their awareness of the goals and objectives of the other members. When YAR coalitions are formed, members should reach agreement on needs, goals, objectives, target audiences, services to be provides, methods and roles of each of the members. Communication among members should be frequent, with follow up in writing outlining decisions reached and action items. The magnitude and diversity of resources available from each member should be maximized and members should be encouraged to share those resources to the greatest extent practical. Agreements, agendas, minutes, etc. should be documented and available to all members. Members who enter into YAR coalitions should commit themselves to fully supporting the coalitions's efforts. Partial support may not lead to the desired outcomes. Other studies should be conducted on YAR sites and among members who did not have effective collaborative relationships in order to identify how they experienced these situational factors and structural dimensions. This study should be replicated with other coalition types in and out of Extension in order to give broader meaning to the findings. This study should also be replicated with those YAR sites not included in this study. A research study should also be conducted to examine the relationship between collaborative effectiveness and project effectiveness among the YAR sites.
Astroth, K. A. (1990, October). Strategic alliances: The 4 C's process. Paper presented at the Idaho Annual Extension Conference, Idaho Annual Exension Conference, Moscow, Idaho. Bennard, B. (1991, March). Collaboration fosters creative problem solving. Western Center News, 4(2), 4, 9. Black, T. R. (1983, May/June). Coalition building - Some suggestions. Child Welfare, LXII(3), pp. 263-268. Dillman, D. A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. New York: Wiley. Hord, S. M. (1986). A synthesis of research on organizational collaboration. Educational Leadership, 43(5), pp. 22-26. Johnson, D. R., Bruininks, R. H., & Thurlow, M. L.(1987). Meeting the challenge of transition service planning through improved interagency cooperation. Exceptional Children, 53(6), pp. 522-530. Lieberman, A. (1986). Collaborative work. Educational Leadership, 43(5), pp. 4-8. Lippett, R., & Van Til, J. (1981). Can we achieve a collaborative community? Issues, imperatives, potentials. Journal of Voluntary Action Research, 10, 7-17. Miller, L. E., & Smith, K. L. (1983). Handling nonresponse issues. Journal of Extension, 21, 45-50. Miller, S. M. (1983). Coalition etiquette: Ground rules for building unity. Social Policy, 4(2), pp. 47-49. Nunnally, J. C. (1967). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill O'Connor, R., Albrecht, N., Burton, C., & Newquist-Carroll, L. (1984). New directions in youth services: Experiences with state-level coordination. U.S. Department of Justice & U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. Quick, S., Flashman, R., & Gibeaux, A. (1981). SOS learning networks: A model of interorganizational cooperation. Journal of Voluntary Action Research, 10, 67-77. Rossi, R. J., Gilmartin, K. J., & Dayton, C. W. (1982). Agencies working together: A guide to coordination and planning. Beverly Hills: Sage. Stevens, G. L. (1990). A process for building coalitions. University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Van de Ven, A. H. (1974). On the nature, formation, and maintenance of relations among organizations. Academy of Management Review, 5(1), pp. 113-129. Van de Ven, A. H., & Ferry, D. L. (1980). Measuring and assessing organizations. New York: Wiley. Yukl, G. A. (1989). Leadership in organizations (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Implementing a Wellness Weekend Program
Berdine Maginnis
Linda S. Boeckner Health care reform has captured the hearts and interests of many people throughout the United States. Cooperative Extension's national health initiative, "Decisions for Health," encourages people to adopt healthy lifestyles by reducing high risk behaviors and taking responsibility for health decisions (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension System, 1992; U.S. Department of Agriculture-Extension Service & Land-Grant University Cooperative Extension Services, 1994). The following program description and evaluation details a seven-year regional health education effort that encourages healthy lifestyle practices and addresses individual physical, social, emotional, and intellectual needs of rural adult women.
In 1988, Extension educators initiated a wellness education program to increase participant's knowledge and skills related to wellness as well as to provide a relaxing learning environment and opportunities for friendship and fun. A weekend retreat setting was selected to address a holistic model of wellness that included physical, social, emotional, and intellectual aspects. (Elsenrath, Hettler, & Leafgren, 1989). Weekend schedules included general and concurrent sessions and allowed time for reading, playing games, and participating in self-selected physical activities. Sites, such as a regional 4-H Youth Camp and a state historical park, were selected to provide opportunities to "retreat" from a town or city environment. Partners from volunteer and governmental health agencies assisted Extension educators in developing and delivering the educational program. Accommodations and nutritious meals were arranged by Extension staff. Costs for attending the weekend (two nights lodging, 6 meals) were kept between $35 - $70 because of grants from local foundations and corporations. Scholarships allowed women of limited income to attend. A variety of marketing techniques including direct mail, news releases, and promotions through wellness organizations were used to recruit participants.
Evaluation surveys were sent to thirty-six women four months following the 1993 Women's Wellness Weekend. Respondents used a post-then-pre technique to rank themselves on wellness activities based on how they saw themselves before attending the Weekend and four months after attending (Rockwell and Kohn, 1989). Comparison of participants' ranking of each wellness factor prior to Women's Wellness Weekend and four months after Women's Wellness was completed. Responses of "Often/Almost Always" were compared to responses indicating "About Half the Time or less."
Twenty-three usable surveys (64 percent response rate) were returned. One-third of respondents were between the ages of 26- 50; the remainder were 51 or older. Seventy-five percent of the women had received some education beyond high school and 67 percent were from rural areas or small towns. Exercise In the exercise category, 18 percent "often" or "always" exercised at least three times per week prior to Women's Wellness and 41 percent indicated doing so at the four month follow-up time. Weekends featured sessions on walking, hiking, aerobic exercise, and stretching. Physical activity was encouraged during free time. Nutrition Thirty-five percent reported avoiding high fat foods in the pre-period compared to 78 percent at the four-month follow-up. There were similar reports of improvement for the addition of fiber-rich foods. Scheduled nutrition workshop sessions, nutrition tips presented at meal times, and specially developed menus were among the nutrition activities at wellness weekends. Comments written by participants on the follow-up survey indicated that many wished to continue a focus on lowering the fat content of their diets. Emotional Respondents also ranked themselves as having more enthusiasm (81% vs 38%), feeling good about themselves (67% vs 33%), and finding time for themselves (81% vs 48%) more often at the four- month follow-up than before the wellness weekend. Written comments about successes resulting from the weekend included the following: more time allowed for myself, improved sense of self- awareness and self-acceptance, increased acceptance of life's changes, and positive feelings about volunteer work. The wellness weekends are planned to be uplifting, supportive, and encouraging. Within the retreat setting, there was sufficient time for informal discussions in a relaxed atmosphere. Intellectual Intellectual wellness categories did not show major differences between pre- and post-scores. As a group, these women scored high in this area prior to attending a wellness weekend. The fact that they attended may be a strong indicator of their motivation to continue to seek new information and participate in learning activities.
Twenty women attended the first wellness weekend in 1988. Attendance has grown in subsequent years to the point that it is necessary to limit attendance to 50 women. Program content for each of the wellness weekends is designed to capture the interests of participants from a variety of ages and life stages. Although a majority of participants are in the 50+ age range, the planning team is working to attract participants of all ages and has considered expanding to male audiences. The current evaluation shows participants have made some positive changes in their nutritional and emotional/spiritual well-being. Since physical activity is the category most needing improvement, program planners are considering re-focused efforts to encourage regular physical activity in a manner appropriate to each participant's health status and age.
Elsenrath, D., Hettler, B., & Leafgren, F. (1989). Lifestyle assessment questionnaire - personal wellness report. Stevens Point, WI: National Wellness Institute. Rockwell, S.K. and Kohn, H. (1989). Post-then-pre evaluation. Journal of Extension, XXVII(Summer), 19-21. United States Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension System. (1992). Decisions for health - an extension system agenda. Madison, WI: National Extension Health Agenda Task Force Special Project, No. 91-EXCA-2-0148. United States Department of Agriculture, Extension Service and Land-Grant University Cooperative Extension Services. (1994). Shaping our future: A strategic plan for nutrition, diet and health. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture.
Diversion ExcursionCo-Author
Thomas M. Archer
Lourrae Ewbank
One of the current highly verbalized means of reaching new clientele with Extension youth development is through 4-H juvenile court diversion programs. These are attractive because the new clientele are "At Risk" youth. Such an audience is popular with Extension administration as well as local, state, and federal resource allocators. 4-H juvenile diversion consists of mandating full participation in a planned series of group and individual educational experiences (classes) for first time offenders of the juvenile court. Participants are generally 12-15 years old. The diversion may be an alternative to formal court, a substitute for normal sentencing, or it may be reduction in sentence and/or a termination of a probation period. The completion requirements include many of the following: [a] Attendance at 15-25 hours of classroom/activity; [b] Participating in a group 4-H club experience; [c] Completion of at least one 4-H project; [d] Attendance of one or both parents in an activity or activities; [e] Individual consultation with the participant; [f] Monitoring of participants by a juvenile court probation officer or juvenile judge. Parallel 4-H juvenile diversion programs are being conducted in two states. One program is conducted in a rural county in western Ohio. Seven two hour sessions are included in each cycle. The first hour of each session, a classroom type session is held. Topics include self-esteem, values, stress reduction, interpersonal communication, goal setting, problem solving, peer pressure, and challenges and choices. During the second hour, a traditional 4-H club is organized, with election of officers, business meetings, recreation, and refreshments. In addition, each participant is required to complete a 4-H project, such as bicycles, woodworking, natural resources, or photography. At the end of the last session, an achievement meeting is held, with parents and families invited, as well as court personnel. In the other program, conducted in northern Kentucky, the 4- H agents work with Court Designated Workers (CDWs) to provide a diversion program for first or second-time juvenile offenders. In Kentucky juvenile offenders who are sent to the CDW program are not adjudicated - meaning they have not been convicted. If the juvenile successfully completes the diversion, the result is a clean record. The diversion option in the 4-H program was a program called "Being All You Can Be". This program is a ten session, self-esteem project which is led by 4-H agents, CDWs, and volunteers for a group of 5-10 juvenile offenders.
These two juvenile diversion programs have been used to generate guidelines and considerations for others who may be making a determination whether to pursue such a program in their own locale. These thoughts have been summarized in the following: Quality 1 - Get on their level. The instructor/advisor/manager of a juvenile diversion program must be a better than average teacher who, either by direct experience or extensive research, gains a full appreciation and realization of the background and environment of every participant. Quality 2 - Know when to refer. Although Extension workers have many talents, they are NOT social workers, spiritual leaders, psychologists, probation officers, or psychiatrists. Situations may arise during the juvenile diversion experience which exceed the scope and expectations of such a Diversion program. Preparation and familiarization with the above professionals and their expertise is a pre-requisite. Quality 3 - Be organized. Plan, prepare, anticipate. Always have alternative activities in case a planned activity "does not fly". Start on time and end on time. Be sure to fully utilize allotted time, especially early in the program. Quality 4 - Know the subject matter. Nothing can invalidate your effectiveness more than the participants' realization that you do not know what you are talking about. This may be especially difficult for those 4-H projects/subjects that the instructor has no prior knowledge. This will require additional prep time or limiting the number of different kinds of 4-H projects in which participants are permitted to enroll. It does require complete understanding and comprehension if the core topics such as communication, conflict management, goal setting, self-esteem, and problem solving. Quality 5 - Model what you teach. Less than positive instructor behavior in a mandatory "behavior modification" program becomes overly magnified. Likewise, "model" behavior becomes exactly that. Such behavior could be the first and only positive example that a participant encounters in his/her daily life. Quality 6 - Listen to the participants' point of view. Active listening and complete communication are even more important with participants who have the common background of a first time juvenile offense. If you truly listen to their point of view, they will be more likely to listen to you. Quality 7 - Be sensitive to the individuals within the group. Although attendance is mandatory and completion of individual 4-H projects is necessary, forced activity within a class period is not recommended. Participants should be given the option to "pass". However, every approach possible should be incorporated into each class period for opportunity for participation. Quality 8 - Be adaptable/flexible. Even though this is primarily a group experience, it is a small group experience, and much of the work is one-on-one. More attention must be given individual differences, as well as difference between groups. Quality 9 - Schedule lessons close together. It appears that the juvenile diversion program is more effective if individual sessions are scheduled closer together. Such continuity better reinforces the subject matter, the role-model posture of the instructor, and the group/club cohesiveness. Quality 10 - Do not label. There is some school of thought that it is even better not to know the offenses which the individual participants have committed. That is, the less background known prior to the program, the less bias the instructor might have. It is sufficient to know the general pre-requisite to be assigned to the juvenile diversion program, and to become acquainted with the individual differences as the program progresses.
[1] Numbers will NOT be huge. A maximum of ten per course, and five courses per year is probably all a professional can handle. Extension administration should recognize this. [2] Realize that you are NOT going to change someone in 15- 25 hours. It is helpful to keep in mind that you will NOT be able to shape/change attitudes and behavior, but perhaps you will be able to help these youth know some things about managing their attitudes and behavior. After all, it took these people 12-15 years to get to this point in their lives. [3] There are other problems which still need to be addressed/ overcome: {a} This program needs to be more "activity" oriented. Most existing materials are paper and pencil, and these participating youth may have trouble reading or expressing themselves. It is important to have things to see, feel, and experience. Good videos with a maximum length of 20 minutes are also helpful. {b} Attendance. For a variety of legitimate and not so legitimate excuses, youth will miss sessions. Make-up or alternate sessions must be held. {c} Parental involvement. Such parental attitude may have been a contributing factor for why a youth is in juvenile diversion. Therefore involving parents in juvenile diversion related activities is generally more challenging. [4] There are benefits/advantages other than the obvious. The most enjoyed parts of the program are the 4-H club projects and activities. The transition to 4-H club activities and individualized 4-H projects is easily recognized. Such an observation reinforces the value of traditional 4-H. Another benefit is the increased network of professional contacts/resources for the Extension professional. New vocabularies, systems, organizational structures and ideas expand the knowledge base and creativity of Extension personnel.
The greatest asset of a 4-H juvenile diversion program is that it is a collaborative effort. There is an opportunity for local Extension personnel to address an "At-Risk" audience during afternoon hours while working with other social science professionals. Juvenile diversion requires significant inputs of time and collaboration, but will not yield high contact numbers, and the real impact of such programs has not been documented.
Teen Safety Docu-Drama
Barbara A. Brahm
Richard H. Collins
Judy Villard It was supposed to be the greatest night of their life, but...CRASH!! In just seconds the car metal was deformed, the windshield shattered and human bodies mangled. The smell of alcohol filled the air. Some of the passengers' cries were loud screams, while others were short-lived moans. A call was made to 911 and the wait for help seemed endless. Rescue and law enforcement units, plus the Life Flight crew, worked diligently. The coroner and chaplain were summoned and parents were notified. The result? Loss of life, critically and permanently injured youth and the question:.why did it happen? More than 1500 high school juniors and seniors sat in a grandstand watching their peers in this nightmare. The action wasn't real, but it could have been. The message: "seeing is believing!" Traffic safety is a youth development issue that is growing in concern across the United States. With the fact that vehicular accidents are the number one cause of death for youth ages 16-20 years, creative prevention efforts have become an increasingly important role in reaching these youth. After seeing creative safety education programming receive recognition at the National Youth Safety Congress, the Richland County 4-H staff developed a new programming idea for Extension. The program was a mock crash, safety docu-drama, which utilized local resources in a network with Extension offices; similar projects have been implemented across Ohio as an annual or bienniel event. The purpose of the safety docu-drama is to help teens make better decisions for their lives and the lives of others. The areas of drinking and driving, wearing safety belts and driving responsibly are focus areas of the program because of shocking statistics taken from Ohio Department of Highway Safety records. In 1992, a total of 222 motorists aged 16-20 died in traffic crashes. Of these deaths, 76 or 34% were alcohol-related. Of the 1,052 people who died in motor vehicle crashes (all ages) with safety belts available, 769 or 73% were not buckled in a safety belt.
Planning a safety docu-drama requires at least four to six months of planning (at least January for an April or May event). With Extension's leadership, a collaboration of law enforcement officials, emergency rescue units, school administrators, community/business leaders and youth form the event's planning coommittee. This committee meets regularly to plan the crash site lay-out, rescue response procedure, victim assignments and injuries, school contacts/follow-up, sponsor support needs, and media/publicity promotion. Volunteers are secured to serve as victims (4-H Junior Leaders and student actors in Hancock County or Youth Safety Council members in Richland County), parents, and the 911 callers. Each member of the collaborative offers their expertise, background, and personal interest to make the scenario and total event come together. It takes many people to create a docu-drama. One county had 57 agencies, organizations and businesses involved as donors just for one year. More than 100 individuals are usually involved on the day of the program. Donations include cash, professional time, use of facilities, educational materials, emergency and related equipment, meals, videotaping and photography services, prom flowers and dresses, tuxes, make-up, and various other services. In addition to actors and emergency personnel, volunteers are used to park buses, maintain crowd control, and attend to a variety of details to pull the production together. A thank-you or appreciation luncheon is held by most counties immediately or soon after the program. Expenses for the docu-drama include a public address system, one-day insurance for all students attending, transportation of students, props, video and photography supplies, and meals for the practice session and appreciation luncheon. Cash donations and grants are received from businesses, school groups, service clubs, community groups, 4-H clubs, individuals, and drug/alcohol prevention groups. Depending on the amount of services donated, expenses can range from $300 to $1500. Publicity for the docu-dramas has been extensive. Newspapers havefeatured it on the front page. Radio and TV have covered it as a top news item. News releases are sent to all local media with an invitation to attend. Media are usually requested to hold their coverage until the day of or the day after the event. This aids in eliminating the general public from trying to attend the program.
Most counties use professionals to take pictures and slides of the docu-drama. Videotaping is usually done by cable TV staff or staff from the media department of a large business (i.e., an insurance company). These visuals are used in a variety of ways to promote the docu-drama and to keep the message going as we work with youth. Photographs are sometimes used by schools to develop displays placed at the exit area of their prom to remind students of what can happen if they are careless in their driving. Videos are used in school driver's education classes. This is especially helpful to schools in counties where the docu-drama is only held every other year. Educational packets are given to students at the conclusion of most docu-dramas. These include tips on safe driving, statistics, and information on legal aspects when involved in an accident. Some counties also put product samples in the packets to encourage students to look at their contents. Student evaluation forms are also generally put in this packet. One county offers students at participating schools an additional educational opportunity related to the docu-drama. Municipal judges in the county plan time in their schedules to travel to each school to conduct a follow-up mock sentencing hearing for the accident portrayed in the docu-drama. Students are given an outline of what is to take place in the hearing, and play the parts of individuals in the hearing. This includes the prosecuting attorney, defendant, defense attorney, and several family members. A temporary court is set up at the school and the judge presides, complete with black robe and gavel! One private school with a small number of students went to Municipal Court and held their hearing right in the courtroom.
Written evaluations from participating students and teachers have generally rated the docu-drama as a very positive experience. Most say that they learned a lot and that it made them think. Many say they will start wearing their seat belts more and change other driving habits. For many, it makes the possibility of having an accident more real and close to home. But the real test comes in the statistics - numbers of accidents, number of fatalities, and number of times that alcohol and drugs are involved in accidents when teens are involved. Staff Lieutenant Richard H. Collins, Ohio State Highway Patrol, has reviewed the crash information for two counties which have been conducting docu-dramas over the past few years. He feels that the statistics support the positive impact that mock crash/docu-drama programs and other prevention activities have had on teens. A docu-drama has been held annually in Richland County since 1990. Statistics show that the number of total fatal accidents there has remained fairly constant (17 in 1989, 19 in 1995). But the number of fatals involving the 16-19 year old age group appears to be declining (4 in 1989, 1 in 1995, with a "spike" of 6 in 1992). Alcohol involvement has remained fairly constant in all crashes, but is declining in youth crashes. In 1991, 1993, 1994, and 1995, there were no "youth" fatals involving alcohol. In 1989, 15% of individual crashes involving youth were alcohol related, but in 1994 that number was 5%. In 1989, 16% of the property damage crashes by teens involved alcohol, but in 1994 that number was 8%. From 1988 to 1990, the three year period prior to the first docu-drama held in Hancock County in 1991, teens in the 17 to 19 year age group were involved, on average, in 1.66 fatal crashes, 78 injury crashes, and 121.33 property damage crashes annually. During the next three year period (1991 to 1993), those averages were reduced to 1.0 fatal crashes, 74.66 injury crashes, and 57.66 property damage crashes. From 1988 to 1995, alcohol was involved in 4.7% of the 1,405 crashes that teens were involved in. During the "pre" docu-drama years (1988 to 1990), alcohol was a factor in 7% of all crashes in this age group. During the docu- drama years, alcohol involvement was reduced to less than 4%.
When conducting a large collaborative effort like the docu- drama, there are always difficulties and challenges to overcome. Because the docu-drama targets youth and their safety, many groups want to be a part of the program. Sometimes major turf issues must be resolved. Decisions to be made include: "Which law enforcement agencies will be involved, and which one will take the lead? Which media group will be featured as the reporter on the scene? Which EMS units will be used?" There is never a problem in getting people involved in a program like this! Another major challenge to tackle is the difficulty of mobilizing students to participate in a community program held away from school. Most community-based docu-dramas are held at a central location, commonly the county fairgrounds. The logistics of moving vast numbers of students from a large high school to the site of the program is a huge challenge for the administration and staff of the school. Timing needs to be coordinated with normal transportation needs in the district, because many buses are needed to transport students at one time. Teachers and volunteers must be scheduled to ride the buses to ensure adequate adult supervision during travel and at the event. Despite obvious challenges, and time away from the classroom, the schools and the community have found the docu- drama to be one of the most powerful learning experiences that can be offered for the prevention of substance abuse, and promotion of safe driving practices among youth.
Involvement in large collaborative events like the docu- drama can be very time-consuming for Extension staff. But the results are great! Taking leadership in large events gives Extension great visibility in the community. It can help position Extension and Extension staff for future program efforts. It promotes collaboration in the community and helps community leaders develop collaboration skills. Turf issues must be resolved, which can lead to better working relationships in the future. Teens are involved on the planning committee, so they learn how to plan large events. Teens have the opportunity to learn to appreciate, and therefore respect, law enforcement. Different generations learn how to work together for a common cause. Teens attending the docu-drama are challenged to improve their defensive driving skills, wear safety belts, be aware that they are responsible for their driving, and make wise decisions while driving. Statistics show that docu-dramas can help teens reach these goals. In the end only one thing really matters. It is summed up in the motto held by most mock crash planning committees.."If We Can Save Just One Life!!!!!"
Guidelines for Change
Arlen Etling Taking Charge of Change: Ten Principles for Managing People and Performance. Douglas K. Smith. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1996. 314 pp. $25.00 hardcover. Winston Churchill is credited with saying, "If we do not take change by the hand, it will surely take us by the throat." In Cooperative Extension many of us are trying to take change by the hand. We are trying to change our organization and programs to respond to new challenges and to stay current with our changing world. To others, change is something that seems to threaten their very survival. Doug Smith, co-author of The Wisdom of Teams (1993), wrote ten guidelines for managing change with a business management audience in mind. Eight of his guidelines, however, can help us in Cooperative Extension revitalize our organization and programs. Below are Smith's guidelines along with the reviewer's comments on their application to Cooperative Extension. The quotations are Smith's.
This book is not just a discussion of guidelines. It is full of case studies and diagrams of | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
