Volume 34, Number 2
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April 1996 Volume 34, Number 2 |
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Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors:
Judith Jones, President, Virginia, Southern Directors Ex-officio:
Leonard Calvert, Oregon, Editor Editorial Committee:
Joyce Alves, Arizona Colorado State University Cooperative Extension Creates a Blueprint for Change
Milan A. Rewerts
Katherine M. Timm Right sizing, reinvention, restructuring, and reform are familiar words to most of us. They're synonymous with change. And, Colorado has changed dramatically during the past 80 years. Our population has exploded, people have migrated from rural to urban areas, and access to communications technology that previously was found only in science fiction movies now is commonplace. The dramatic change we are experiencing either excites us or leaves us weary and troubled. Some of us long for the "good old days" when things seemed to be stable. Others are waiting for things to "return to normal." Colorado State University Cooperative Extension is no exception. Our mission is to deliver timely, relevant, research- based information to society. That means we must constantly examine ways to effectively deal with right sizing, reinvention, restructuring, reform, growth - and change. Cooperative Extension has been in a state of constant growth since it was created more than 80 years ago, and every step along the way, Extension educators have seized the opportunity to help others grow as well. Today, Cooperative Extension is charting the course for change through implementation of Cooperative Extension 2000, an innovative plan that serves as the blueprint to help all Coloradans put knowledge to work into the next decade and beyond. The goal of the plan is to identify and implement strategies that effectively address priority issues of Colorado citizens. Colorado State Cooperative Extension is a federal, state and county-funded program initially created primarily to serve the needs of rural communities throughout the United States. Throughout its history, however, Cooperative Extension has evolved into a sophisticated network of educators who work diligently to help improve the quality of life for all who access our programs. Today, that means rural and urban populations alike. Providing equal access to educational information that serves the citizens of Colorado communities is our obligation and privilege as the premier outreach component of Colorado's only land-grant university. Serving urban populations is not new to Cooperative Extension. Extension educators currently provide information and educational programs in the areas of 4-H youth development, consumer and family education, and agricultural and natural resources to all 63 Colorado counties, just as we have for the past 80 years. We did not shift our emphasis from rural to urban, rather, we focused our programs as in-migration occurred in what once were considered rural areas. And, as the population of our state continues to swell, Cooperative Extension will continue the evolutionary process of growth - a term that is synonymous with our organization. The primary goal of Colorado State University Cooperative Extension is to help the citizens of our state put to work the knowledge borne of the research conducted at our nation's land- grant universities. Free flow of knowledge is at the heart of the land-grant system, and, indeed, our country. The creation of land-grant colleges in 1862 influenced the western landscape by educating farmers and ranchers about the agricultural sciences, which provided the tools they needed to cultivate what was thought to be uninhabitable land. But it wasn't until 1914, when the Smith-Lever Act was passed, and Cooperative Extension educators found their place in modern history, that the western United States became a major entity in the agricultural world marketplace. Since then, the western states have experienced constant and considerable growth. What once was considered primarily a ranching and farming state now is dominated by urban sprawl. For some long-time residents, the growth process has been painful as traffic increases, open space sprouts new housing developments, neighborhood shops are replaced by "super stores," housing costs rise, and communities grapple with the need for additional services and schools. In contrast, some of our more traditional rural communities struggle to survive as the traditional agricultural economic base changes. Do these communities sit by and watch as native sons and daughters migrate to cities in search of higher-paying jobs and what they perceive to be a better lifestyle? Or do they draw upon the knowledge and resources available to them to identify opportunities to attract businesses to their communities that will entice their young people to remain? In both examples, the communities in question are in a period of transition that offers tremendous growth potential. And, in both cases, Cooperative Extension educators have, and will continue, to play an important role as "change agents," who help people identify solutions to critical local issues - issues that often focus attention on the interdependence that exists among rural and urban communities. But Cooperative Extension educators do not just act as change agents in local communities, we also affect change at the university level by providing valuable feedback to the university community about critical issues that affect our state. In many cases, this multi-channel communication system drives the research and educational programs conducted at Colorado State, contributing to Colorado's social, economic and environmental well-being. Despite 80 years of success, we cannot and will not rest on our laurels. We will continue to embrace the changes that bombard us in this dynamic, mobile society. And, more important, we will continue to provide relevant programs of excellence to help the citizens of our great state grow and prosper in a society that simultaneously thrives on and is threatened by the change associated with right sizing, reinvention, restructuring and reform.
Cooperative Extension System Creates Common Ground Through Search Workshops
Carol L. Anderson
Peter Bloome
John Bottum
Irene Lee
Lincoln Moore
Shirley O'Brien
David Sanderson
Bill Shimel In 1994 the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP) and the Extension Service-United States Department of Agriculture (ES-USDA), appointed a six-member team and charged them to "design and manage a process that results in the (Cooperative Extension) System as a whole developing a strategic framework." In addition, they reminded the team that "processes and electronic communications are available to get the involvement of virtually every one of Extension's 32,000 personnel and appropriate customers and stakeholders in a meaningful way." The charge to the strategic framework team included three important challenges: engage all 32,000 employees, complete the task in nine months or less, and create a framework rather than a strategic plan. This charge was different from those of similar projects over the years. Previously, the common practice had been to appoint a small group to prepare a statement, with a considerably longer timeline than this one. The anticipated product was clear: it was to be a document, outlining a strategic framework for the Cooperative Extension System. For the members of the strategic framework team, the process leading to the creation of a document was the most difficult challenge. Building ownership and momentum for changes in the system required wide involvement. A system-wide survey in the late spring of 1994 offered every individual in the system an opportunity to provide early input about the important issues and concerns facing extension. Their responses could be returned via paper or computer. This survey encouraged participants to share their insights and hopes for the future. Their ideas became valuable points of reference for identifying issues to be examined and clarified further in future search workshops and interviews with a limited number of stakeholders. The future search workshop, developed over the past ten years by Marvin R. Weisbord (1), has proven to be a successful process for planning organizational change. Weisbord originally used this method with corporations. Professionals have begun to adapt this model to nonprofit organizations such as colleges, school districts, and hospitals and to small businesses and rural towns - virtually any complex system in which people care about their future and want the chance to create it together. The future search workshop differs from traditional strategic planning in the length of time it takes and the number and nature of participants. It also emphasizes co-creating an ideal future rather than solving current problems. The major differences between traditional strategic planning and the future search workshop are as follows:
The framework team determined that the principles and format of future search workshops could ensure the broadest participation. Future search workshops were offered as part of a larger design to maximize staff contributions from across the entire system. Throughout the summer of 1994, four future search multi-state workshops were designed and held in Atlanta, Pittsburgh, Kansas City, and Denver. A synthesizing workshop in St. Paul brought together input from questionnaires, interviews, past documents, and the four multistate workshops, from which a draft of the framework was created. This draft was circulated throughout the system both in hard copy and via electronic mail to get input before developing a final product. The four workshops involved more than 250 Cooperative Extension System employees from a cross section of the organization, including on-campus and off-campus professionals, clerical staff, and extension volunteers and customers. Workshop participants produced four draft documents that were synthesized in a fifth workshop held in St. Paul immediately following the searches. More than 70 people (one from each Extension organization) created a first draft of the framework document, which was reviewed across the system in fall 1994. After considerable feedback, discussion, and a presentation to the directors and administrators in February 1995, Framing the Future: Strategic Framework for a System of Partnerships was published for distribution throughout the system.
The design of the future search workshop is flexible and can include a variety of activities appropriate for organizations and participants. Future search workshops have the following basic elements:
Lessons Learned from the Extension Future Search Workshops
The model used to develop the system-wide framework has application for planning initiatives nationally, statewide and locally. Cornell Cooperative Extension has applied the model in two different planning efforts. A statewide strategic planning process to update the Expanded Food and Nutrition Program applied the model and found that when asked, staff, volunteers, and stakeholders made meaningful input that helped to shape a plan. "Common ground" or future search workshops engaged participants in guided dialogue that focused on the future and what changes would make this reality. Through technology, drafts of ideas were presented and substantial numbers of people responded in short periods of time. Modifications were made and again shared so that all participants could see how the product evolved. This process when applied in a statewide setting required approximately nine months and the input was rich. The timeline in a county might be reduced. However, adequate time is needed to gather input through a variety of means including workshops. Additionally, input into the eventual plan is important and requires time, especially when substantial changes are made and again shared. The Managing Change in Agriculture national initiative has adapted the model. A small team representing different geographic and discipline interests has been designated to provide system-wide leadership. A team of technical experts which expands the participants contributes to the design through technology-assisted interaction. Input will be sought through a variety of ways.
The four future search workshops differed in size and tone but not in the participants' responses to the workshops or in the documents each produced. The first workshop included nearly 110 people, whereas the other three ranged from 45 to 65 participants. While different in emphasis, the four draft documents contained a remarkable amount of "common ground" and offered members of the synthesizing workshop a broad agreement about the future direction for the system. Based on responses to several open-ended questions given at the end of each future search workshop, most participants were surprised and pleased by the principles and conduct of the workshops, especially the high degree of involvement and interaction across the system. More than 75 percent of the participants expressed a desire to use the process when seeking input and building common goals upon returning home. Participants found the future search workshops to be a powerful way to engage participants in meaningful discussions resulting in agreement on what the future needs to include. The words "Common Ground" established a visual image for participants to focus on. Participants noted the importance of involving staff, regardless of position, in setting a strategic direction. A renewed sense of energy and hope for the Extension system was evident from the beginning gathering to the ending ceremony
Sadowske, S., & Warren, B. (1994). Rethinking Extension Work: Lessons from the New Sciences. A paper prepared for the Program Leadership Committee of ECOP/ES-USDA. Senge, P. M. (1994). The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook. New York: Doubleday Dill Publishing Group: 385-391. Senge, P. M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline. New York: Doubleday/Currency. United States Department of Agriculture Extension Service (1994). Strategic Framework for the Cooperative Extension System. Washington DC: United States Department of Agriculture Extension Service and Extension Committee on Organization and Policy. Weisbord, M. R., and Janoff, S. (1995). Future Search: An Action Guide to Finding Common Ground in Organizations and Communities. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Weisbord, M. R., et.Al (1992). Discovering Common Ground: How Future Search Conferences Bring People together. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Wheatley, M. J. (1992). Leadership and the New Science. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. (1) - For additional information about future search methodology, see Marvin R. Weisbord et Al., Discovering Common Ground: How Future Search Conferences Bring People Together (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 1992); Marvin R. Weisbord and Sandra Janoff, Future Search: An Action Guide to Finding Common Ground in Organizations and Communities (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 1995).
An Analysis of the Use of an Incomplete Sentences Test for Employment Selection of Cooperative Extension Agents and Educators
Journal Series Number 11321, Agricultural Research Division,
F. William Brown
Susan M. Fritz
A harried Extension administrator in the midst of a critical hiring decision weighs the pros and cons of several candidates, and becomes increasingly frustrated with the lack of clarity and the conflicting advice being offered from various sources about whom to hire or promote. The administrator asks, "isn't there something like Ohms law that would apply here?" This understandable longing for regularity, predictability, and certainty in the social world is abundantly expressed in the long and venerable use of selection testing and procedures for hiring and promotion. The use of testing for personnel selection came to prominence with the massive problems of personnel selection and classification for the Armed Forces in the second world war. Examples of instruments used in contemporary personnel processes include, but are not limited to: aptitude tests, test of general intelligence, mechanical and comprehension tests, weighted biographical inventories, and various verbal and quantitative performance tests. The validity of employment selection testing remains in dispute (DeWolf & van den Bosch, 1984; Wigdor & Garner, 1982; Hattrup, Schmidt, & Landis, 1992). Perlman et Al. (1980) estimated that at least 60% of the variation in single predictor- criteria relationships could be accounted for by sampling error, predictor and criterion unreliability, and range restriction. The use of pre-employment testing has also been substantially restricted by legislation and regulation which seeks to avoid discrimination against members of protected classes (Douglas, Feld, & Asquith, 1989). However, despite these concerns and constraints, instruments intended to aid in selection and to predict future performance remain widely and variously used. Increasingly, those with hiring responsibility in Extension and other fields seek valid and reliable means to supplement their intuition in assessing the potential of future employees (Rudner, 1992).
This is a report on eleven years of experience utilizing an incomplete sentences test as a part of the employment selection process for Extension Agents/Educators in a state Cooperative Extension Division. The incomplete sentences test was developed for the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) by the United States Department of Agriculture (Hahn, 1979) as an aid to effective personnel practices. The instrument contains sixty items, consisting of the first few words of sentences which the respondent is asked to complete on the basis of one's feelings. An objective scoring mechanism was provided which yields a numerical score between 0 and 100. The instrument is designed to provide a prediction of the overall presence and strength of five job-related skills, abilities, or other attitudes (SAOs), identified during an analysis of the job content of CES field agents, and associated with job performance. The SAOs addressed by the incomplete sentences test include: job commitment, communication skills, interpersonal skills, positive attitude, problem solving ability, and self confidence. A study of the concurrent validity of the incomplete sentences test and job performance was reported by the USDA, (Hahn, 1979). In that study, 234 Cooperative Extension Service field staff completed the instrument and were then rated on job performance by their supervisors. Comparisons of those scores with performance ratings, using various methods for scoring the incomplete sentences test, yielded correlation coefficients in the range from .20 to .35. Authors of the instrument recommended that the incomplete sentence test be used as "a scorable selection instrument." Despite the relatively modest relationship between the incomplete sentence test scores and performance in the validity studies, Hahn (1979) and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy advised that "if used, the incomplete sentence test can help to select superior agents" (ECOP, 1980).
The following objectives were established for this study: Objective 1: Determine the extent to which scores from the incomplete sentences test accurately predict selection of applicants for the position of Cooperative Extension agent/educator. Objective 2: Determine the extent to which scores from the incomplete sentence test accurately predict the future performance of Cooperative Extension agents/educators. Method and Results Active and inactive application files and materials were maintained and available for all applicants and selectees for the position of Cooperative Extension agent/educator in a state CES for the years 1982 through 1993. This data set included usable incomplete sentence test scores for 76 individuals who were hired and 38 who applied but were not selected. Incomplete sentence scores ranged from 69 to 97 for selectees and from 72 to 97 for non-selects. Performance data for those agent/educators who were hired were also available. As a part of an annual performance evaluation system, each agent/educator's performance was reviewed by his or her district director. An overall evaluation from unsatisfactory to outstanding was awarded. From 1982 to 1991 directors could choose one of four nominal categories to describe the overall performance of agent/educators working in their district. After 1991 a fifth choice was added to the performance evaluation system. An overall measure of job performance was created by converting these nominal descriptors to numerical scores, standardizing them to take into account the changes in the descriptors used across different versions of the performance evaluation system, and calculating an overall mean score.
Scores from the incomplete sentences test were examined to determine how accurately they predict selection of applicants for the position of Cooperative Extension agent/educator As can be seen from the data in Table 1, the mean score for the selectees was slightly lower than that of the non-selects. There was no statistically significant difference between the selectees and non-selectees.
Among the population of Cooperative Extension agents who had taken the incomplete sentences test as a part of their employment process, an analysis of the relationship between incomplete sentence scores and job performance yielded a Pearson Product- moment correlation of -0.149. According to Guilford (1956), correlation coefficients less than .20 can be interpreted as "slight, almost negligible relationships;" therefore, making it difficult to support the proposition that the incomplete sentences test is a valid predictor of employment decisions. If job performance, as described in the methods section, is considered a dependent variable and is entered into a bivariate regression model with the incomplete sentence test score as the independent variable, an R-squared of .0933, and F score of 1.41 with a statistical significance of .2547, is obtained.
On the basis of the data collected, it is possible to conclude that in this study the incomplete sentences test scores have not been useful in discriminating between those who would ultimately be selected as Cooperative Extension agent/educators and those who were not. Given that the aggregate incomplete sentence test scores of persons hired as agents or educators was lower than the scores of those who applied, but were not selected, it becomes apparent that other elements of the employment process, such as review of qualifications, input from referees, and selection interviews predict or explain employment selection decisions more accurately. These results particularly call into question the usefulness of the incomplete sentences test as a screening device to identify those applicants who are likely to be hired. Given a weak negative relationship, it is clear that the incomplete sentences test is of no more use in predicting job performance than it is in regard to hiring decisions. The strength of the relationship between incomplete sentence test scores and actual job performance measures approaches neither the levels reported in the 1979 validation study nor critical levels for rejection of a null hypothesis. In summary, a study of over a decade of experience with the use of an incomplete sentences test in the employment processes of a state Cooperative Extension Division provides no support for its validity as either an employment screening device or as a predictor of future performance as an agent/educator. The results of this study are limited to this incomplete sentences test, in this CES setting. Objective tests and assessment instruments may be a useful component of an employment screening and selection process; however, their validity must be carefully and accurately assessed in the context in which they will be utilized.
DeWolf, C.J., & van den Bosch, R. (1984). Personnel selection. In P.J.D. Drenth et Al., (Eds.) Handbook of Work and Organizational Psychology. New York: Wiley. Douglas, J.A., Feld, D.E., & Asquith, N. (1989). Employment testing manual. (pp. 2-1 - 2-39) Boston: Warren, Gorham & Lamont. Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (1980). Personnel selection & performance appraisal workshop: 1980. Participant workbook. Author. Gaugler, B.B., Rosenthal, D.B., Thornton, G.C., & Bentson, C. (1987). Meta-analysis of assessment center validity. Journal of Applied Psychology. 72, 493-511. Guilford, J.P. (1956). Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. (p. 145) New York: McGraw Hill. Hahn, C.P. (1979). Development of performance evaluation and selection procedures for the cooperative extension service: summary report. (Contract 12-05-300-372) . Washington D.C. American Institutes for Research. Hatrup, K., Schmidt, N. & Landis, R.S. (1992). Equivalence of constructs measured by job-specific and commercially available aptitude tests. Journal of Applied Psychology. 77, 298-308. Perlman, K. Scmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J.E. (1980). Validity generalization results for tests used to predict training success and job proficiency in clerical occupations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 373-406. Rudner, L.M. (1992). Pre-employment testing and employee productivity. Public Personnel Management. 21, 133-150. Wigdor, A.K., & Garner, W.R., (Eds.). (1982). Ability Testing; Uses, Consequences, and Controversies. Committee on Ability Testing, Assembly of Behavioral and Social Sciences. Washington, D.C., National Academy Press.
Mandated Financial Training for FSA/USDA Farm Borrowers
Gregory Hanson
Willard Delavan
Lehan Power Ten years ago the U.S. farm sector was in the depths of a farm financial crisis that resulted in financial failure for an estimated 250,000 farms (Hanson, 1990). Cooperative Extension is now responding to a legacy of that crisis: the 1990 Farm Bill (The Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act of 1990) requires financial training for farm borrowers with the Farm Service Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture (FSA/USDA). *Final approval for vendor training proposals is generally provided by USDA-Washington. The exception, giving state directors authority to approve Extension proposals, represents an implicit expectation that Cooperative Extension will both participate and provide a high-quality product. *Because FSA/USDA is officially regarded as the 'lender of last resort' for farmers denied credit by other lenders, the financial training is primarily directed at limited-resource/low net worth farmers. This article outlines a Cooperative Extension approach to borrower education based on experiences from the 1994-95 financial workshop training cycle in Pennsylvania. Organization, Structure and Content of the Financial Training A team of 26 county agricultural and regional farm management Extension agents organized to lead the training in Pennsylvania. An Extension specialist developed the core instructional and workshop exercise materials. Multi-county farm management agents reviewed and revised the materials. Participating agents identified suitable workshop sites, typically a county Extension office conference room with satellite down-link technology. The key role of the participating agents was to provide on-site instruction and organizational leadership during the workshops. Based on the "Rules and Regulations" (Federal Register) published by the Federal Government, the following guidelines for the financial training were developed:
Distance Learning Elements of The Workshops Satellite broadcasts of core instructional segmentscontributed to the 'live' context of the workshop experience at the 18 workshop sites. Using satellite transmission provided a degree of group ownership to the 170 borrowers in attendance and the approximately 100spouses, sons/daughters and partners who participated. Key elements to the success of the workshops was the complementary use of both 20-30 minute broadcast and pre-taped video instruction periods followed by a 45 minute problem-solving exercise completed either individually or in groups. Extension agents were generally pleased with the satellite uplink/downlink technology and its 'live' contribution to the training. However, agents expressed the following concerns with the live-broadcast component of distance education methods: First, heavy reliance on live broadcasts can increase the probability of reception difficulties due to uncontrollable technical problems. Temporary transmission difficulties were experienced at several workshop sites over the course of the six day instruction period. Second, compared to pre-taped video instruction, live satellite broadcasts reduce the control of the site leader over the pacing of the presentation. Third, a trend to rising prices for purchase of satellite time increases budgetary exposure. Our view is that a combination of satellite transmissions AND pre-taped videos of core materials provides the benefits of live sessions, greater agent comfort with pacing of materials, and effective cost-control for the workshop budget. Grading, Tuition, Costs, and Administration of the Borrower Training As required by the federal regulations governing the training program, farmers were graded on a scale of 1-3. A 1 indicated 'pass,' a 2 indicated 'additional training required,' and a 3 indicated 'fail.' Eighty-six percent of the participants received a passing grade of '1.' Seven percent of the participants received a grade of '2,' requiring them to seek additional finance and record-keeping training from their FSA/USDA loan officer. Only three farmers, about 2% of the paid participants, were given a failing grade of '3.' However, nine farmers, about 5% of participants, did not complete the final two days of the course and received a grade of 'incomplete.' An 'incomplete' allows a participant to make-up missing workshop exercises and homework with the assistance of the site leader. Given the presumed intent of the program to place Cooperative Extension and private sector vendors on an equal footing, cash costs for the program were fully recovered as were part of the personnel costs for the time allocated by Extension staff. Tuition of $290 per farm borrower covered the cost of workbooks and lunches for up to 2 participants from each farm. If requested, FSA/USDA is required to lend the farmer the fee as an additional component of farm operating costs. Major expenses for the workshops on a participant basis were: meals ($90), purchase of satellite time ($56), reproduction of workshop materials including workbooks and pre- taped videos ($33), per diem and travel costs for in-service training ($21), payment of administrative costs to the Short Courses office of the College of Agricultural Sciences, Penn State ($18), and postage and supplies ($13). Total variable costs per participant were $231. The remaining $59 from the tuition fee provided a total overhead return of approximately $10,000 for services rendered by the studio production staff, Extension agents and the Extension specialist. Variable costs per registrant will likely decline to less than $200 in the future, as some material development and agent training costs decline over time. Administration of accounting and financial transactions by the Short Courses Program at Penn State proved to be an efficient method to process tuition fees and accounts payable. Evaluation of the Training Participants achieved the following end-of-session exam scores on multiple-choice quizzes testing their knowledge of finance concepts: balance sheet, 76%; income statement, 82%; cash flow budget, 90%; and financial ratio analysis, 84%. These scores contrast with a pre-workshop score of 51% correct on a test of basic finance concepts. FSA/USDA required an evaluation of participant satisfaction with the training. The following results indicate that farmers generally found the workshops to be satisfactory.
Implications for Future Borrower Training A number of observations can be made about the borrower training workshops based on the development and coordination experiences of the university specialist in-charge and feedback from site leaders. Because FSA/USDA is a 'lender of last resort,' workshop participants tend to be farmers among the most in need of improved financial management while at the same time are among the least involved with traditional educational efforts often targeted at commercial-size, technologically-advanced farmers (Hanson, 1995). TUITION LEVEL. Following the first day's instruction, there were few farmer complaints regarding the $290 tuition, of which $90 was used for cost of meals. The tuition fee of another approved vendor for financial training in Pennsylvania was $480. The higher-priced vendor received no applications, suggesting that ruition level is a sensitive issue to farmers. A practical rule is for tuition to cover 100 per cent of cash costs related to the financial training and to additionally reimbirse some share of the non-cash (overhead) costs of agent and specialist time dedicated to development of materials and workshop training. MINIMUM HOURS OF INSTRUCTION. FSA/USDA encouraged 40 hours of finance instruction. Previous experience indicated that financial training of 10-20 hours was not adequate for farmers to demonstrate needed knowledge of financial statements. The 30 hour training in the Penn State program was the minimum for adequate coverage of the subject matter requirements published in the Federal Register. QUIZZES AND GRADING. Our experience indicates that farmers found the multiple-choice quizzes a valuable learning experience. The grading requirements added a sense of achievement and gave enhanced value to the certificates of completion awarded at the end. COMPLEXITY OF MATERIALS. It is absolutely critical to ensure that concepts are presented in a straight-forward and simple approach. For most participants, finance concepts were not well-understood until they were furtherdeveloped with problem- solving exercises, a core feature of Cooperative Extension workshop methods. Homework, based on own-farm records, both individualized and enhanced the learning experience. COORDINATION ACROSS STATE LINES. In so far as farm enterprises and agronomic conditions are similar, interstate coordination of Cooperative Extension specialists and agents is likely to enhance workshop success. Coordination reduces the need for each state to develop its own unique set of instruction materials. DISTANCE LEARNING APPLICABILITY. The borrower training is especially suitable for distance learning methods given budget and time limitations for university specialists and declining numbers of farm management agents in the field. A combination of live satellite transmissions and pretaped videos offers the benefits of live television instruction with the time-flexibility and cost-savings of pre-taped video cassettes. An Education Opportunity for Cooperative Extension Mandated financial training for FSA/USDA borrowers provides Cooperative Extension a unique adult-education opportunity. A key to a successful workshop for the limited-resource, FSA/USDA farmers is an unrelenting focus on the clarity/simplicity of instructional materials. A second key to educational programming success is the generous use of workshop exercises and homework based on own-farm financial records as well as case-farms. The continuing status of borrower trainingrequirements provided by the 1990 Farm Bill results in on-going education dividends from the initial investment in the development of workshop materials and methods. The mandated borrower training also presents an unusual opportunity for Cooperative Extension to develop linked education efforts across state boundaries. Coordinated, multi-state Extension programs can particularly benefit from the adoption of distance learning methods in the context of a workshop approach to training.
Hanson, G. D. (1990). Beyond the farm debt crisis. Choices, Fourth Quarter, pp. 33-35. Hanson, G. D. (1995, August). Adoption of intensive grazing systems [15691 bytes]. Journal of Extension [On)line journal], 33(4). Available E)mail: almanac@joe.org Message: send joe august 1995 research 3 Rules and Regulations. (1993). Federal Register 58, no. 249, 30 December, 69190-98.
Working Across Program Areas: Children-, Youth-, and Families-at-Risk
Sherry C. Betts
Annette M. Firth
Susan Watters
Stuart Shepherd County and state Extension staff are encouraged to work across program areas on issues programming concerning youth at risk and plight of young children. This article presents a staff development and program planning technique promoting cross program involvement in the area of children, youth, families and community. State and county staff have contributed their own perspectives on their roles and involvement.
The Arizona team attending the 1992 national Summit III meeting called to implement the national Youth-at-Risk initiative decided to begin its work by conducting a survey of county agents to determine competencies needed to work with youth- and families -at-risk and what learning methods were preferred by county staff. Most agents identified seven competencies as priorities and indicated a clear preference for experiential learning. The competencies were combined into one experiential staff development program that was funded by the DeWitt Wallace Readers' Digest Strengthening Our Capacity to Care program. The competencies addressed include finding funding for new audiences, dealing with turf issues, integrating current and emerging programs, assessing audiences, integrating new audiences, initiating change, and evaluating. Agents entered into an experiential learning process in their own communities. The process resulted in the development of programs and initiation of change that assessed audiences (old and new), integrated new audiences with current and emerging programs, clarified turf issues, pointed the way to new funding sources, and suggested evaluation strategies. This paper describes how the assessment of staff competencies led to the development and implementation of the program development process.
In the staff development plan, the state youth-at-risk (YAR) coordinator/youth and family specialist and the executive director of the 4-H youth foundation worked with a county agent team, at their request, in a given community. The purpose was to complete a community assessment of the issues, needs, strengths, and resources concerning children, youth, and families through the active involvement of the county team and local citizens. Resource development finds its strength in building relationships with people who share a common vision and this process provided an opportunity for extension faculty and resource development staff to partner. Programs will be built and funded by forging new linkages, networks, and partnerships with individuals with a passion to make a difference in their community. The YAR coordinator and foundation director work with the county agent team prior to approaching the community, spend two to three days in the community with the team, and help formulate the program plan based on the information gained through this process. The county team selects the community, introduces themselves to key citizens, sets up the schedule and interview appointments, participates in the two-to-three day process, and commits to necessary follow-up and response to identified needs. They also commit to working in two adjacent counties with agents who are interested in forming teams and completing the same process. The idea is to learn by doing and by teaching while helping to disseminate this staff development/program planning process. Dimock (1993) proposed a Systems Improvement Research (SIR) model that was adapted for use in Arizona. SIR is based on a collaborative approach to data collection, in this case a collaboration of state and county extension staff with community citizens and leaders. Eight assumptions regarding changing social systems are the basis of the SIR model:
The first time this process was tried, all concerned learned a great deal--about the SIR process itself and needed revisions, in addition to information about assessing and working with new audiences, initiating change, funding for new audiences, dealing with turf issues, integrating current and emerging programs, and evaluation. The county director, who also serves as community and economic development agent, was approached by the YAR coordinator and asked if he and his staff would be interested in participating in this community assessment process as a means to plan program and develop competence. He was interested, but wanted to involve his staff in planning and in selecting the community. Two agents with split appointments joined the team. The first serves as 4-H youth development and at that time, agriculture, agent and has a masters degree in range management. The second serves as 4-H youth development and home economics agent, with a masters in counseling. As a team, they were interested in the process and selected a community in which the current Extension youth and family program, while strong, served limited numbers with traditional programs. They felt they could fill more meaningful roles in the community, but needed additional information and in-roads. They also felt they could be successful in this community. They wanted to be successful in the first attempt at this process.
In the words of the 4-H/agriculture agent: "We have a very successful traditional 4-H program in this community that reaches only a fraction of the youth. I hoped that through the community assessment we would learn more about the community and develop relationships that would help us reach a larger, more diverse youth audience. The real strength of the 4-H program lies in the relationships between the volunteers, both adults and teens, and the youth. We need to develop new project areas to meet the needs of today's youth. This process will help us gain insight into some new project areas and a program delivery that will be effective." The 4-H/agriculture agent went on to comment, "The community assessment process is an excellent way to get to know community people better, understand their perspectives, and clarify what 4- H youth development is. Even those who thought they knew what 4-H was all about were surprised at the variety of offerings and resources. We spent two days, mostly with individual visits, and while these appointments take time, they are very valuable for building relationships. Throughout the discussions, various strengths, needs, and opportunities were mentioned consistently. Soon we were able to identify common community issues and see patterns. The main suggestion I have is to plan ample time to respond to needs and develop programs once the assessment is done. Take time to prioritize and adjust your commitments so it is not just another item added to an already full schedule. The assessment has personally helped me see the need to really prioritize my program areas to have the flexibility to respond to needs as they arise and to find new ways to reach other youth." The 4-H/home economics agent had similar observations, but a different slant on the value of the process: "I have been in this county for nine years, but this close examination of one community has been invaluable. Our goal is to use this process as a model to look more closely at other communities in the county. We realize that communities change over a period of time and so do their needs and issues. To be effective and to empower families, we need to be able to update our understanding of a specific community and know the leaders. By going into the community to talk with government, business, and education leaders, and to other citizens, we have been able to break some barriers that we have faced in the past. There are many implications for programming that evolve from this model as it relates to the cultural diversity of the county and specifically to this community." The county director/community development agent relates both benefits and new issues which have arisen as a result of this experience. The benefits include cross program planning and integration, but some turf issues remain to be resolved. The county Extension advisory board members have become much more interested in concerns related to children, youth, and families and have helped refocus the county Extension program priorities. As expected, the SIR process has not only produced change in the way Extension does business in this one community, but has also changed the way county and state Extension staff work together here and in other communities.
This community assessment of strengths, assets, concerns, resources, and needs has lead to the integration of 4-H youth development, home economics, agriculture and community and economic development programming with youth-at- risk programming, and plight of young children, in some communities. As a bonus, agents in all programs have found varying degrees of application to their principal work. Recently, every county committed to complete an assessment with this method, and the number of training teams has grown to five from the original one. Those agents who have completed the process are ready to work with their colleagues. There are three primary areas of implications for Extension. First, the most apparent value of this process is in the dynamics which occur within the county Extension organization itself. Program area differences in audiences, techniques and subject matter are visible in our daily work, but the shared concerns and the value of our shared expertise become evident through the discussions with community citizens and Extension advisory board members. As staff work together toward the common goal of completing this process, the working relationships and communication improve. Second, assumptions we make about how and with whom we work as Extension professionals need to be examined. Just because programs have a long history does not necessarily mean they are meeting the needs of the clientele. This process helps us challenge our own sets of beliefs and assumptions about the roles of Extension in the community. As the agent perspectives indicated, the new knowledge gained about a community where they had lived and worked for many years was invaluable. It also helped many people in the community dispel myths and misinformation they held about Extension. Third, Dimock's Systems Improvement Research model can be a useful tool for Extension professionals' use in many areas. The eight principles listed earlier can be applied to any program area or effort to affect change in what we do or how and with whom we work.
Dimock, Hedley G., (1993). Intervention and Collaboration: Helping Organizations to Change. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer Nutrition Education Needs of Elders in Illinois
Karen M. Chapman
Deshanie Ganessunker
Bruce Steiner
The USDA Food Consumption, Ten State, and National Health and Nutrition Examination studies on dietary practices of the elderly have reported dietary intakes of independent-living elderly to be inadequate for many nutrients and high in fat (Bianchetti, Rozzino, Carabellese, Zanetti & Trabucchi, 1990; Walker & Beauchenne, 1991; Koehler, Hunt & Garry, 1992). Reports have suggested that the elderly lack the knowledge and motivation to eat an optimal diet, resulting in poor nutritional status and increased risk for morbidity (Ponza, Ohls & Posner, 1994; Ham, 1991). These studies could substantiate the need for nutrition education of the elderly in Illinois, they do not adequately reflect Illinois elders. This project represents a cooperative effort between the Illinois Department of Public Health and the Illinois Cooperative Extension Service (ICES) to determine what, if any, nutrition education needs the elders in Illinois have, so that program planning within ICES could be appropriately directed.
Information used in this study was obtained from the Illinois Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey (BRFSS) which uses standardized questionnaires administered through Departments of Public Health by the Center for Disease Control (CDC). The survey instrument, approximately 55 questions, is organized into subject specific modules. The BRFSS is an established state- based, random-digit dialling telephone survey conducted by trained staff with extensive written back-up. The nutrition components of the modules were evaluated to determine their usefulness in identifying dietary patterns and nutrition education needs of the elderly. As a result, an additional ten questions were developed and pilot-tested. These additional questions primarily clarified hypertension/hyper- cholesterolemia-related behavior, obesity, and fruit/vegetable and dairy intake issues, and were nested within the appropriate module. Data were collected for one year from those Illinoisans over 64 years of age who had a telephone in their residence and were willing to answer the telephone survey. Data analysis focused on selected descriptive statistics (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, 1990). Differences between genders were determined using t-tests for interval variables and chi-square tests for nominal data. Food intake data were compared to the U.S. Dietary Guidelines (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1993). Because information was specific for fruit, vegetable, and dairy intake, indications of overall diet quality relative to intake of these foods groups were specifically evaluated as described in Table 1.
The 472 seniors (mean age 74.34 +/- 6.61 years) were predominantly female (67%) and Caucasian (88.6%). Most had an education of some high school or less (49%), were widowed (51%), and had an income of less than $10,000/year (41%). Significant differences between males and females (p<0.05) were found: more males (65.6%) were married; more females (47%) earned an income of less than $10,000/year; and more males (15%) than females (5%) earned more than $35,000/year. Most respondents felt they were not obese (72%). Of the 40% who reported having hypertension, 89% were told about their high blood pressure more than once and 76% of them were being treated with medication. More females (44%) than males (32%) were told they had high blood pressure. There were statistically significant differences between genders regarding the use of blood pressure medication and being told that blood pressure was high on more than one occasion. A majority (70%) was not aware of their cholesterol level. Of those who knew their blood cholesterol level, a significantly higher number of females (57%) than males (39%) had a cholesterol level >200 mg/dl. In addition, there was a significant gender difference in those trying to reduce their cholesterol level: 65% females and 49% males. Dietary reports reflected this intent, with more males (40%) than females (22%) consuming >21 high-fat servings/week. Of 410 participants answering all questions concerning fruit, vegetable, and dairy intake, 21 met the Dietary Guidelines. Thirty-one participants met the fruit/vegetable intake recommendation without consuming the two servings of dairy, while 77 met dairy intake recommendations without consuming adequate fruits and vegetables. Therefore, 108 participants had a moderately adequate diet. However, 281 participants met neither guideline, and could be categorized as having a poor diet (Table 2).
The findings regarding race, sex and marital status are strongly supported by the Illinois Statistics for 1991 (Bureau of Economic Business Research, 1991), suggesting that a representative sample was surveyed. Most subjects were low income (less than $10,000 per year), with a low education level (some HS or less), and vulnerable to social isolation (51% were widowed). These results suggest that the elderly in Illinois are at nutritional risk and should be targeted for nutrition education programs. Kaplan and Keil (1993), found a substantial body of evidence for a consistent relation between socioeconomic status and the incidence and prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors. Similarly, we found that most respondents who were told that their blood pressure was high more than once, earned less than $10,000 per year and were widowed. This finding supports the decision of ICES to target low income groups (Cooperative Extension Services, 1994). As previously reported by Garry, Hunt, Koehler, VanderJagt, and Vellas (1992), elderly males in our study consumed more high- fat foods than elderly females. Although females had a higher serum cholesterol, their degree of concern about trying to reduce their cholesterol was also significantly higher than males. Hence, this may explain their lower fat intake. Nevertheless, the results of the present study and other studies (Witteman, Willet, Stampfer, Colditz, Sacks, Speizer, Rosner & Hennekens, (1989); Seeman, de Leon, Berkman & Ostfeld, 1992; Shaw, Miller, Romeis, Kargl, Younis & Chaitman, 1994) suggest that serum total cholesterol and blood pressure are higher in elderly females than in males. Our findings demonstrate a need to direct cardiovascular risk reduction education programs in Illinois to the older woman. Intake of fruits and vegetables was generally less than recommended, and overall diet quality was poor for both genders. Although national goals target the promotion of fruit and vegetable intake, programs may need to be modified to address socioeconomic and physical factors which may be barriers for the elderly concerning purchasing, cooking, and eating larger quantities of fruits and vegetables. In addition, intake of dairy foods was particularly inadequate, and was not compensated for by calcium supplement use. Much background work has pointed to the essential role of diet and nutrition in determining health status and the quality of life of the elderly (Ryan, Craig & Finn, 1992; Tucket, Dallal & Rush, 1992). The results presented support the need for specific nutrition education programs for the elderly in Illinois. The education programs suggested by this project include those emphasizing dairy, fruit, and vegetable intake and cardiovascular risk reduction. In addition to documenting educational needs, this project exemplifies successful collaboration between agencies in Illinois. Needs identified through IDPH have been addressed through ICES educational programs. Although each state may not be able to add questions to their state's BRFSS, specialists and educators might learn a great about their audiences' behavior by reviewing the survey results. Knowing which higher risk behaviors are most prevalent in the state allows Cooperative Extension Service to address pertinent problems and issues in a timely manner.
Bianchetti, A., Rozzino, R., Carabellese, C., Zanetti, O., & Trabucchi, M. (1990). Nutritional intake, socioeconomic conditions and health status in a large elderly population. The American Geriatric Society, 38, 521-526. Walker, D., & Beauchenne, R. E. (1991). The relationship of loneliness, social isolation and physical health to dietary adequacy of independently living elderly. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 91, 300-304. Koehler, K. M., Hunt, W. C., & Garry, P. J. (1992). Meat, poultry and fish consumption and nutrient intake in the healthy elderly. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 92(3), 325 -330. Ponza, M., Ohls, J. C., & Posner, B. M. (1994). Elderly nutrition program-evaluation of literature review. Department of Health and Human Services. Ham, R .J. (1991). Nutrition screening initiative: Poor nutrition in the elderly. American Family Physicians, 44(5)/suppl, 10S-11S. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Version 4.0 & 4.1) [Computer Software]. (1990). Chicago: Norusis/SPSS. U.S. Department of Agriculture, & U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Human Nutrition Information Services. (1993). Dietary guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Bureau of Economic Business Research. (1991). 1991 Illinois Statistical Abstract (lst ed.). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois. Kaplan, G. A., & Keil, J. E. (1993). Socioeconomic factors and cardiovascular disease: A review of the literature. Circulation, 88(4), 1973-1994. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Extension Service, & Land- Grant University Cooperative Extension Services. (1994). Shaping our future: A strategic plan for nutrition, diet, and health. Garry, P. J., Hunt, W. C., Koehler, K. M., VanderJagt, D. J., & Vellas, B. J. (1992). Longitudinal study of dietary intakes and plasma lipids in healthy elderly men and women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 55, 682-688. Witteman, J. C. M., Willet, W. C., Stampfer, M. J., Colditz, G. A., Sacks, F. M., Speizer, F. E., Rosner, B., & Hennekens, C. H. (1989). A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among U.S. women. Circulation, 80, 1320-1327. Seeman, T., de Leon, C. M., Berkman, L., & Ostfeld, A. (1992). Risk factors for coronary heart disease among older men and women: A prospective study of community dwelling elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology, 138(12), 1037-1049. Shaws, L. J., Miller, D., Romeis, J. C., Kargl, D., Younis, L. T., & Chaitman, B. R. (1994). Gender differences in the non- invasive evaluation and management of patients with suspected coronary artery disease. Annals of Internal Medicine, 120(7), 559 -566. Ryan, S. A., Craig, L. D., & Finn, S. C. (1992). Nutrient intakes and dietary patterns of older Americans: A national study. The Gerontological Society of America, M145-M150. Tucket, K. L., Dallal, G. E., & Rush, D. (1992). Dietary patterns of the elderly Boston-area residents defined by cluster analysis. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 92, 1487- 1491.
Life Skill Development Related to Participation in 4-H Animal Science Projects
Carol Knowlton Ward Recent studies have investigated the relationship between participation in 4-H animal science projects and the development of valuable skills for living. For Iowa youth enrolled in 4-H swine projects, Gamon and Dehegedus-Hetzel (1994) reported a positive relationship between the development of life skills and participation. Their study surveyed current 4-H animal science project members to assess their perceptions of life skill development. Others have also reported similar relationships for youth currently enrolled in 4-H projects (Sawer, 1987). There is less evidence that alumni attribute life skill development to their participation in the 4-H animal science program, and if this activity had any effect on their career choices. Thus, the goal of this study was to investigate a possible influence of 4-H programs on animal science alumni. Individuals surveyed had graduated from 4-H within five years of this survey. Names of recent 4-H animal science alumni were obtained from staff in New Jersey. The survey was a four point Likert scale that had been pretested on five alumni for comprehension. The initial section contained questions to ascertain the influence that 4-H animal science programs had on the development of life skills (i.e., ability to make decisions, development of a spirit of inquiry, ability to relate to others, etc.). The second section questioned the effectiveness of certain activities within the animal science project in helping develop life skills. The third section inquired as to the extent that 4-H participation influenced their career choices. The 52 respondents had been enrolled in 4-H for an average of 8.4 years (range of 3 to 12 years), and participated in a wide variety of 4-H animal science projects (large and small animals, veterinary science). Respondents represented 13 of the 21 New Jersey counties, including urban and rural areas.
Q1. How much influence did participation in the 4-H Animal Science program have on your development of the following life skills?
Q2. How effective were the following activities in helping you develop life skills listed above?
Q3. Did your participation in the 4-H animal science program significantly influence your career choice? 37% yes, 62% no Q4. Did your participation in the 4-H animal science program assist you in developing a career? 46% yes, 54% no
Results of the study indicate that participation in the 4-H animal science program does have a positive influence on life skill development. In particular, note the high score for "ability to accept responsibility." Several respondents indicated a positive influence on their lives with comments such as "I learned to think an entire plan through, react with others and work on a team." Specific events in 4-H animal science programs appear to have a positive influence on the development of important life skills. Most notable are the results for shows and judging activities. Comments which corroborate this include "the many public speaking experiences I had in 4-H helped me a lot during job interviews." The results indicate that many respondents do not work in animal science careers, but their comments suggest many of them enjoy related hobbies. Responses such as "I believe my participation in 4-H helped me get into Cornell; a B.S. degree will help me get a job in wildlife, a related field." Youth development professionals have evidence that 4-H animal science programs benefit participants by helping them develop valuable life skills. It is important that the development of skills for the workplace be documented. This study is one step in that direction. This researcher is interested in conducting additional and more extensive alumni studies to further investigate this topic. It would also be useful to determine whether the shift toward more noncompetitive animal science activities has an influence on the development of life skills.
Gamon, J. A., Dehegedus-Hetzel, O. D. (1994, June). Swine project skill development [5873 bytes]. Journal of Extension, [On line journal], 32(1). Available E mail: almanac@joe.org Message: send joe june 1994 research 5 Sawer, B. J. (1987). What 4-H members learn in animal science projects. Corvallis. Oregon State University Extension Service Department of 4-H Youth Development.
U.S. Extension Systems - Facing the Challenge to Internationalize
Barbara G. Ludwig America's future rests on its ability to understand and compete in a world which year-by-year moves rapidly toward economic, political and social interdependence. Ping (1990, p.27) Extension has existed in the U.S. as part of the Land-Grant College system since 1914. Over time the mission and focus of Extension has changed from production agriculture to include a broader social orientation. An increased interest in internationalization of Extension has occurred (Henson, et Al. 1990; Ingle and Gage, 1990; Somersan, 1992). This interest appeared to be a result of many factors and influences, including the need of an educated citizenry to have the knowledge and skills to compete in a global economy. The report stated "all our people, not just a few, must be able to think for a living, adapt to changing environments, and to understand the world around them." (U.S. Department of Education, 1990, p. 35). Skinner (1991), in an address to the American Home Economics Association, noted that in a world which is increasingly interdependent, we (Extension) do ourselves and our clients a disservice if we do not prepare them for an increasingly internationalized economy and society. Somersan (1992, p. 2) reported, "Globalization is the driving force of the U.S. and world economy and community. The global village has shrunk. Information, technology, labor, capital, pollution, and culture do not recognize artificial national boundaries. Globalization has reduced the independence of nations." Few studies have been conducted related to internationalization of the Extension component of the Land-Grant university system. None defined internationalizing in terms of objectively verifiable indicators of success. A need to examine and improve the understanding of internationalizing of a state university Extension system became apparent through a review of the literature. If the characteristics of an internationalized Extension system could be identified, then an organization might focus available resources to create changes needed to achieve internationalization. To assist in the process of internationalizing Extension, a clearer understanding was needed of what it meant to internationalize and how an organization could measure its progress in becoming internationalized. If characteristics of an internationalized Extension system could be identified, then an organization might focus available resources to create needed changes.
To identify the characteristics that will describe an internationalized state Extension system.
The design of the study was descriptive-survey research. To gain an understanding of the characteristics, the Delphi Research Technique was selected. Delphi, a group process, operates on the principle that several heads are better than one in making subjective conjectures about the future, and that experts will make conjectures based upon rational judgment rather than merely guessing. Delphi was further characterized by multiple iterations or feedback designed to accomplish convergence of opinion. Another characteristic of the process was the anonymity of the respondents. The study used a three-round, modified Delphi technique to explore and describe the characteristics of an internationalized state Extension system. The Delphi Panel members were purposefully selected following a nomination process. A total of 15 individuals, well-known and respected for their contributions to Extension or Land-Grant colleges or universities in the area of internationalization, were identified. The Delphi Panel was asked to identify the degree to which they believed each item on the instrument contributed to the internationalization of a state university Extension system. A seven point Likert-type scale was used with 0 indicating "no importance" and 6 indicating "critical importance." The initial instrument contained 39 position statements derived from the literature and structured interviews with international experts. Face and content validity of the initial instrument were assured through the use of a content validity panel. Given the nature of the Delphi technique, additional types of validity and reliability estimates were not appropriate for the instrument (Hughes, 1993; Dalkey, Rourke, Lewis and Snyder, 1972). During Round II, based on suggestions from the Delphi Panel, 12 new items were added and nine items were reworded. The instruments used in the second and third rounds contained items on which a predetermined level of consensus was not achieved during the previous round. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each round. The computer program SPSS was used for data analysis. For each round, items on which consensus was reached were identified. Consensus on an item was considered to have been reached when 80% of the ratings fell within two categories on a seven-point scale. Following Round III, statistics of central tendency and variability were calculated for all items on which consensus had been reached. The mean was used to describe the level of importance of the item to an internationalized state Extension system as determined by consensus of the Delphi Panel.
The results of the study represent the collective opinion of the experts participating in the Delphi Panel at a single point in time and cannot be construed to be representative of any other population or situation. Fourteen of the 15 participants responded to each round, a 93% response rate. Fifty-one items were considered during the three rounds of the Delphi. Consensus was achieved on 38 items that were identified as having moderately high importance to critical importance for the internationalization of a state university Extension system. Consensus was not achieved on thirteen items after three rounds. Comments made by the Delphi Panel during each round and reported anonymously provided additional information to describe the ratings and clarify issues. Three hundred and sixteen comments were received. By consensus of the Delphi Panel, the most critical characteristic of a state university Extension system that had internationalized was the output or end product of clientele who developed a fundamental understanding of global and national interdependence. Educational programming efforts having high importance to internationalization included programs that help clientele understand complex worldwide issues, programs that train local business persons for participation in international markets, and interdisciplinary international experiences for key leaders. The Delphi Panel placed high importance on targeting commodity groups for public policy education on global decision making and rural clientele for education on the international marketplace. Five critical elements were identified by the Delphi Panel as being present in an internationalized state university Extension system:
Poston and O'Rourke (1991) reported 80% of Extension directors indicated their state had achieved either a low level or had not achieved any level of globalization. For these Extension systems, internationalization will represent a significant organizational change. Identification of characteristics essential to an internationalized Extension system can assist Extension leaders and university administrators to identify and focus available resources where the greatest impact or change can be realized. A clear sense of direction, strong leadership in internationalizing, and enthusiasm from leaders of the organization will help to ensure concerted and sustained action. Policy and resource decisions are necessary implementation strategies. Organizational change is a slow and often discontinuous process in a complex organization. Ongoing assessment of the progress being made will be necessary. Extension educators have the responsibility to help clientele develop a better understanding of the complexity of global issues. Issues that might be initially targeted include human health, the environment, diversity, renewable resources, and the agricultural market. Extension "typically tries to be responsive to local needs, but few people recognize a need for international education. This is where international education needs leadership from Extension programmers who can see a need that may be invisible to the general population" was a comment made by a panel member. Extension may have a unique role to play in helping traditional rural and agricultural clientele to recognize the need for education on international issues.
America 2000. (1991). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. Dalkey, N.C., Rourke, D.L., Lewis, R., Snyder, D. (1972). Studies in the quality of life. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books. Henson, J.B., Noel, J.C., Gillrad-Byers, T.E. & Ingle, M.D. (1990, June). Internationalizing U.S. universities: preliminary summary of a national study. Proceedings of Internationalizing U.S. Universities (Appendix B). Pullman, Washington: International Program Development Office of Washington State University. Hughes, Matthew. (1993). Career-oriented program activities and learning experiences that promote achievement of middle-grade education goals. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Ingle, M.D. & Gage, J.D. (1990). Conference proceedings- internationalizing U.S. universities: a time for leadership. Appendix B. Pullman, Washington: International Program Development Office, Washington State University. Ping, C. (1990, June). Internationalizing U.S. universities: preliminary summary of a national study. Proceedings of internationalizing U.S. universities. Pullman, Washington: International Program Development Office of Washington State University. Poston and O'Rourke. (1991, November). Globalization and cooperative extension, final report: November 1991 (Publication 91-53). Washington State University: Social and Economic Sciences Research Center (SESRC). Skinner, G. (1991, June). Extension's role in linking visions and global opportunities. Speech to the American Home Economics Association Extension Section, Twin Cities Conference. Somersan, A. (1992). The realities of globalization, implications for extension. 1992 McDowell Lecture, November 18. Pennsylvania State University.
Tax Dollars Support Levels Are Strong for Family Living Programs
Robert J. Fetsch We are in a time of serious budget constraints, prompting legislators and our publics to closely scrutinize what they are getting for the tax dollars invested in Cooperative Extension. Our state and national stakeholders need quantifiable evidence of taxpayers' support for our research-based educational programs. The Chinese say that a crisis is both a threat and an opportunity. I believe that the current budgetary constraints many of us are experiencing present us with an opportunity that may help us fare better than some of our competitors not linked with land-grant universities. An idea that has worked for us for 16 years is to ask our program participants afterwards about their support for continued funding (Fetsch, 1995b): "Your tax dollars support this Cooperative Extension Program either totally or in part. Do you want your tax dollars to continue supporting this type of effort? Yes No." Family living specialists and agents have used the Tax Dollars Support Question in a number of states. In a recent study (Fetsch, 1995a), results were reported from almost 1,000 participants in more than 24 family life programs in Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska between 1989 and 1995. Tax dollars support levels were consistently high for family living programs (Table 1): 91.9% (n = 842/916) said, "Yes"; 1.7% (n = 16/916) said, "No"; 6.3% (n = 58/916) did not respond. When only completed responses were considered, 98.1% said "Yes" (n = 842/858) and 1.9% said, "No."
Journal of Extension readers are invited to incorporate the Tax Dollars Support Question into their program evaluation surveys. It is quick and easy to collect important quantifiable, aggregatable data for our decision makers and funders. We have found consistently high support levels with program pretests, post tests, and follow-ups up to six months after participating in our programs. The Tax Dollars Support Question can be used equally well by Cooperative Extension professionals in agriculture, 4-H, consumer and family education, issues-based programming, national initiatives, etc. To those who are afraid of what they might learn by asking the Tax Dollars Support Question, we ask: When would you rather hear the bad news? At the end of your program when you can still modify or drop the program? Or during the next funding cycle when your County Commissioner or other elected official votes against continued funding for Cooperative Extension with a remark about folks saying that Cooperative Extension programs are not worth tax dollars support? Let's see these budgetary constraint times as opportunities to be proactive with funding decision makers. Let's ask the Tax Dollars Support Question following many of our Cooperative Extension programs. Let's see if we can get even better than the 92% benchmark norm results reported in this article. Let's help our funding decision makers be wise stewards of limited revenues. Maybe they would want to follow Cooperative Extension's lead by asking the Tax Dollars Support Question of other agencies they fund. Finally, let's be proactive and let folks know that it is appropriate to scrutinize what they are getting for their tax dollars. Who knows--they might even want to ask the same question of our competitors.
Fetsch, R. J. (1995a, November 14). Cooperative Extension norms with 916 family life program participants. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Council on Family Relations Cooperative Extension Pre-Conference, Portland, OR Fetsch, R. J. (1995b). Cooperative Extension program evaluation surveys: Pretest and post test (CEPES). (Unpublished surveys available to Extension faculty from author, Department of Human Development & Family Studies, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523.) Author Notes: Appreciation is expressed to Deb Gebeke (North Dakota State University), Lynette Olson (South Dakota State University), Elaine Sturges (Colorado State University), Jacque Miller (Colorado State University), and Pat Steffens (University of Nebraska) for contributing CEPES data to this study.
Assessing Financial Empowerment through Group Interviews
Sharon DeVaney
Janet Bechman
Group interviews, also known as focus groups, are a research technique that can collect information that may not emerge from a written survey (Greenbaum, 1993). A major benefit of a group interview is that participants tend to give candid information; a major disadvantage is that data obtained from a small sample cannot easily be generalized to the population as a whole. Nevertheless, participants' comments can provide useful information. The purpose of this article is to discuss insights gained as a result of two group interviews conducted with 19 participants in financial education programs in Indiana. In the programs, women, particularly those at mid-life, are encouraged to "take charge" of their finances following a series of lessons, the use of a workbook, and discussion led by volunteers (American Association of Retired Persons, 1992).
Conducting a focus group consists of three steps: planning, interviewing, and analysis. In the first step, the objectives of the study are clarified, a target audience identified, a meeting place selected, and a set of questions is developed based on the objectives. Next, a trained moderator conducts the interview with participants who have responded to an invitation. The moderator advises participants that all are welcome to speak but courtesy in allowing each person to have a voice must be observed. Audio or videotaping is suggested as a means of recording participants' comments; however, all participants must agree to the taping. Finally, the moderator prepares a written summary interpreting the responses given by the group.
The objective of the focus groups was to uncover some of the issues that define the nature and scope of the financial empowerment education lessons. When asked their reasons for attending, the Indiana participants' responses included: wanting to know more about finances prior to retirement, needing financial knowledge after loss of a spouse, and coping with debt. When asked what the program was supposed to accomplishment and whether it had met their expectations, participants were less clear in describing the goals of the program. Some were reluctant to say whether it had met their expectations. Although most expressed genuine satisfaction with "what they learned," it was difficult for several to articulate the behavioral changes that had taken place as a result of the learning (Engle, Blackwell & Miniard, 1992). Many expressed a need for wanting information in greater depth than the lecture and workbook. Some volunteered that their spouses had no interest in communicating about finances and left "bill paying" to them while other husbands handled all financial matters and didn't want to communicate.
There seemed to be a need for program leaders to more clearly communicate the goals of the program in both the publicity and the first lesson. Doing so should help participants more clearly focus on what they want to learn, to decide if the course would help them to meet that goal, and then be able to verbalize meeting the goal. Although many participants expressed the feeling that they "could take charge," they admitted that there were actions that they panned to do but had not yet undertaken. A technique to promote the desired behavior change may be to have participants make a list of actions at the end of each lesson and then to review the actions the following week. Since poor communication with a spouse was frequently mentioned as barrier to taking charge of finances, this seems to indicate a need for developing better skills for communicating about financial management. Finally, instead of waiting for a second series of lessons, program leaders may want to meet the expressed need for more information by scheduling speakers on separate topics such as investments and retirement planing.
American Association of Retired Persons. (1992). The Women's Financial Information Program. Washington, D.C.: AARP. Engel, J. F., Blackwell, R.D., and Miniard, P.W. (1992) "The Attitude-Behavior Relationship," Consumer Behavior. Chicago: The Dryden Press. pp. 304-323. Greenbaum, T. L. (1993). The Handbook for Focus Group Research. New York: Lexington Books.
A Juvenile Diversion Alternative
R. Elaine Hitchcock The County Juvenile Court utilizes community resources in resolving some juvenile complaints. Juvenile Rule 9(A) of the Ohio Revised Code provides that "in all appropriate cases formal court action should be avoided and other community resources utilized to ameliorate situations brought to the attention of the court". Consistent with the currently practiced philosophy of utilizing the least restrictive interventive mode and concurrent with the existing provisions of the Ohio Revised Code, the Geauga County Juvenile Court established a diversion program. The County Juvenile Court Judge asked Extension about programming available for first time juvenile offenders. The youth he sought to serve had not been adjudicated (processed through a formal court action) and would benefit from a community education source. The 4-H agent and court staff developed and implemented the "Diversion Challenge Program" in response. The author was named as the project coordinator since 12 other Ohio counties had programs led by 4-H agents. The agent surveyed existing Ohio State University Extension juvenile diversion programs and gathered information from the Geauga County Court staff. The 10 surveys returned indicated that since no two county programs were alike, it was necessary to develop new curriculum for Geauga County. This article describes the planning, implementation, and evaluations of the pilot project during the spring of 1995. The court intake officer referred ten 11-15 year old boys to the program. The youth were not subject to an official complaint and as a result did not generate a permanent court record. The decision to divert is not a final one; matters initially referred to the Diversion Challenge Program can ultimately become a formal court action.
The purpose of the program was to serve as an alternative to the initiation of formal court proceedings and to resolve a juvenile complaint. First time misdemeanor and unruly offenders as well as youthful offenders can experience effective interventive/preventive measures outside the courtroom setting, relying upon the family and the community for support and for resolving areas of concern. The Diversion Challenge Program served as one community resource court staff could use to resolve complaints. The program was intended to help youth develop the life skills: communication, organization, decision making, and service to the community in which youth live.
The agent and court staff agreed that a program offered by Ohio State University Extension could serve as one of the intake officers' referral alternatives. The 4-H agent received a $252 grant from the Ohio 4-H Foundation for development of a county diversion program. The Court mission goals, the 10-county survey summary, the references "Pocket Condition of Education 1994" and "The Troubled Journey", and the 4-H agent served as the primary resources for the development of the 5-session/5-week Pilot Program. Five court staff, four guest speakers, two volunteers and one 4-H agent staffed the program. The court intake officer referred ten 11-15 year old boys to the program and described the program to both the youth and their parents. The program involved 23.5 hours of youth participation which included: 12.5 hours of class time, 8 hours of community service, and a 3 hour project meeting. Class topics and activities included lessons on parliamentary procedure, an action socialization experience, a talk about making choices by a counselor, and a mock court held by the county public defender. The project selected was building and launching a model rocket. Parents were required to attend a half-hour meeting during program session 1 and a one-hour meeting at session 5. Four methods of evaluation were utilized through a weekly written survey. One: The youth gave input. Two: The parents were asked to complete an evaluation at the end of the program. Three: Each court staff member and guest speakers involved in the program were interviewed by the 4-H agent. Four: Each youth set goals and reviewed criteria used for their program participation evaluation during the first session. Youth completed a self- evaluation during the last class. The Youth Evaluation instrument also provided a means for staff to give written recommendations to the youth and a copy was filed for the intake officer's reference at the Geauga County Juvenile Court. The 4-H agent compiled evaluation results and forwarded them to the court staff. The agent and staff met; findings were discussed, and recommendations were made.
The class size of 10 males worked well. The size was small enough to allow individual attention and large enough for group activities. The intake officer expressed a need for more written information to use during initial contact with the youth and their parents. Everyone involved in the project agreed that the number of hours required was excessive; however, session topics and education provided were satisfactory and appropriate. Utilization of fewer court staff was requested by the chief probation officer. Future programs for youth referred to juvenile diversion required several modifications.
Programs should consist of a class size of 8-10 youth; males, females or combination of both, and target youth age 12-15 with a first time misdemeanor or unruly offense. Fund the program with a direct charge to parents and/or through contributions from a community organization (e.g. Rotary). Develop an information packet describing the program, assignments, and evaluations for use at the initial youth/parent contact at Juvenile Court. This will improve communications. Require youth to participate in a 10 -hour program that includes four 2-hour classes and 2 hours of community service. Parents should attend a one-hour meeting. Involve both county court and Extension staff as co-facilitators of the four session/10-hour program. Co-facilitators should request three guest speakers for class topics and activities. The purpose of the program is to serve as an alternative to the initiation of formal court proceedings. The program requires full participation. Satisfactory completion will resolve the juvenile complaint and no permanent court record will be generated. Offer several programs per year as determined by caseload demands.
Benson, Dr. Peter L. (1990). "The Troubled Journey." Minneapolis, Minnesota: Search Institute, 1-82. National Center for Education Statistics (1994). "The Pocket Condition of Education 1994." Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Superintendent of Documents, 1-8. Ohio Revised Code (1995). Juvenile Rule 9A. Cleveland, Ohio: Banks Baldwin Publishing Co., 677.
Teaching Animal Agriculture to Young Children
James W. Smith
Joe W. West Improving public awareness of the role of food animals requires education. Two educational programs in Georgia were developed to expose children to factual information about animal agriculture. The annual Animal Science First Grade Field Day, conducted at the University of Georgia's Coastal Plain Experiment Station at Tifton, has reached more than 5,200 first-grade students since its inception in 1988. A unique feature of this program is the classroom instruction prior to the field day demonstration phase. Lesson plans were developed in cooperation with teachers. The students typically study food animal agriculture for one to two hours each day for 10 days prior to the field day. At the field day, students see demonstrations involving dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep, swine, and catfish. An experiment station employee is a guide on each school bus. Groups rotate among three demonstration sites. They spend about 12-15 minutes at three demonstrations at each site for a total of nine presentations. They listen to scientists and technicians. The beef and sheep site consists of a roping demonstration; instruction about a beef cow, calf, yearling, and bull; and discussion of sheep and lamb management. At the swine and aquaculture demonstration site, children hear about catfish farming; see a farrowing house; touch a baby pig; and hear how pigs grow. When students visit the dairy site, they p | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
