Editor's Page

Editor's Notes

JOE Acquires Internet Domain Name of joe.org

Questions & Answers for Authors

Q&A for Authors

Submission Instructions

Instructions for Submitting Articles

Review and Evaluation Process

Review and Evaluation Process

Editorial Committees and Board

Editorial Committee and Board

Commentary

Why Do Teens Drop Out?: A Developmental View

Heinsohn, Anne L. Lewis, Robert B.

Feature Articles

Extension's Values: A Bridge Across Turbulent Times

Safrit, R. Dale Conklin, Nikki L. Jones, Jo M.

A National Strategic Plan for Natural Resources and Environmental Management Education

Fridgen, Cynthia

Does Membership in a Professional Association Influence the Quality of Family Child Care?

DeBord, Karen Sawyers, Janet

Colorado and North Dakota Strengthening Marriage and Family Programs Increase Positive Family Functioning Levels

Fetsch, Robert J. Gebeke, Deb

Virtual Communities and University Outreach

DeYoung, Bruce Harris, Peggy Larsen, Lori

Research in Brief

Expectations May be Too High for Changing Diets of Pregnant Teens

Alley, Holly McCloud-Harrison, JoAnn Peisher, Ann V. Rafter, John A.

Change in Safe Food Handling Knowledge and Practices of 4-H Members

Hammerschmidt, Patricia Andrews, Sandra Murphy, Anne Youatt, June Sawyer, Carol

Leadership and Managerial Skills of County Commissioners

Rinehart, Susan H. Smith, Keith L.

Ideas at Work

4-H on the Internet

Risdon, Penny Ostergard, Mina

A Waste Management Needs Assessment of Oregon County Extension Offices

Bauer, Michael E.

The Active Learning Center at State Fair

Gamon, Julia Primmer, Julianne

Home Is Where The Business Is

Zies, Susan Herringshaw, Doris

Quality Family Togetherness with "Family Fun Times"

Mader, Sharon L. Recker, Nancy

Tools of the Trade

Needs Assessment: A Handbook

Etling, Arlen

How Nontraders Can Use Futures and Options

Flaskerud, George Shane, Richard

CANDI: Environmental Protection Software for Irrigation and Pesticide Management

Peralta, Richard C. Aly, Alaa H. Deer, Howard

Editor's Page

Welcome to 1995. Our first year as an electronic Journal was truly challenging, eventful, and exciting. In changing to an on-line publication, we had to convert from a print to an electronic format and institute an electronic manuscript submission and review process. These changes were significant, to say the least. As a result, we might have expected a decrease in support for the Journal and the number of manuscripts submitted for publication. On the contrary, support for the Journal remained very high, as evidenced by the commitment of more than 50 land-grant institutions, thus far, to pay sustaining institutional subscription fees to support Journal operations. In addition, the number of manuscripts submitted showed no signs of decreasing; in fact, submissions are on the increase. Both of these indicators provide evidence that the Journal, regardless of format, serves as a means for expanding and updating the research and knowledge base for Extension professionals and other adult educators to improve their effectiveness. I think the 17 articles in this issue support this.

As we continue to move forward in our new electronic format in 1995, we strongly encourage your input. If you have comments, suggestions, or thoughts you would like to share about the Journal, please send them via the Internet to joe-comments@joe.org.

Conversion to an electronic format caused a delay of approximately six months in processing manuscripts. We had hoped to decrease the time from submission to publication to six months or less. As many of you know, we did not achieve this goal in 1994. Please bear with us and know that we will continue to work towards this goal throughout 1995.

We have updated the submission guidelines that appear in every issue of the Journal. We have also added two new pieces to provide more information to authors. One contains often asked questions about the Journal; the other describes the manuscript review and evaluation process.

Finally, the Journal Board is developing a variety of materials to help market the Journal. A professional development packet is being produced for state Journal representatives. It includes marketing suggestions and a training outline on accessing and publishing in the Journal. States will also receive a color poster, camera-ready flyer, and camera-ready display ads. A computer demonstration disk will be distributed later this spring, and a short video to increase awareness and use of the Journal is in the planning stages.

MTL

JOE Acquires Internet Domain Name of joe.org

In an effort to make the Journal of Extension easier to reach, JOE has acquired the Internet domain name joe.org. Having its own Internet domain name gives JOE an identity on the Internet. This identity shows the commitment of JOE to bring you a high quality, Internet-delivered publication.

For our readers, this means that JOE will now be found at joe.org, rather than the addresses associated with our host institutions - joe.ext.vt.edu and joe.uwex.edu. Because JOE is a non-profit organization, and not affiliated with any specific educational institution, we can use the ".org" top-level Internet domain name. In addition, current plans call for JOE to be published at a different Extension institution every 2 years. By using "joe.org" you will not need to change how you access JOE every 2 years.

To use the new domain name, simply use "joe.org" in place of "joe.ext.vt.edu" (or "joe.uwex.edu") when you access JOE. Specifically, Almanac readers should send e-mail to almanac@joe.org. Those who use gopher can connect to joe.org. On the World Wide Web, use gopher://joe.org/11/joe. For those who maintain a Gopher server, you should now use the link:

Name=Journal of Extension
Path=1/joe
Type=1
Host=joe.org
Port=70

The existing instructions call for you to access JOE at joe.ext.vt.edu. While this domain name will continue to work for now, we suggest that you start using the new joe.org domain name immediately.

MTL

Extension Journal, Inc.

Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers.

Board of Directors:

Kathryn R. Treat, President, New Mexico, Epsilon Sigma Phi
Judith Jones, Vice President, Virginia, Southern Director
Janice Leno, Secretary, Oregon, National Association of Extension Home Economists
William Meyer, Treasurer, Wisconsin
Paige Baker, Minnesota, Member-at-Large
John Bentley, Georgia, 1890 Institutions
Henry Brooks, Maryland, ECOP
Leon Brooks, Maryland, National Association of Extension 4-H Agents
Sorrel Brown, Iowa, North Central Directors
Roger Crickenberger, North Carolina, Member-at-Large
Emmett Fiske, Washington, Editorial Committee Chair
Eldon Fredericks, Indiana, ACE
Gary Hall, Nebraska, National Association of County Agriculture Agents
Dana Hallman-Bama, Washington, DC, CSREES/USDA
Ellen Ritter, Texas, Member-at-Large
Trish Sacks, Massachusetts, North East Directors
Jerry Schickedanz, New Mexico, Western Directors
Satish Verma, Louisiana, Member-at-Large

Editorial Committee:

Joyce Alves, Arizona
Tom Archer, Ohio
Janet Benson, Minnesota
Robert Christensen, Massachusetts
Henry Findlay, Alabama
Emmett Fiske, Washington, Committee Chair
Barbara Hunter, New Hampshire
Gregory Hutchins, Wisconsin
Donna Iams, Arizona
Ron Meyer, Colorado
Kathleen Parrott, Virginia
Joel Plath, Virginia
Kathy Prochaska-Cue, Nebraska
Roger Rennekamp, Kentucky
Shirley Rouse, North Carolina
Bill Umscheid, Kentucky
Barbara White, Washington, DC

Why Do Teens Drop Out?: A Developmental View

Youth organizations offer both children and adolescents a variety of learning activities. However, at any given time, participation in 4-H, Scouts, and other youth organizations is skewed with 9 to 11 year olds comprising over half of the participants. Typically, individuals join youth organizations as children and participate throughout their elementary school years. As they proceed towards adolescence and high school, their participation in youth programs often declines dramatically. Youth organizations, their professionals, and volunteers continue to ask what is wrong with our program or what are we doing that might be sending these kids elsewhere. A look at early adolescence tells us youth leaving these programs to do something else is a part of the developmental process rather than a programming glitch.

First of all, we must acknowledge that adolescents are not children. Youth programs and organizations that serve youth from childhood through the teen years have long recognized the developmental differences in the two groups. Youth organizations have activities and experiences designed for children and other experiences designed for adolescents. However, teen dropout continues to be a fact of life for 4-H, Scouts, and similar programs. Nine to 11 year olds compose the largest group of participants, in spite of efforts to promote the benefits of remaining active participants in a program. Sometimes teen dropout has been viewed as a program failure that should be remedied. However, from a developmental perspective, a teen's decision to move on to other experiences is not and should not be unexpected. Rather it is a natural part of growing up.

Organized group experiences provide opportunities for children and preadolescents to meet their needs and pursue their emerging interests. Making friends, being with peers, and being part of an organized group are important at this stage of development. These youngsters are beginning to step beyond the home into the community. Entering preschool, then elementary school, are early steps into the wider world. Organized youth groups provide the next approved step. Parents move their children into group experiences. At this stage, children make few decisions themselves. Parents determine the experiences and activities their children will have. Whether these out of school activities are many or few, parents decide how many and which experiences their children will have.

Adolescents, on the other hand, are becoming quite comfortable in the community away from home. They are mature enough to have a say in decisions about what they do and what they don't want to do. They want to pursue interests and activities of their own, not their parents' choosing. Adolescence is a time for exploring and experimenting with new interests or refining and expanding ongoing activities or interests. Also, there are many more activities for teens to choose from; many of which they can access themselves. Schools offer clubs, sports, etc. that may not require the kind of scheduling by parents that is typical for children's activities. Adolescence is also when individuals need to develop some independence from the family. Choosing one's own activities and dropping some pursued since childhood are ways to do so. Adolescents may even drop activities they like and still enjoy so they can make some choices themselves. Part-time jobs offer money and become increasingly available and attractive for adolescents. They find themselves having to make decisions about how to spend or divide their non-school time. There isn't time to do all the things available or to pursue multiple interests and hold a part-time job. Then, too, not all adolescents enjoy groups. There are those who would rather pursue interests on their own.

Adolescents may participate in youth organizations during their teen years. They may be attracted to an organization's activities because they are fun, challenging, even exciting, and because they are different from the experiences they have participated in as children. Adolescents who participate in youth organizations are those who like being part of a group and for whom the group experience is a reason for remaining involved in a particular youth program or organization.

Teens who choose to participate in youth organizations often do so because of the guidance and support provided by staff and adult leaders. They like the adult or what the adults are providing. Adults who work with teens do so in particular ways: they encourage youth to be creative and support them in efforts; they provide guidance but give teens a major role in democratic decision making; and they genuinely like adolescents and are comfortable working with them.

Clearly a major portion of teen dropout from youth programs can be viewed as developmentally appropriate and normative. This in no way denies the value of programming for those adolescents who want and need the group experiences provided by youth organizations--especially for teens. It does mean, however, that youth organizations need to adjust their expectations for teen participation and remember that teens participate voluntarily. Although teens may constitute a smaller portion of the total membership, they choose the particular program over other programs and opportunities. Youth organizations that are flexible and willing to make program changes to reflect changing teen interests will continue to attract and retain participants.

Extension's Values: A Bridge Across Turbulent Times

Every day, Extension professionals at all levels of the organization are challenged with critical decisions. As a result of unexpected cuts in state appropriations, Extension administration must decide which positions to fill and which to eliminate. An Extension agent is faced with the challenge of diversifying an advisory committee. A state youth development specialist ponders whether to address the increasing number of requests for AIDS educational materials.

The last decade of the 20th century has proven both transformational and turbulent for the Cooperative Extension system. Expansion into non-traditional audiences, issues programming, and budgetary and personnel retrenchment have challenged the system and its composite state organizations to reexamine mission, personnel, processes, and products (i.e., programs). As Cooperative Extension approaches the 21st century, Jimmerson (1989) suggests that "meeting the challenges of the information age will require attention to the values and beliefs that guide us as we work to provide our clients with information and help them solve problems" (p. 16).

A value is "an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence" (Rokeach, 1973, p. 5). Values play important roles in determining how we function as individuals, family members, and members of work teams.

Values are a product of our individual experiences. Consequently, we may organize separate values into identifiable groups or value systems based upon our daily experiences in our respective personal and professional roles. One value system guides our interactions with life partners and family members. Another value system determines how we behave in the work environment. And still another value system influences our actions and behaviors as a member of a specific profession. The enduring nature of values and value systems arises from the fact that they are neither completely stable nor unstable, but rather evolve continuously according to our changing physical, social, and emotional surroundings (Rokeach, 1973).

Hitt (1988) suggests that every profession or work organization is guided by certain beliefs or values. "These values communicate 'what we stand for' and 'what is important to us' ...values are the soul of the organization" (Hitt, 1988, p. 86). One sign of a healthy, productive organization is agreement between the organization's values and the daily behaviors of its members. This behavior is determined both by individuals' personal experiences as well as their experiences in a specific profession. Vaill (1990) emphasizes "how management and leadership in organizational contexts may be viewed as a process of ongoing values clarification. That is the most important business. That is the key job that needs doing, and that is the job whose significance we keep underestimating" (p. 59).

Although each of us may have unique personal value systems, we function best within organizations and professions where we share values with our colleagues. And, in transformational and turbulent periods, an organization's values serve as a solid bridge across such periods that enable it to focus constantly on the basic beliefs, concepts, and philosophies. Do we as Extension educators have a set of common beliefs that guide our professional actions and behaviors? If so, how do we relate these shared beliefs to the specific programs we conduct?

"An organizational value is any concept or idea that is held in high esteem by the members of an organization and that shapes the organization's philosophy, processes, and goals" (Conklin, Jones & Safrit, 1991, p. 1). Research studies conducted with the North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service and Ohio State University Extension identified organizational values for program personnel in the respective states (Safrit, 1990; Safrit, Jones & Conklin, 1994). Although actual wording may vary among the specific values identified for the two Extension organizations, several similarities in valued concepts are apparent. Furthermore, when compared with Rokeach's (1973) research, three values systems may be suggested for Cooperative Extension organizations: a Personnel Values System, a Process Values System, and a Product (Program) Values System.

The resulting Personnel Values Systems for both North Carolina and Ohio contain respective individual organizational values that, although not identical are very similar. Both systems suggest the importance that Cooperative Extension has both historically placed and currently places upon its internal human resources. The Process Values Systems of the two organizations share a value that is inherent in the Cooperative Extension philosophy, i.e., emphasizing educational programs that address current and emerging needs of people. The largest number of similarities between the two organizations' values is within the Product (Program) Values Systems. Again, four of the individual values reflect concepts that are philosophically inherent in Extension's role in the land-grant mission: (a) practical programs, (b) emphasis on excellence in educational programming, (c) high standards of excellence, and (d) expectations that help people address and alleviate needs or problems.

Although the literature and our professional culture may provide insight into the shared beliefs of Extension educators, these beliefs are brought to life and translated into action through our organizational values. Personal satisfaction can only occur when there is congruency between our professional beliefs and the values evident within our work environment. Hitt (1988) believes that harmony between guiding organizational beliefs and daily actions of organizational members has a significant impact on overall performance of an organization. Have you ever listened to students in a marching band tuning up their instruments? It is not a sound we would want to listen to for long. The sound doesn't become music until the director brings the band together in harmony.

Our organizational values also provide a consistent basis for making difficult decisions. In times of fiscal retrenchment and increasing competition for resources, development of exciting yet challenging coalitions, and a need to reach expanded numbers of clientele from extremely diverse backgrounds, our organizational values serve as an important "conceptual yardstick" with which to measure alternative solutions to complex problems and issues.

What can we as Extension educators do to assure that our professional values are in harmony with our actions and those of our leaders and peers? We must first answer the question "what must actually be happening in order to reflect the values?" To help answer that question, an organization can use the concept of critical success factors. Critical success factors are criteria that really make the difference between success and failure, those factors that contribute to congruency between an organization's values and the daily behaviors of its members.

What are the critical success factors necessary to indicate that we "walk our talk" in Extension? Identifying critical success factors helps us move from abstract organizational values to concrete programmatic actions. Using organizational values shared between the North Carolina and Ohio Extension organizations, the authors have translated these values into critical success factors and programmatic action that may have implication for other state Cooperative Extension systems (Appendix A).

As individuals, as members of work groups, and as professionals, our values communicate what we stand for and what is important to us. They provide a solid foundation upon which Extension educators may evaluate the changes and issues facing them. This yardstick will prove invaluable in sifting through the complexities and turbulence that are becoming daily phenomena in the system. When we model our organizational values, and support the Cooperative Extension system in maintaining these values, we are taking an important initial step towards fulfilling our responsibilities as professional Extension educators.

Conklin, N. L., Jones, J. M., & Safrit, R. D. (1991). Ohio Cooperative Extension service organizational values questionnaire. Research instrument for organizational values study. Columbus: Ohio State University, Ohio Cooperative Extension Service.

Hitt, W. D. (1988). The leader-manager: Guidelines for action. Columbus, OH: Battelle.

Jimmerson, R. M. (1989). What values will guide Extension's future? Journal of Extension, XXVII(Fall), 16-18.

Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press.

Safrit, R. D. (1990). Values clarification in the strategic planning process of an adult education organization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh.

Safrit, R. D., Jones, J. M., & Conklin, N. L. (1994, August). Clarifying Ohio State University Extension's organizational values [7612 bytes]. Journal of Extension [On-line serial], 32(2). Available E-mail: almanac@joe.org Message: send joe august 1994 research 3.

Vaill, P. B. (1990). Managing as a performing art. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

NC: Quick response to societal needs.
OH: Quick response to clientele concerns.

CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS
Utilize computer programs, information hot lines, teletips, electronic mail, and computerized kiosks in public areas.

Develop futuring skills in scanning the environment for emerging needs that could be addressed by Extension educational programs.

PROGRAMMATIC ACTION
Establish a programmatic expansion committee to identify new audiences for existing educational program.

NC: Problem-solving emphasis.
OH: Extension programs that help people solve problems.

CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS
Critique workshops and presentations to determine if they include instructional strategies that foster critical thinking.

Strive to be more than just "depositors of information" by incorporating dialogue, questioning, and reflecting into Extension teaching environments.

PROGRAMMATIC ACTION
When presenting research-based information, ask questions to stimulate the audience to apply the information to their own situations and problems.

NC: Pragmatic/practical programs.
OH: Useful/practical programs.

CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS
Place emphasis on developing programs that meet the contemporary critical needs of youth, families, and communities.

Design Extension programs applicable to real life situations. Utilize role plays to simulate real life situations when teaching a farm management program.

PROGRAMMATIC ACTION
Utilize Role plays to simulate real life situations when teaching a farm management program.

Increase input from user groups in planning educational programs.

NC: High standards of excellence.
OH: An emphasis on excellence in educational programming.

CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS
Continuously evaluate Extension programs by involving advisory committees consisting of clients, Extension peers, and business and community leaders.

Ask peers and superiors to observe teaching and provide feedback.

Update Extension programs regularly to incorporate current research findings and technologies.

PROGRAMMATIC ACTION
Update Extension programs regularly to incorporate current research findings and technologies.

Ask an advisory committee to critique a curriculum for a infant care short course.

Conduct impact evaluations of programs to determine not only immediate outcomes but to identify long term behavioral changes.

A National Strategic Plan for Natural Resources
and Environmental Management Education

The complexity of current environmental issues is reflected in the inquiries that Extension specialists across the U.S. receive every day. These questions come from elected officials, business people, homeowners, and farmers, as well as agency personnel at all levels. Questions come from both rural and urban people. They emerge from problem settings such as siting of unwanted waste facilities, overgrazing of public lands, contaminated water supplies, and protection of desirable natural resource amenities such as wetlands and woodlands. Farmers are faced with the challenges of urban encroachment and business owners are faced with the challenge of increasing environmental regulation. The issues are multifaceted and the stakeholders are at all levels of society. Awareness that the environment is a legacy to be left to future generations is high, but the knowledge as to the best way to do that without compromising the needs of current populations is sketchy. The need for a nonbiased, nonregulatory source of current and accurate environmental information has never been greater. And, the natural resource base has never been more important nor more at risk than it is today. The Cooperative Extension System is stepping into the natural resources and environmental management arena with a comprehensive strategic plan to address the issues in depth and with sensitivity to all stakeholders.

Sargent, Lusk, Rivera, and Varela (1991) declare,

     In planning for rural self-reliance, human, animal, and
     plant ecologies are understood as the prime
     interdependent systems.  The rural community is seen as
     the conservator of its own resources, habitat, and
     culture.  Local citizens are directly involved in the
     control of community assets as they plan for the
     retention, enrichment, and equitable use of those
     assets for present and future generations.  (p. 5)

In addition, it is understood that the interface between rural and urban communities can be problematic as urban population needs compete with rural sustainability needs. However, if the environmental ethic is understood and intact in both populations, it can become the bridge that reduces contentious interchange and develops the common goal of sustainable development.

A true understanding of sustainable development takes into account the natural resource base as a foundation for a high-quality of life as well as a resource for economic growth. This perspective is only possible through enhanced understanding of the complexities of the person/environment interface. For natural resources and environmental management, understanding is a function of increased awareness of the costs and benefits of utilization, increased knowledge of the facts related to those tradeoffs, and a commitment to practice changes that support sustainability of a healthy ecosystem as well as a healthy economy. Cooperative Extension's comprehensive strategic plan for natural resources and environmental management incorporates mission, vision, and value statements that clearly articulate a path that is both realistic and reasonable to guide Extension personnel, nationwide, as they respond to questions from their clients.

The Natural Resources and Environmental Management (NREM) Program vision is set in the context of Extension Education programs. It is based on the mission of the Cooperative Extension System and the philosophy of the land-grant system to help people improve their lives through an educational process that uses scientific knowledge focused on issues and needs. Drawing from work already in progress in the field, and being expanded by progressive Extension educators, the NREM strategic plan acknowledges Extension as a premier provider of education to sustain natural resources. It also makes a commitment to provide education to all people, thereby enhancing capacity to make decisions and take actions to improve the quality, productivity, and sustainability of natural resources.

Vision must lead to clearly articulated goals in order to focus resources and efforts effectively. The educational goals for the NREM program are positive and focus on a change in attitude and behaviors on the part of natural resource users. Attitudinal and behavioral change are long term and internal to the individual, assuring positive impact on the environment that is not easily lost due to external changes.

NREM Educational Goals

NREM educational goals are to help:

1. People understand their relationship to the environment.

2. Individuals and communities practice a stewardship ethic.

3. People make informed decisions about NREM issues.

4. People know about practices that sustain natural resources.

5. Learners recognize the importance of meeting human needs without compromising production capability for future generations.

6. Individuals understand and appreciate biodiversity and the significance of all species.

   [Extension Service - United States Department of Agriculture (ES-USDA), 1994, p. 11]

NREM Beliefs

NREM educators believe that education is vital to sustain the long-term health and productivity of our natural resources and that education helps people to:

1. Apply the results of research to natural resource management.

2. Explore, develop, strengthen, and enhance their personal stewardship ethics.

3. Advocate and practice the efficient use of all resources.

4. Seek a balance between rights and responsibilities on both private and public lands.

5. Become informed consumers of natural resource products.

6. Imagine and consider alternatives, make decisions, and create desirable futures.

   (ES-USDA, 1994, p. 7)

NREM Values

NREM educators value:

1. The use of both social and natural sciences in their approach to issues and problems.

2. An emphasis on stewardship and multiple resource values and uses in their educational approach.

3. The meeting of local needs, while remembering that humans are part of a larger world.

4. Honesty and professionalism.

5. Useful and relevant processes and information.

6. The wisdom of seeking a balance between diverse viewpoints.

7. Respect for the dignity of each individual and for the human right to fair treatment.

8. The formation of partnerships whenever more can be accomplished together than alone.

   (ES-USDA, 1994, p. 8)

The strength of the land grant system can best be brought to bear on natural resource issues and environmental problems through an interdisciplinary approach. Collaboration in and of itself reveals the subtleties of the challenge to current populations of protecting the environment for future generations. New techniques to accomplish this goal come not only out of the universities but also from partners in the private and regulatory sectors. The challenges of maintaining environmental health while protecting economic viability are not insurmountable, but this work does require coordinating effort and knowledge about a variety of issues. To begin this dialogue, the Extension system must acknowledge those areas that are critical and clearly state a commitment to working with the relevant stakeholders. In the NREM strategic plan the areas of emphasis are:

1. Air, land, and water quality.

2. Citizen understanding and responsibility for public policy and environmental justice.

3. Conflict management and other social-process skills.

4. Ecologically sensitive approaches to land use.

5. Ecosystem management, biodiversity, and threatened and endangered species protection.

6. Energy alternatives and conservation.

7. Environmental hazards, risks, and liability minimization.

8. Human interaction with natural resources and its impact on ecosystems.

9. Integrated resource management.

10. Pollution prevention and clean up.

11. Solid, hazardous, and animal waste management.

12. Sustainable production and efficient use of goods and services from natural resources.

    (ES-USDA, 1994, p. 9)

Identifying areas of emphasis and problems is often the easy part of natural resource programming. The clear statement of desired results is more difficult to accomplish. Not only is it necessary to identify desirable outcomes but it is also necessary to gain consensus that these outcomes are goals for the communities involved. Examples of model programs and desired outcomes for NREM efforts might be:

1. Adding Value Through Lumber Drying - Lumber producers increase the value of marketable crops and also reduce drying losses and energy consumption.

2. Farm*A*Syst - Farmers assess their land and facilities for environmental hazards and take corrective action to minimize risks.

3. Habitat Evaluation - Youth demonstrate an understanding of wildlife habitat concepts.

4. Integrated Pest Management - People adopt practices to reduce dependence on chemical pest control.

5. Logger Education to Advance Professionalism (LEAP) - Loggers use improved practices to harvest and regenerate forest stands.

6. Master Composter - Trained volunteers teach others to reduce waste through the controlled decay of organic matter.

7. Personal Energy Audits - People assess their levels of energy use, improve the energy efficiency of their built structures, and adopt energy-conserving practices in their home and work settings.

8. Total Ranch Management - Ranchers implement technologies to use ranch resources more effectively.

9. Water Riches - Young people learn about the science and management of water and begin to understand the complex issues of water use and protection.

   (ES-USDA, 1994, p. 12)

Desired NREM program outcomes are wider in scope than individual educational goals and draw upon a comprehensive interdisciplinary curriculum extending far beyond traditional Extension education programs (e.g., teaching people to select among alternative management options). NREM programs provide learners with new knowledge, skills, and attitudes resulting in behaviors that collectively promote wise stewardship of natural resources and the environment (ES-USDA, 1994).

Extension is acknowledging a changing world. Politically, socially, and technologically the customer base is shifting. These changes are not seen as problems or losses, but as opportunities to expand the influence of the national Extension system and to focus our considerable expertise on our natural resource base.

Some of the identified conditions and trends that will affect NREM programming in the future are outlined below and are only the beginning of necessary exploration as this important area is expanded in each state.

Conditions and Trends Affecting NREM

Political and Legislative - Proliferation and changing national and state laws and regulations and local ordinances (e.g., Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Endangered Species Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Coastal Zone Management Act, National Environmental Policy Act, Federal Land Policy and Management Act); political and administration focus on environment and education (e.g., National Environmental Education Act, America 2000); reliance on regulatory versus educational approaches; increased administration and congressional support for the Renewable Resources Extension Act; challenges to private property rights and responsibilities; and increasing citizen interest in government decision making.

Social and Economic - Depletion of landfill space; NIMBY Syndrome ("not in my back yard"); distrust of government; increasing concern for environmental issues; demographic shifts (e.g., geographic, cultural, ethnic, age); limited-resource communities; increasing conflicts over allocation of natural resources; economic restructuring, businesses and communities; increasing regional and off-shore job migration; and growing world population pressures.

Scientific and Technological - Atmospheric changes (e.g., ozone, CO2); global climate change; increasing impacts of natural occurrences and disasters on the human environment; ecosystem management and landscape biology; information explosion and access overload; increasing complexity of issues; biotechnological developments; communications technologies; microsensitivity of chemical and biological assays; and the availability of geographic information systems.

Future Questions

An understanding of the future is necessary if Extension is to project the use of institutional resources and equip staff with the necessary knowledge and understanding to carry out NREM programming. Some of the questions that emerge as Extension explores its role as a committed educator in the natural resources and environmental management area are:

1. What is our capacity?

2. Who are our collaborators?

3. Where are the potential resources?

4. What are our constraints?

5. How should we proceed?

Building a bridge to tomorrow means mobilizing fiscal, human, and knowledge resources. Building a bridge to tomorrow also means building a system-wide commitment on a foundation of diversity and excellence as Extension takes its place as a premier provider of natural resources and environmental management education.

Extension Service - United States Department of Agriculture. (1994). Shaping the future: A strategic plan for natural resources and environmental management education, Cooperative Extension system's base program in NREM. Washington, DC: Author.

Sargent, F. O., Lusk, P., Rivera, J. A., & Varela, M. R. (1991). Environmental planning for sustainable communities. Washington, DC: Island Press.

This article is based in large part on the work of the 17-member NREM Strategic Planning Team co-chaired by John Vance, Deputy Administrator, ES-USDA, and James Debree, Director, University of Wyoming, CES.

Membership in a Professional Association
Influence the Quality of Family Child Care?

For almost a decade, it has been understood that caregivers trained in child development are more likely to plan care based on developmental expectations of appropriate child behavior (Bredekamp, 1987; Jones & Meisels, 1987; Roupp, Travers, Glantz & Coelen, 1979), that child-related education as opposed to total years of education contributes to quality child care (Roupp et al., 1979), and that as a direct result of training, child care practices change (Tittnich, 1986; Snow & Creech, 1986; Vander Ven, 1986). There are limited references to additional personal provider attributes (i.e., age, gender, licensure status) that may contribute to quality of care. Only recently has it been documented that providers who belong to family child care associations offer better overall quality of child care than those who are not active in family child care associations (Galinsky, Howes, Kontos & Shinn, 1994).

Family child care, which is care for children provided in the home of the provider, is the most widely used form of child care outside the immediate family (Hofferth, Brayfield, Deich & Holcomb, 1991). While family child care is a full-time occupational career for many, individuals in this field have been inaccurately stereotyped as providing mere custodial care (Kontos, 1992). With just over 5 million children in family child care (Kahn & Kamerman, 1987), it is apparent that major investments should be made to assure the environments are of highest quality while supporting professional caregiving practices.

Thirty-six family child care providers from northern Virginia were recruited by Extension Home Economists to participate in a child care provider training program. Demographic information about the providers' educational levels, number of years experience as a family child care provider, total years of formal education, extent of child care training, licensure status, and membership in professional associations was collected. Special efforts were made to locate family child care providers who were also members of professional or support organizations. Professional affiliation was defined as membership in a local affiliate of a nationally recognized child care and development organization or as membership in a locally organized family child care association that was part of a state organizational structure.

Family child care providers were paired with University Extension educators, each working with two to four providers. The Extension educator and the provider agreed to a training schedule and method of learning. Then over a three-month period, training was conducted. Some providers were involved exclusively in self-study readings with optional access to videotapes and audiotapes. Other providers received home visits benefitting from conversations with the trainer, resource materials that were delivered and discussed, and subtle demonstrations of appropriate adult-child interactions by the trainer with the children in care.

Changes in the quality of family child care were measured by a pretest and a posttest using the Family Day Care Rating Scale (FDCRS). This comprehensive 32-item scale, designed by Harms and Clifford (1989), was selected because of the cumulative point design, breadth and number of items, descriptive explanation given with each item, and tests of reliability. Ratings using the scale were made by a trained evaluator before and after three months of individualized training. Each evaluator recruited by Extension Home Economists from their communities had a degree in child development and attended a six-hour training program to learn to use the Family Day Care Rating Scale.

At the completion of the three-month training period, 22 providers remained in the program. Nine were members of a professional child care or family child care association, while 13 were not. The remainder of the providers withdrew to find higher paying jobs or because their child care work schedule did not permit them to continue. (Note: This study took place during the time of the Gulf War. Several reasons for withdrawing indirectly related to complications due to the war.) To determine if those who completed the program differed from those who dropped out (and only completed the pre-test), a series of t-tests were conducted using the demographic variables as dependent variables. No significant differences on these variables were discovered between those who completed the study and those who did not. Based on these tests, it was determined that the final group of 22 was representative of the total group (of 36) who began the study.

To assess the independent and combined effects of training and affiliation on the quality of child care, a 2 (time: pretest vs. posttest) x 2 (affiliated vs. not affiliated) ANOVA was computed with time being a repeated measures factor. The results revealed that there was a significant time x affiliation interaction, F(1,18) = 6.23, p<.02. To determine the meaning of the significant interaction, an additional test of simple effects was computed to determine whether each group's FDCRS scores changed significantly over time. The results indicated that the scores of those providers who were not affiliated with a professional organization improved after training, t(12) = 32.68, p<.01, whereas those who were affiliated with a professional organization did not improve after training, t(8) = .12, NS.

After the three-month training period, a ten-item final perceptual evaluation was completed and returned by 87% of the providers. The results from this summary exhibit particularly high ratings for flexible, convenient, individualized training methods. On an open-ended question included on the final perceptual evaluation, 100% of the providers indicated that they were interested in more training programs. However, a more active demonstration of commitment and interest was shown by providers' actions.

Within a month after their involvement in this study, providers in two different counties formed new family day-care provider associations. This raises questions about further connections between training and affiliation. One logical question is: does training create a desire for additional support and affiliation or does affiliation create opportunities and desire to seek additional training?

These results demonstrate that for the providers in this study, the quality of family child care was higher for providers who were members of professional child-related organizations. However, the potential remains that intensive training could raise the quality of care for non-affiliated providers. These findings should be further explored.

These results indicate that training contributes to the quality of family child care primarily for providers who are not already members of professional child-related organizations. The preliminary finding that provider affiliation is related to quality of care should be further explored. The implication of information such as this is considerable. For example, training efforts can be targeted to non-affiliated providers and professional networks can be encouraged to provide initial orientation and a foundation of support to encourage and perhaps even retain new family child care providers while contributing training and networking outlets.

Extension family life and human development specialists regularly deliver training programs to child care providers in communities. Rural areas, in particular, need good training programs and opportunities to join supportive professional groups. Extension, however, must go beyond training and recognize the value of contributing organizational leadership assistance to child care providers.

Extension specialists can provide community-based knowledge to guide core groups of child care providers to start new professional organizations for child care providers. In light of developments in the child care profession towards comprehensive career-based training models, it is imperative that Extension human development specialists join in the promotion of career development plans in their states to promote high quality care while creating mechanisms for professional development in child care.

Extension educators must realize that professional development is an ongoing process. Simply delivering a few training programs will not enhance quality of care. Professional development experiences are most successful when they respond to specific individual needs, background, previous experiences, and contexts of individuals. Involving providers in the training plan and using an active hands-on approach encourages providers to share and learn from one another. Sharing and support are key benefits of provider involvement in their own professional development.

In one rural community in Virginia, the Extension staff provides newsletter contact, home visits to family child care providers, and technical assistance while maintaining a database of providers for the community. They promote professional development by supporting caregivers who have organized a family child care association. Guiding and supporting providers with group organizational techniques while providers independently run their own association takes great care and recognition of the value of empowerment.

Family child care is the choice of care for most parents with children under three (Harms & Clifford, 1989); however, parents and the general public need to understand the value of quality family child care. Further, family child care providers, as a profession, must recognize the critical role they play in communities to build a foundation for early learning and promote family involvement in children's lives. Family child care providers have a wonderful opportunity to interact with parents daily while modeling healthy developmentally appropriate interactions between adults and children. Elevated quality of care and a well-defined understanding of child care as a growing profession can increase professional recognition and visibility through these steps.

Educators concerned with quality child care environments should recognize the developmental levels of the emergent family child care professionals and recognize the contribution of their work. By supporting family child care efforts, the movement to nurture providers will promote professionalism while enhancing quality. An empowered professional front can demonstrate the collective interest in personal development with a clear commitment to children through the profession.

Bredekamp, S. (1987). Developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Galinsky, E., Howes, C., Kontos, S., & Shinn, M. (1994). The study of children in family child care and relative care: Highlights of findings. New York: Work and Families Institute.

Harms, T., & Clifford, R. (1989). Family day care rating scale. New York: Teachers College Press.

Hofferth, S. L., Brayfield, A., Deich, S. G., & Holcomb, P. (1991). The national child care survey 1990. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.

Jones, S. N., & Meisels, S. J. (1987). Training family day care providers to work with special needs children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 7(1), 1-12.

Kahn, M., & Kamerman, S. (1987). Child care: Facing the hard choices. Dover, MA: Auburn House.

Kontos, S. (1992). Family day care: Out of the shadows and into the limelight. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Roupp, R., Travers, T., Glantz, F., & Coelen, C. (1979). Children at the center. Final report of the national day care study (Vol. 1). Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates.

Snow, C. W., & Creech, S. H. (1986). Designing in-service training. In K. Vander Ven & E. Tittnich (Eds.), Competent caregivers competent children (pp. 73-82). New York: Haworth.

Tittnich, E. (1986). Training that takes: Adult learning and adult teaching are the key. In K. Vander Ven & E. Tittnich (Eds.), Competent caregivers competent children (pp. 47-55). New York: Haworth.

Vander Ven, K. (1986). "You've come a long way baby": The evolution and significance of caregiving. In K. Vander Ven & E. Tittnich (Eds.), Competent caregivers competent children (pp. 3-11). New York: Haworth.

This study was conducted in the State of Virginia, however, Karen DeBord is now an Extension State Specialist at the University of Missouri.

Through ES-USDA, a new National Network for Action: Child Care has been funded with one of its objectives to provide child care and development technical assistance through land-grant university Extension systems. Currently, there are 14 state partners involved in designing the delivery of services from the network.

For additional information on becoming a Network for Action: Child Care partner contact Karen DeBord, State Human Development Specialist, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211 or correspond via the Internet to nnccinfo@mes.umn.edu.

Colorado and North Dakota
Strengthening Marriage and Family Programs
Increase Positive Family Functioning Levels

Across the United States, there is a need for research-based educational programs that enhance positive family-functioning levels. Strengthening the family was ranked seventh most critical and urgent of 33 social and economic issues nationwide and first and third statewide in Colorado (Jenson & Warstadt, 1990; Weigel, Fetsch, Jenson, Yang & Rogers, 1992).

Cooperative Extension contributes to our nation by producing research-based educational programs that invite families to identify their strengths and marshal resources so they can meet family members' changing needs. Because strengthening marriages and families was a critical issue in Colorado and North Dakota, the authors provided preventive educational programs (parenting, communication, problem-solving, balancing work and family, stress and time management). Program results were evaluated via increases in positive family-functioning levels.

1. To enhance positive family-functioning levels of voluntary participants (increased self-esteem, family coping, and quality of life levels and decreased stress and depression levels).

2. To report program results using the Cooperative Extension Program Evaluation Survey (CEPES), which provides impact data on several indicators of positive family functioning, i.e., behavioral changes, tax dollars support, and family strain, family coping, quality of life, self-esteem, stress, and depression levels (Fetsch, 1994). Validity coefficients of the three subscales by Hamilton McCubbin are reported elsewhere (Fetsch & Gebeke, 1994).

3. To determine which marriage and family strengthening program had the best results using CEPES (Fetsch, 1994).

Five different educational programs designed to strengthen marriage and family skills and increase family functioning levels were delivered and evaluated by the authors with 13 different audiences (N = 244). The parenting program selected for evaluation in North Dakota was "How to Talk So Kids Will Listen & Listen So Kids Will Talk" (six two-hour weekly sessions in six sites) (Faber & Mazlish, 1990). The single-session programs selected for evaluation in Colorado were: (a) "Adjustment for International Trip and After Returning Home: Communication and Conflict Resolution" (2 hours); (b) "Farming or Ranching with Family Members: Communication and Problem-solving Strategies" (2.5-3 hours); (c) "Stress Management for Foster and Daycare Families" (2 hours); and (d) "Balancing Personal, Work and Family Life" (3-3.5 hours) (two sites) (Fetsch, 1989, 1991a, 1991b, 1992).

The program content of "How to Talk So Kids Will Listen & Listen So Kids Will Talk" included helping children deal with their feelings, engaging cooperation, alternatives to punishment, and encouraging autonomy, praise, and freeing children from playing roles (Faber & Mazlish, 1990). Posttests were mailed to participants three-to-four months following the last session of "How to Talk So Kids Will Listen & Listen So Kids Will Talk" (Faber & Mazlish, 1990). The content of each of the other four coping skill programs was created by the first author to address specific issues of the group requesting the program. Common components were: current family strengths and coping resources assessment, research-based information, practical experiential skill-building, group discussion, planning for future behavioral application of skills learned, and posttest assessment two or five months later.

All participants completed the CEPES pre-test early during the educational program (Fetsch, 1994). During the workshop, participants were instructed on how to score two subtests (family coping-coherence and quality of life). Participants were provided with national norms to learn how their scores compared with those reported by McCubbin, Olson, Lavee, and Patterson (1985), and providing norms for comparison helped to incorporate the self-assessment component into the content of the educational program and to encourage participants to complete and return posttests.

A key question in Extension programming is whether, two to five months later, participants do anything differently for the better as a result of our programs. In all 13 sites, programs resulted in positive behavioral changes. Fifty to 88% of respondents reported making one to three positive behavioral changes, with the best programs for achieving positive behavioral changes being "How to Talk So Kids Will Listen & Listen So Kids Will Talk" (88%) and "Farming or Ranching with Family Members: Communication and Problem-solving Strategies Leader's Guide" (80-81%) (Faber & Mazlish, 1990; Fetsch, 1992).

Because legislators and decision makers want to know why they should continue to fund Cooperative Extension programs, we asked program participants, "Do you want your tax dollars to continue supporting this type of effort?" "Yes," said 73% to 100% of respondents--depending on which group was asked. Programs with the highest percentage favoring continued tax-dollars support were "Farming or Ranching with Family Members: Communication and Problem-solving Strategies" (100%) and "How to Talk So Kids Will Listen & Listen So Kids Will Talk" (97%) (Faber & Mazlish, 1990; Fetsch, 1992).

The program with the best overall results, based on higher-level positive family-functioning improvements with 113 adults in six sites, was the "How to Talk So Kids Will Listen & Listen So Kids Will Talk" parenting program (Faber & Mazlish, 1990). Self-esteem levels of participants increased significantly (p = .003) (Pretest M = 3.35, n = 113; Posttest M = 3.75, n = 75). The other four higher-level indicators of positive family functioning all changed in the desirable direction. This finding suggests a clear pattern of positive changes not found in the single-session programs:

1. Family coping levels increased (p = .062).

2. Quality of life levels rose (p = .157).

3. Stress levels fell (p = .078).

4. Depression levels fell (p = .208).

Participants in all five Cooperative Extension strengthening marriage and family programs reported positive behavioral changes two to five months later (N = 244). Evaluation data on impacts show "How to Talk So Kids Will Listen & Listen So Kids Will Talk" had the best results (Faber & Mazlish, 1990). Clearly, the series with its structured format, which was about six times as long in content and practice as the others, showed positive family-functioning impacts at higher levels of analysis than any of the single-session programs. While the authors were unable to include a no-treatment control group for comparison purposes, the results suggest which program worked best. The results also provide support for the use of the CEPES instrument by Extension faculty.

We must evaluate Extension programs in a manner likely to be respected by the larger scientific community. Program objectives must be clear and measurable; educational programs must be designed to help participants achieve the objectives; and evaluation instruments must be sensitive to program effects and connected to objectives. Finally, if possible, some form of control group, pre- then post-testing, or other form of quasi-experimental assessment is needed (Weiss & Jacobs, 1988). One option is to delay treatment for one-half of the group. By pretesting the wait-list control group twice before entering the program, experimental-control group changes can be compared and more solid conclusions about program results can be made.

Faber, A., & Mazlish, E. (1990). How to talk so kids will listen & listen so kids will talk. New York: Negotiation Institute.

Fetsch, R. J. (1989). Adjustment for international trip and after returning home: Communication and conflict resolution. Unpublished manuscript.

Fetsch, R. J. (1991a). Balancing personal, work and family life. Unpublished manuscript.

Fetsch, R. J. (1991b). Stress management for foster and daycare families. Unpublished manuscript.

Fetsch, R. J. (1992). Farming or ranching with family members: Communication and problem-solving strategies leader's guide. (Available from author, Department of Human Development & Family Studies, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523.)

Fetsch, R. J. (1994). Cooperative Extension program evaluation survey: Pretest & posttest (CEPES). Unpublished surveys available to Extension faculty from author, Department of Human Development & Family Studies, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523.

Fetsch, R. J., & Gebeke, D. (1994, June). A family life program accountability tool [11632 bytes]. Journal of Extension [On- line serial], 32(1). Available E-mail: almanac@joe.org Message: send joe june 1994 feature 6

Jenson, G. O., & Warstadt, T. (1990, July). A ranking of critical issues facing American families (EC 435b). Logan: Utah State University Cooperative Extension.

McCubbin, H. I., Olson, D. H., Lavee, Y., & Patterson, J. M. (1985). The family paradigm album: Family invulnerability test stress, strengths and adaptation. (Available from Family Stress, Coping, and Health Project and Family Wellness Project, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108.)

Weigel, R. R., Fetsch, R. J., Jenson, G. O., Yang, R. K., & Rogers, D. L. (1992). Issues validation: A new environmental scanning technique for family life educators. Family Relations, 41, 251-255.

Weiss, H., & Jacobs, F. (1988). Evaluating family programs. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.

Virtual Communities and University Outreach

While the use of Internet and networked computers are becoming commonplace within universities, the general public, marine industry, and many natural resource agencies lack experience with this communication technology (Pirch, 1993). The lack of computer related equipment and/or skills can disconnect rural clientele from enriching collaboration or information exchanges with universities, agencies, and other sources (Findlay, Zabawa, Morris & Oben, 1993).

Bolstering genuine collaboration and useful information exchanges between clientele, universities, and agencies are critical to Extension's future (Astroth, 1991; Bennett, 1993). This can be accomplished through imaginative applications of current technology. By educating clientele on information technology and mobilizing their use of this in public decision processes, new communication and collaboration frontiers are possible.

This article describes a successful innovation enabling rural Oregon leaders' use of networked computers and worldwide databases through the Internet. This pilot effort reveals ways that networked computers can facilitate communication between diverse audiences and how university extended education can be electronically delivered to participants upon demand.

In 1992, the Oregon legislature created a governor's advisory council for the purpose of drafting policy recommendations to manage Oregon's portion of the nation's territorial sea. Called OPAC (Ocean Policy Advisory Council), its membership includes more than 30 leaders of marine industry, local government, state agencies, Indian tribes, conservation groups, citizens, and the university. To provide for geographic balance, the governor appointed OPAC members from widespread coastal locations and provided a modest operating budget.

Almost immediately, OPAC encountered a challenge preventing timely communication and collaboration by delegates. The disparate location of OPAC delegates spread out over half the state at great distance from each other hindered their work. Steep travel and communication expenses stymied routine interaction and timely information exchanges. Fortunately, Oregon Sea Grant and Cooperative Extension learned of the roadblock in time to provide technology assistance.

Working with Oregon's Coastal Management Program, a computer network called OPACNET was fashioned to bring these marine leaders together across time and distance. Believed to be the nation's first successful "virtual marine community," OPACNET is providing new insights on ways that networked computers can be used for delivering university outreach. It is also demonstrating how this technology can facilitate communications between diverse public and private representatives engaged in public policy development.

A virtual community is a collection of people with mutual interests, communicating through linkages provided by networked computers. Networked computers tied into the Internet, an international web of computers linking more than 20 million users, are often characterized as the "highways of the mind." These communication networks are formed through the integration of computers, telecommunications systems, and database technology (Reinhardt, 1994). This powerful convergence of technology enables network users to interact with each other and quickly retrieve diverse sources of information.

To insure OPACNET success, this virtual community was designed to avoid the five common pitfalls vexing computer novice involvement in sophisticated computer networks. Typical computer network barriers to success include: lack of hardware or software for prospective users; high telephone line charges incurred by distant participants; lack of training to mitigate technophobia; and, lack of on-line technical assistance for users (Dix, 1994).

Although some OPACNET members owned or had access to a computer, most lacked the hardware or modem necessary to become interconnected with others. This obstacle was overcome through hardware loans or donations made by local industry. The Oregon State University (OSU) Extension Service provided modem access to a toll-free WATS telephone line connecting its field offices with the campus, thereby eliminating costly telephone charges to individual OPAC members. Communication software and an electronic mail program (Pegasus) were installed on OPACNET computers at no charge to participants.

An information server located at the university routes OPAC electronic mail messages and draft policy documents between various users. Almanac software (UNIX based) developed at OSU and mounted on this server enables decentralized database activity. The server provides a gateway for OPACNET delegates to make easy connections to the world's libraries through the Internet. All of these factors encourage rural community leaders to browse library databases for relevant marine information. An unanticipated bonus for OPACNET participants is the opportunity to exchange electronic mail messages with White House and congressional staff.

Oregon Sea Grant and the Coastal Management Program collaboratively funded an OSU graduate student to address participant training and assistance. Fortunately, this individual has a professional background in networked computers and is completing graduate work in marine resource management. She provided technical support, inservice training, and a "help desk" function for the project. The graduate student also scanned various marine databases for relevant information and periodically shared relevant articles electronically with OPACNET participants.

A formal evaluation of OPACNET by participants indicated that most were very pleased with their virtual marine community. This is demonstrated by the ten-fold increase in log-in rates during the network's first year. OPACNET'ers found the network's electronic mail capability to be an especially attractive feature for connecting with each other. The flexibility of this communication system is demonstrated by log-ins taking place throughout the 24 hour period of each day. Most OPACNET log-ins take place during 8:00-10:00 a.m. and 2:00-4:00 p.m.

To experiment with the delivery of outreach via the Internet, the Oregon Sea Grant College placed an array of electronic publications on OPACNET. According to users, the most useful information being retrieved electronically included abstracts and bibliographic data for print material being distributed by universities. In considering ways to improve university interaction with networked clientele, OPACNET participants believed that university distribution procedures for printed materials should be modified. They suggested that universities create systems to receive electronic orders for printed publications.

OPACNET users also observed that the process of paying for printed materials could be streamlined by allowing financial transactions to take place electronically through the use of credit cards and/or debit cards. This would set the stage for later electronic distribution and payment for publications distributed internationally by universities.

The OPACNET demonstration indicates citizen readiness to use emerging technology for tapping into university information and developing natural resource public policy. The OPACNET has created a virtual marine community among people who were initially strangers. These friendships have blossomed into working relationships which assisted rural citizens to fashion a sophisticated Territorial Sea Management Plan.

As a direct result of this pilot, 16 other major public universities are asking for assistance in utilizing computerized marine outreach mechanisms. Another Sea Grant college is also exploring the creation of a virtual community based on Oregon's OPACNET model as a way to interconnect their state's coastal leaders.

The creation of virtual communities through the use of Internet technology holds much promise for Cooperative Extension workers. For instance, home study groups of youth or adults can be formed as a virtual community around a topic of interest. The educational materials can then be provided electronically, with participants entering into "virtual discussions." This would allow Extension staff and clientele to interact across space, time, and cultural bounds!

Likewise, agricultural producers with specific interests can be formed by Cooperative Extension into virtual communities around their business focus. Then, an array of Extension and research faculty would be able to convey various pieces of information and respond to questions with and between participants via the Internet. In this way, the producers would gain valuable insights without travelling great distances sometimes through poor weather.

Astroth, K. A. (1991). Getting serious about strategic alliances. Journal of Extension, XXIX(Fall), 8-10.

Bennett, C. (1993). Interdependence models: Overcoming barriers to collaboration with other agencies. Journal of Extension, XXX(Summer), 25.

Dix, J. (1994, January). Teaming with technology. Network World, pp. 8-13.

Findlay, H., Zabawa, R., Morris, C., & Oben, M. (1993). Computer awareness among limited resource farmers. Journal of Extension, XXXI(Spring), 22-23.

Pirch, R. A. (1993). Impact through cooperation and technology. Journal of Extension, XXXI(Spring), 5-6.

Reinhardt, A. (1994, March). Building the data highway. Byte Magazine, pp. 46-74.

Expectations May be Too High
for Changing Diets of Pregnant Teens

Expecting to change the diets of low income pregnant teenagers through less than nine months of nutrition education may be as unrealistic as it is desirable. Instead, we may need to look at other positive changes resulting from nutrition education and hope for dietary changes to follow in the future.

That dietary improvement is desirable for pregnant teens is well documented. Infants born to teenage mothers have a lower chance of survival than infants born to older women, probably due to the high incidence of low birthweight babies born to teens. Maternal weight gain necessary for optimal infant birth weight is greater for teens than for older women (Frisancho, Matos & Flegel, 1983). Yet teens are less likely to gain needed weight during pregnancy. Thus, helping a teen gain more weight may improve chances for infant survival by decreasing incidence of low birthweight infants (American Dietetic Association, 1989).

The University of Georgia Cooperative Extension Service has operated in selected counties a TeenAge Mothers (TAMS) project funded by the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP). The main objectives were to improve the chance of infant survival by:

1. increasing the mother's knowledge of nutrition,

2. leading to an improved maternal diet,

3. thereby increasing weight gain during pregnancy, and

4. decreasing the percentage of low birthweight babies born to teens.

Results from an evaluation of TAMS showed there was a significant increase in knowledge of nutrition. However, this did not lead to a measurable improvement in maternal diet. Should we have expected to see a change in diet or were our expectations for diet improvement too high for this population? Examining the TAMS evaluation provided insights into answering these two questions.

Methods and Results

EFNEP paraprofessionals were trained to recruit and teach groups of pregnant teens using a nine-month curriculum developed for this project. One hundred thirty-four pregnant teens were evaluated the first year (1991) and 304 pregnant teens were evaluated the second year (1992). More than 80% of the teens were African-American and the remaining were white. The median age was 16 years old, with a range from 9 to 21 years old.

A significant improvement was seen in knowledge of nutrition as evidenced by change in pre and post "knowledge" tests (p<.001 using a student's t-test for paired samples). Unfortunately, results from both pre- and post-24 hour diet recalls and pre- and post-food frequencies (used to show improvement in behavior) did not show significant improvements in diet. This indicates that knowledge did not transfer into improved diet behavior or that diet recalls and food frequencies did not capture the diet improvement that was made. Weight gain occurred in spite of the fact that diet recalls did not show improvement in diet, and we were able to verify the importance of weight gain during pregnancy. As expected, the total weight gain of the TAMS teens was positively correlated with birthweight (r = .3, p = .003 for the first year and r = .25, p = .001 for the second year).

Both years TAMS participants had fewer low birthweight babies than expected in all age categories except for the 18 to 19 and 20 to 24 year old categories the second year (see Table 1). The number in the 20 to 24 age category was too small to be representative.

It should not be surprising that increased knowledge of nutrition does not necessarily lead to improvement in diet. Even dietitians (who have studied nutrition more than most) do not always put their knowledge into practice (Vandergraff, Evers & Mayfield, 1992). On the other hand, EFNEP has been successful in improving diet of homemakers in general as evidenced by improved 24 hour diet recalls (Del Tredici, Joy, Omelich & Laughlin, 1988). What is different about pregnant teens? There may be several explanations.

One possibility is that nine months or less of TAMS classes has only accomplished the first step of many steps leading to diet change. Prochaska, Velicer, DiClemente, Guadagnoli, and Rossi (1990) proposed that behavior change progresses through four stages--precontemplation, contemplation, action, and maintenance. It may be that low-income pregnant teens take longer than nine months to move through these stages. As with other Extension programs for youth, the TAMS classes may need to last throughout the teen years to make a difference.

Another possibility is that teens may not have control over what they eat (Schneck, Sideras, Rox & Dupuis, 1990). Parents or other family members may make all the decisions concerning food for the family. Diet changes may not occur until the teen actually shops and prepares her own food.

In addition, diet changes may not occur because the teen does not feel in control, even if she buys and prepares the food. Focus groups with teens have indicated that teens have an external locus of control--they feel that other people are responsible for their eating behavior. Usually the mother or boyfriend plays the monitoring role. This could mean that significant others may need to be involved in a program to facilitate diet changes (Brown, Tharp, McKay, Richardson, Hall, Finnegan & Splett, 1992). To be successful, the TAMS classes may need to include significant others. In addition, the teens may need education in areas such as self-esteem, which may help them make decisions for themselves.

TAMS classes have been able to reach and keep teens as participants, indicating that the material is of interest to this population. As other research has indicated, the benefits of nutrition education might be seen in the long term rather than in an individual pregnancy (Brown, Tharp, McKay, Richardson, Hall, Finnegan & Splett, 1992). Perhaps with TAMS as a drawing card, these teens can continue to be involved in nutrition activities which will eventually lead to improved eating habits for them and their children.

American Dietetic Association. (1989). Nutrition management of adolescent pregnancy. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 89, 104-109.

Brown, J. E., Tharp, T. M., McKay, C., Richardson, S. L., Hall, N. J., Finnegan, Jr., J. R., & Splett, S. L. (1992). Development of a prenatal weight gain intervention program using social marketing methods. Journal of Nutrition Education, 24, 21-28.

Del Tredici, A. M., Joy, A. B., Omelich, C. L., & Laughlin, S. G. (1988). Evaluation study of the California expanded food and nutrition education program: 24-hour food recall data. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 88(2), 185-190.

Frisancho, A. R., Matos, J., & Flegel, P. (1983). Maternal nutrition status and adolescent pregnancy outcome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 38, 739.

Health Assessment Services Unit. (1993). In-house planning data (1988-1992). Atlanta: Georgia Division of Public Health, Georgia Center for Health Statistics.

Prochaska, J. O., Velicer, W. F., DiClemente, C. C., Guadagnoli, E., & Rossi, J. S. (1990). Patterns of change: Dynamic typology applied to smoking cessation. Behavioral Research 26, 83-107.

Schneck, M. E., Sideras, K. S., Rox, R. A., & Dupuis, L. (1990). Low-income pregnant adolescents and their infants: Dietary findings and health outcomes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 90, 555-558.

Vandergraff, D. J., Evers, W. D., & Mayfield, B. J. (1992). Effect of a state dietetic association's weight management program on its members. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 92(92), 865-866.

Change in Safe Food Handling Knowledge and
Practices of 4-H Members

Foodborne illness affects millions of children each year, but is almost 100% preventable (Centers for Disease Control, 1990). To meet the instructional needs of volunteer leaders in assisting youth to decrease their risk of foodborne illness, a curriculum was developed by an inter-departmental research and outreach team at Michigan State University. This food safety education program, Operation RISK, supplies leaders with background information for themselves and activities for use with youth ages 9 to 11 to teach them the what, whys, and hows of safe food handling.

This article summarizes the evaluation that was conducted to determine whether this food safety education program met its objectives to improve safe food handling knowledge and practices of 4-H members. The acceptability of the new materials regarding use and perceived effectiveness was also conducted with members, leaders, and parents and is reported separately (Hammerschmidt, Murphy, Youatt, Sawyer & Andrews, 1994).

Operation RISK uses a detective theme to involve youth in fun-to-solve cases based on typical food-related situations of 9-11 year olds. Curriculum components that were pilot tested with 4-H members and leaders include four lessons, a hypermedia computer game, and two take-home lessons for use with family members. An audiotape and videotape, which are components of the Operation RISK curriculum, were developed after this pilot test project. A leader's guide provides background information, recommendations for conducting the lesson, and suggestions for additional activities to extend and support the lessons.

Surveys were developed to assess member knowledge about safe food handling and safe food handling practices of members. The materials are also suitable for use by teachers in a classroom setting. Operation RISK, in addition to the 4-H pilot, was tested with 413 fourth grade students. These surveys were reviewed for content and construct validity and included in the pilot test materials.

The pilot test materials were mailed to seven leaders who agreed to use the instructional materials with members (n = 54). The surveys were administered before and after implementation of the program to determine the effectiveness of Operation RISK to change safe food handling knowledge and practices of youth. Procedures for leaders to follow in administering the surveys and using the materials were included. Two 4-H clubs (23 members) completed the pretest and posttest surveys, but did not receive any instructions (control group).

The demographic data indicated that participating members were primarily third through fifth graders (mean age = 9.7 years) and included more girls (n = 60) than boys (n = 17). Most members (80%) took a lunch to school at least once per week; 40% usually took a lunch from home five days per week. Of the students that took a lunch to school, 44% packed a lunch themselves. Although 70% of participants reported they were with a care provider/parent after school, 85% prepare their own after-school snack. These findings indicate that youth are involved with food preparation and, therefore, need to know how and why to safely pack a lunch or prepare a snack to reduce personal risk of foodborne illness.

Change in Food Handling Knowledge

The results of the knowledge assessment indicated a need for improvement in food handling information of members. Before program initiation (pretest), members were not knowledgeable (mean score of <70%) about: how or why to wash hands, why cold foods needed to be kept cold, how foods packed in a lunch could be kept cold, or how to identify unsafe foods. Posttest survey results showed significant change in the knowledge of members in all these areas except about why cold foods need to be kept cold. Statistically significant change was also noted in areas which members were already knowledgeable about (had high pretest scores) before participating in Operation RISK. These included identification of safe foods, why food that falls on the floor is unsafe to eat unless it is washed, and why a food that might be unsafe to eat should not be tasted. No significant change in scores on any items, or for the knowledge survey as a whole, resulted for the control group.

Change in Food Handling Practices

Self-reported practices of members before they received safe food handling instruction indicated that only about 1/3 washed their hands "every time" before packing a lunch; 41% washed them each time before eating at school. Handwashing practices were better at home, yet only 48% reported that they wash hands "every time" before eating at home. Some change was reported in frequency of washing hands every time before eating at school (2%) or at home (8%), but no improvement in washing hands before packing a lunch was reported.

Besides infrequent handwashing, other food handling practices of members were inconsistent with food safety recommendations: 70% reported not using a freezer pack every time it is needed, 32% eat leftover foods from an unrefrigerated lunch, 97% eat unwashed fruit, 40% do not throw away unsafe food, 30% eat food that has fallen on the floor without washing it first, and 22% taste food that might be unsafe. Some positive change resulted in these food handling practices, decreasing the gap between what students should do and reported doing. For example, on the posttest, more students reported that they use a freezer pack in a packed lunch (12% more), never taste a food that might be unsafe (8% more), never consume leftover meat, eggs, or dairy foods from an unrefrigerated lunch (6% more), or throw away unsafe food (22% more).

This research indicates that 4-H members were not knowledgeable about basic food handling principles (handwashing, how and why to keep food safe, and how to evaluate the safety of food) before instruction, but that significant improvement occurred (p<.0001) after participating in Operation RISK.

Food handling practices of members before involvement in this program were inappropriate and put them at risk for foodborne illness. Improvement in many practices was reported following instruction. However, infrequent handwashing (before packing a lunch, before eating at school or home) and tasting food that might be unsafe (such as unrefrigerated food left from lunch, unwashed fruit, and food that fell on the floor) still were reported to occur and could cause illness.

4-H leaders have the opportunity to help reduce the risk of foodborne illness in children. First, they can use accurate and "fun" materials to teach youth how they can ensure their own health by implementing safe food handling practices within daily eating situations. Second, they can reinforce information taught by modelling appropriate practices such as proper handwashing every time before preparing, serving, or eating food. Additionally, because food preparation and/or consumption is often a part of the meetings, leaders can provide the opportunity and support for members to "try out" proper food handling practices learned in the instructional part of the meeting. In these ways, leaders can join other health educators to help youth learn and apply safe food handling recommendations with the potential benefit of reducing the incidence of foodborne illness in this high-risk population.

Centers for Disease Control. (1990). CDC surveillance summaries (Vol. 39, No. SS-1). Atlanta, GA: Author.

Hammerschmidt, P., Murphy, A., Youatt, J., Sawyer, C., & Andrews, S. (1994, October). Evaluating curriculum effectiveness by asking the users [7246 bytes]. Journal of Extension [On-line serial], 32(3). Available E-mail: almanac@joe.org Message: send joe october 1994 ideas 4

Inquiries about this curriculum and surveys can be directed to the first author. This project received support from the USDA (Special Project No. 91-ESFQ-1-4009).

Leadership and Managerial Skills of County Commissioners

The need for effective governance systems has never been greater. Actions by federal and state governments have shifted responsibility for many programs and services to the local level, with local officials being required to make decisions having significant political, social and economic consequences. In Ohio, 12,126 men and women held county, township, and municipal government positions in 1988 (Boothe, 1990). These positions include commissioners, mayors, trustees, auditors, treasurers, and other elected and appointed department heads. Leadership and managerial skills are essential qualities for elected and appointed department heads. Several agencies provide general training for their leaders after they have been in office for a time. Little evidence is available regarding new and emerging elected leaders in small and mid-size communities having access to personal assessment of their public administration and leadership skills (Boothe, 1990).

Turnover is high among elected officials, with nearly 20% of Ohio's elected officials being replaced biennially (Boothe, 1990). Dr. Cornelia Flora (1988), of the Kansas Rural Development Center, has suggested that one characteristic of strong, innovative rural communities is flexible, dispersed leadership. Both high turnover and the need for broad-based public policy leadership point to the growing demand for better preparation of public decision makers.

Local officials, most of whom are part-time volunteers in service to their communities, often find themselves overwhelmed at the number and scope of decisions they must make and the criticism expressed by their constituency. A complaint about public life is that when well motivated individuals leave their comfortable private-sector occupations to take on elected or appointed offices they often find themselves in hopelessly frustrating bureaucratic situations, strangled by red tape and thwarted by poorly designed public processes (Gardner, 1990). Gardner's assessment is probably even more true for those officials in rural areas who face particularly difficult challenges and who have little access to professional advice and expertise. These citizen-leaders must provide an integrated package of programs and services, manage the funds to pay for them, and face the pressures of eliminating some popular programs because local funds are insufficient to support them. Information to make these decisions is not always available and the expertise local officials bring to public office is not always sufficient to do the job (Community Information and Education Service, 1987).

Because of this lack of professional advice, information, and expertise for rural counties, Ohio State University Extension created an assessment center to help current and aspiring county commissioners in identifying their current managerial capabilities and training needs. The assessment center provides a confidential, safe environment for the analysis of job related skills and is composed of eight different exercises which enable participants to demonstrate their abilities on 15 job related dimensions. The 15 dimensions were based on a competency profile of rural Ohio county commissioners developed in February, 1991. The 15 dimensions were: oral communications, written communications, leadership, initiative, planning/organizing, decision making/judgment, development of coworkers, behavioral flexibility, organizational sensitivity, assertiveness, objectivity, perception, sensitivity, management control, and collaborativeness.

Three sets of data were collected in this study. The first data set consisted of performance ratings on the 15 dimensions of the assessment center of each participating county commissioner (N = 16). Assessors observed the commissioners over a two day period as they participated in eight activities to measure their leadership and managerial skills. Activities the commissioners participated in were: background interview, group discussion (assigned roles), group discussion (non-assigned roles), inbasket, interview simulation, fact finding, case study, and press conference. Each commissioner was assigned a lead assessor that compiled a final rating based on a five point Likert-type scale, on each of the 15 dimensions (N = 6). The second data set was collected from county Extension chairs representing the counties of the commissioners who participated in the assessment inventory. A questionnaire soliciting respondents' perceptions of leadership and managerial skills as related to the 15 dimensions was mailed to county Extension chairs. The chairs also rated the commissioners on a five point Likert-type scale. The third data set consisted of assessment center post- evaluations completed by the county commissioners. After completing the two day assessment center process, the commissioners completed a self-evaluation and rated themselves on 15 assessment inventory dimensions. Responses were obtained from 12 of the 16 county commissioners.

Assessors' perceptions of county commissioners' performance in the assessment center ranged in mean scores from 3.348 to 3.813 (Table 1). According to the assessors' ratings, commissioners performed highest on the organizational sensitivity (3.8), assertiveness (3.8), and objectivity (3.8) dimensions. Their lowest mean scores were on the written communications (3.35), perception (3.56), and leadership (3.51) dimensions. As a group, the commissioners' performance was above average in the activities measuring leadership, written communications (3.35), perception (3.56) and leadership (3.51). As a group, the commissioners' performance was above average in the activities measuring leadership, written communication, and perception. They were rated very good on organizational sensitivity, assertiveness, and objectivity.

The assessors' ratings were based on what they observed during the simulation activities of the assessment center. It should be noted that the behavior in one exercise could have influenced the individual dimension ratings. Assessors may have rated the performance of commissioners based on their own idea of what a good manager is. Their ideas may not be appropriate for the job of a county commissioner.

The assessors rated the commissioners well above average, with the majority being rated very good. One explanation is that commissioners who participated in the assessment center are considered "top" commissioners in the state. These individuals participate in training programs to better their performance, and therefore received the high ratings.

Mean scores for the county commissioners self-perceptions ranged from 3.000 to 3.833 (Table 1).

The commissioners did not tend to rate themselves below the average. However, they did score themselves lower than the group of assessors and county chairs. The commissioners' scores indicated that they felt their highest performance was on the sensitivity (3.8), collaborativeness (3.75), and planning and organizing (3.67) dimensions. Their lowest ratings were on the management control (3.0), written communication (3.17), and assertiveness (3.17) dimensions.

While the commissioners did not score themselves below average, they did perceive themselves to be only slightly above average. Note that the self-assessment was taken following their participation in the assessment center, which may have influenced their ratings. They may have realized that what they thought were their strong points could need further development. Additionally, the assessment took place over a two-day period. Measurement of the commissioners leadership and managerial skills may not necessarily indicate how they would perform over time and under stress.

The county Extension chairs rated the county commissioners higher than the other two groups. Mean scores ranged from 3.313 to 4.375 (Table 1). The county chairs perceive the commissioners to perform highest in oral communication (4.38), leadership (4.25), and assertiveness (4.25) and lowest on behavioral flexibility (3.3), development of coworkers (3.38), and sensitivity (3.53). It could be interpreted by the authors that the county chairs typically are in contact and interact with the commissioners on a one-to-one basis. This may explain the highest rating for oral communication. Lower ratings in behavioral flexibility and development of coworkers could be explained by the fact that these county chairs may not clearly understand the dimensions or that they may not see the commissioners in all these dimension roles. The county Extension chairs probably rated the commissioners according to their perception of the commissioners' performance on a daily basis. Their ratings were probably based on how they see the commissioners actually performing on the job.

Ratings by the chairs suggests that the commissioners perform better in "real life" than they did in the assessment process and that others believe them to be higher performers than they believe themselves to be. One limiting factor may be that some of the commissioners were made aware of the assessment center opportunity by the county Extension chairs in their county and may explain the high ranking in leadership. The county chairs may have felt that their commissioners were good leaders and would be good candidates for the assessment center.

Significant differences were among the groups on four of the 15 dimensions. The county Extension chairs/county commissioners and county Extension chairs/assessors differed significantly on the oral communication and leadership dimensions. The assessors/county commissioners and county commissioners/county Extension chairs groups differed significantly on the assertiveness and management control dimensions. County Extension chairs rated the county commissioners much higher than the assessors or the county commissioners rated themselves.

The assessment center serves as a basis for evaluating participating commissioners. Currently, the only evaluation they receive is the vote of their constituents. If they are not elected or re-elected, they can only assume it was due to poor performance. Having experienced the assessment center and upon review of self, assessor, and Extension chair assessments, the commissioners can recognize their strengths and weaknesses and overall potential for self-development. The benefits to the participants might also include a better understanding of what a commissioner does and the qualities needed to be successful. The assessment center ratings provide information to plan a personal development program.

The results of this study helped to identify the strengths and weaknesses of county commissioners' leadership and managerial skills and provide a basis for planning personal opportunities. In addition, the assessment center aids in providing a liaison between Ohio State University Extension and county commissioners by providing research based information.

Boothe, D. (1990). Project Excel. Unpublished manuscript, The Ohio State University Extension.

Community Information and Education Service. (1986). Annual report. Champagne: University of Illinois.

Flora, C., & Flora, J. (1988). The future of rural communities in the great plains (RRA Alert No. 2). Manhattan: Kansas State Cooperative Extension Service.

Gardner, J. W. (1990). On leadership. New York: Free Press.

4-H on the Internet

The 4-H program has had a distinguished tradition of experiential educational practice. This learning methodology was employed in a pilot project to place 4-H educational materials on the Internet and make these educational materials available to anyone who has an Internet connection, even if it is just by e-mail. Technical barriers were encountered and corrected as the pilot project's team "learned by doing." The project advanced the technology field by embedding visuals in educational text and making these available over Almanac, Gopher, and ftp information servers to a variety of different computer systems.

Visuals in the form of graphs, charts, line drawings, or photographs are necessary in educational material to convey specific concepts. This was accomplished by embedding graphic files within word processing files. This pioneering endeavor also opened the door for 4-H members to keep computerized accounts of 4-H achievements as well as animal and/or crop performance records.

This joint experimental project was conducted between the University of California Cooperative Extension and the State 4-H Program at the University of Tennessee--Agriculture Extension Service to test the limits of electronic technology in disseminating research information to the public. Tennessee team members provided the educational materials, while California team members converted the 4-H printed materials to electronic format, coordinated editing and updating of the material, and provided the technical services necessary to make the material accessible on the Internet.

The 4-H project materials were developed by Extension subject-matter specialists at the University of Tennessee-- Knoxville and Tennessee State University, based on research knowledge. Tennessee and California Extension subject-matter specialists volunteered their time and knowledge to assist young people by serving as subject-matter contacts. Their e-mail and university addresses are listed in the individual project manuals for follow-up contacts and/or additional information. There are presently over 185 projects in 22 subject areas from beef to wildlife.

An Extension professional or school teacher in Oklahoma, Calgary, Sidney, or Timbuktu can receive the materials from the Internet. If they have a postscript printer, they can print the material. With the aid of a computer word processing program, portions can be extracted to use in educational presentations.

There have been requests for these educational materials from places and organizations such as San Jose, Costa Rica; Wellington, New Zealand; the Peace Corp; and the Ministry of Research, Science, and Technology to assist learning of basic agriculture and family resource information.

The 4-H educational materials are accessible through the Internet's information delivery system by way of the University of California--Davis Almanac, Gopher, or ftp server. The 4-H projects are available in postscript format or as MS-DOS self- extracting WordPerfect 5.1 files. Instructions on how to access these files can be requested by sending an e-mail message to: . In the body of the message enter: send extension 4H-youth catalog.

This pilot project exemplifies the benefits of using electronic technologies to capitalize on existing cooperation between institutions and then, in turn, maximizing the outreach potential.

A Waste Management Needs Assessment of
Oregon County Extension Offices

Environmental issues now affect almost all Americans. In Oregon, for example, the Umatilla Army Depot and the Hanford Nuclear facility have been designated Superfund sites by the EPA. Solid waste from many American cities are being shipped across state lines to huge rural landfills. Yet, many rural communities are facing the closure of their landfills. The USDA Cooperative Extension Service, with its mission deeply rooted in improving the quality of life for American citizens, seems the ideal agency to help provide information and education on local waste management.

In July 1992, a survey was undertaken to measure the perceptions of local Extension faculty in Oregon regarding the role of the Oregon State University (OSU) Extension Service in waste management education. A pilot survey was sent to four agents and specialists who would not be involved in the final survey. In December 1992, the survey was edited and sent to 36 local Extension faculty in Oregon. Two follow-up telephone calls were made to each survey contact in January 1993 to encourage them to return their surveys. Twenty-seven surveys (75%) were returned by the end of January 1993.

The results of the survey show that waste management programs are perceived by county faculty to be of medium to urgent need. However, they felt waste management education is a medium to low priority compared with other educational program needs. Oregon county faculty indicated clientele are aware and interested, but sometimes have difficulty finally adopting waste management practices. Recycling and household hazardous wastes were the two areas described by agents where citizens are in the most need of education and information.

Sixty-seven percent of responding county faculty had current waste management education programs in their jurisdiction being conducted by agencies other than the OSU Extension Service. Indications are that Oregon has many agencies conducting waste management education programs. This suggests that the best role for Extension in Oregon is as an interagency member or coordinator rather than that of providing the resources without help from other agencies.

The preferred delivery methods, according to the survey results, are the more informal methods such as fact sheets or videocassettes. Indeed, county faculty are already short of time and spread too thin in current program commitments. Survey respondents not generally in favor of taking on waste management education programs tended to prefer many of the ready-to-use educational methods, such as fact sheets and videos.

Oregon Extension agents indicated an interest in waste management education programs, but are reluctant to commit to another educational project. In any case, county Extension faculty would prefer ready-to-use waste management education materials and methods such as fact sheets. They also indicated that other agencies are and should continue to be involved in waste management education programs. Faculty indicated waste management information should not be delivered to a specific group, but through mass media to the general public. Currently, funding sources are being investigated to develop fact sheets and other ready-to-use materials based on the responses to the needs assessment. The survey was easy to administer and summarize, and I would highly recommend this type of tool be used in any situation where new subject matter areas are being integrated into Extension programs.

The Active Learning Center at State Fair

Mention state fairs and 4-H livestock competition is one of the first things that comes to mind. The excitement of the setting, replete with stimuli for all the senses, provides an entertaining learning environment for both youth and adults. Many families have a tradition of attending the state fair. However, there are large numbers of youth who have never had the chance to experience a state fair.

Beginning in 1990, the Iowa Youth and 4-H program initiated a set of activities that built on the excitement of the state fair setting. These activities allowed urban children and those not involved with 4-H, as well as families without a fair-going tradition, to be a part of the learning process. A paid summer assistant, with the help of volunteers, set up an Active Learning Center, located in the 4-H Exhibits Building, with satellite sites for several of the activities. Both individual and cooperative learning experiences were offered. The topics included swine, sheep, art, food and nutrition, wildlife, safety, communications, and pets. Some of the activities were targeted for 10 to 14 year olds and some for six to nine year olds.

In "Pigs on Parade" and "Sheep and Ewe," 4-H project members were grouped with youth who had little or no experience with animals. One youth from each small group was the resident expert at each station who taught the others. After completing all of the stations, each small group went to the show ring and practiced showing an animal. A judge gave each participant suggestions for showing the animals, as well as some background about the industry.

Individual activities were designed for children to complete in 10-15 minutes. In the art activity, for example, participants were able to choose from activities such as folding origami puppets, weaving friendship sticks, creating leaf rubbings, or making painted leaf prints. Parents of six to nine year olds were invited to stay with their children, or they could walk around and view the exhibits in the 4-H Building.

The individual activities drew people who were just passing through the 4-H Exhibits Building; the group activities were by advance registration. Summer programs and central Iowa day care programs were a source of groups for the learning activities. Because these children were brought by adults other than parents, a flyer explaining the 4-H state fair program was sent home with each child.

Volunteers were an important part of the Active Learning Center. Most of the volunteers were senior 4-H members who were interested in the particular topic. Working at the state fair provided an opportunity for them to develop communication and leadership skills. For example, the volunteers working with the "informasaurus" participants helped them plan, create, and edit a radio broadcast.

Extension reaped benefits from the State Fair Active Learning Center. First, a large, non-traditional audience was reached at a young age. Many of the children had no previous contact with 4-H or other Extension youth programming. In 1991, an evaluation of the program found that 1,330 children had completed activities at the center. Sixty youth and 20 adults volunteered and evaluated the program highly, as did the young participants. In the communications groups of 34 members, 28 strongly agreed they had learned something new about radio communications. Nineteen of the 27 participants in the "Sheep and Ewe" project strongly agreed that they had learned something new.

The State Fair has traditionally emphasized competitive livestock events, and such events have been an interesting way for 4-H youth to learn both content and social skills. The Active Learning Center is a way to reach non-traditional audiences. It emphasizes cooperation rather than competition and capitalizes on the fun and excitement that is part of all fairs.

This is to acknowledge The Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa, Project No. 2895, Journal Paper No. J 15688.

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