Volume 33 Number 2
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April 1995 Volume 33 Number 2 |
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Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors:
Kathryn R. Treat, President, New Mexico, Epsilon Sigma Phi Editorial Committee:
Joyce Alves, Arizona Cooperative Extension: Its People At Risk
Bonnie Braun, Ph.D., C.H.E. Since the mid 1980's, the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) has explored alternative futures and taken steps to reinvent, redesign, and re-engineer itself. The wake up call which moved CES toward "New Directions" came from a threatened federal budget. CES initiated efforts to become a more viable, relevant organization for the rest of the century and beyond (Extension Service-United States Department of Agriculture&Extension Committee on Policy to the Cooperative Extension Service, 1989). The need for this self-examination and re-creation is documented in the report of the Futures Task Force appointed by ECOP (Futures Task Force to the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy, 1987). The need for renewal continued into the early 1990s as evidenced by the late l992 nationwide "Listening Post" exercise and a panel discussion via satellite broadcast followed by the National Leadership Round Table held in 1993. Participants considered the challenges and concerns of the past and present, then prepared recommendations for the future (M. Geasler&R. Fowler, personal communication, August 23, 1993). With reorganization occurring at USDA and among many of the state land-grant universities, it is clear from the comments gleaned during these activities, that change is constant--and unsettling. The constancy of change and the accompanying unsettling effect on people is causing distress throughout the system, as the impact of change is felt personally and professionally. Agent, specialist, and administrative faculty and volunteer staff are "at risk" of not becoming all they can be. They are "at risk" of not becoming the kind of staff identified by the ES-ECOP Strategic Planning Council (SPC) which cited the importance of employees to maintaining a dynamic organization. In the March 1991 publication, "Patterns of Change," the SPC called for the system to include: "...faculty and staff who are sensitive, creative, flexible, forward looking, risk taking, and professionally competent to serve a diverse clientele who relate to the issue identified; and who appreciate and recognize the valuable contributions of volunteers" (Strategic Planning Council, 1991, p. ii). "At risk" staff exhibit any or all of the following:
If CES is to become the kind of system continually valued by people for helping them solve the persistent problems of life, then it must turn inward and address its own health. In short, it must heal itself. CES must dissolve the fragmentation and reconstitute a whole--an entity fully capable of surviving changing economic, social, political, and technological conditions. The attainment of such a state of well being was the driving force behind a group of people who gathered together over a two year period to discuss the challenge of change and possible responses. The group (Appendix A), using its own resources, met to explore common concerns and to seek a common vision. From our discussions emerged various hypotheses and beliefs which we offer via this article for further exploration and testing for validity. The group members came together because of the work of Dr. Chuck Lofy, a consultant in organizational change, who began to work with various state Extension systems in the late 1980s. All were turning to him as they recognized the indicators of ill- health in their organizations. In some states, Dr. Lofy worked intensively to help the leaders locate causes of their troubles. In so doing, Dr. Lofy began to identify some commonalities and possible solutions. He also found people who sincerely wanted to make a difference--to lead--but who were at a loss for what to do. With his extensive experience in change, Dr. Lofy generously gave of his time and money to guide the group through our explorations. During the course of our dialogue, we explored current research and literature about organizational change, transition, and transformation. We came to the conclusion that CES is undergoing all three simultaneously. We also began to understand that transformation is a necessary step for solving the complex nature of problems facing both the system and the people the system is commissioned to serve. Within CES, a profound paradigm shift about the nature, purpose, functions, structures, clients, and funding of the system is occurring. Some individuals within the system are personally transforming. Indicators of this phenomenon can be found in the language contained in the documents cited in the opening paragraphs of this paper, as well as in the speeches and writings of leaders of the organization. Yet, collectively, there remains little understanding of the concept or process of transformation, much less an ability to incorporate into professional practice. In fact, the gap between what was and what is, generated by transformation, leaves individuals, who are not themselves transforming, lost and bewildered. The impact is profound. The impact disempowers individuals to be all they can be. It prevents staff from becoming the kind identified in the "Patterns of Change" document. By virtue of an implicit agreement, an organization has an obligation to its employees to help them through the changes that occur as a result of its own transformation. The reciprocity between individual and organization lies in the exchange of human time, energy, and talent for financial and other currency. Both give; both receive (Adams, 1986). If CES is indeed going through transformation, it owes the employees and volunteers within mechanisms for dealing with the occurring shifts. CES has an obligation to help its people increase their consciousness--to transform themselves or exit with dignity. And to its credit, through ES (now CSREES) and ECOP, some actions are occurring. In l993, a self-instructional guide was created by CES professionals and their university colleagues with assistance from people in private industry to help CES staff accommodate, facilitate, manage, and evaluate change. The manual and audio tape are entitled "Meeting Change in the 21st Century" and are available at cost from Cornell Cooperative Extension. Another attempt to help was the national "Human Resource Management Forum" held in March, 1994 by the Personnel and Organizational Development Committee of ECOP. These efforts are heartening to those of us who met privately to explore common concerns about the future of the system we want to see remain viable and relevant--an organization in which we can continue to practice our educational and administrative arts. The timing seems right to share a portion of our thinking with the readers of the Journal. We sincerely believe that learning organizations, like CES can, and should be, self-empowered to collaboratively bring about change. Effective collaboration is brought about using the "dialogue" approach recommended by Senge in "The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization" (Senge, 1990). Dialogue can occur between individuals, small and large groups, and via the writer-reader relationship. Thus, we offer our proposition, produced via dialogue, that the people of CES are "at risk." We hope that readers will ponder the situation presented and dialogue with concerned others, and collectively find ways to reduce risk and increase the likelihood that CES can be sustained well into the coming century. References Extension Service-United States Department of Agriculture&Extension Committee on Policy to the Cooperative Extension Service. (l989). New directions for a new decade. Washington, DC: Author. Futures Task Force to the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy. (l987). Extension in transition: bridging the gap between vision and reality. Blacksburg: Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. Strategic Planning Council. (l991). Patterns of change: A report of the Cooperative Extension System strategic planning council. Washington, DC: Extension Service&Extension Committee on Policy. Adams, J. D. (Ed.) (l986). Transforming leadership from vision to results. Alexandria, VA: Miles River. Senge, P. M. (l990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday. Appendix A
List of Group Members
Eddie Amend, Retiree, University of Wyoming
Everybody Wins: Involving Youth in Community Needs Assessment
Glenn D. Israel
Thomas W. Ilvento
"If we could just, like, get a group together... maybe
we could get more done."
-Student, Immokalee, Florida
Few communities build a foundation for their young people to develop into involved citizens. Such a foundation would foster leadership skills and positive relationships between people, young and old. Involving young people in community affairs can forge new bonds between students, teachers, and citizens, while helping to solve community problems. Through community involvement, youth can increase their understanding of and commitment to their community, and can become empowered to work toward solving local problems. Youth can be an important part of community efforts to respond to longstanding problems and emerging needs. A strategy for integrating community service learning with community development is presented in this article. The strategy builds upon two methods of rural development: conducting a needs assessment survey, and incorporating public schools in the development process. Further, this strategy produces a valid needs assessment survey which keeps costs low and involvement of local people high. It also gives students an opportunity to have classroom and experiential learning about community development and needs assessment and helps students to get involved in their community while providing a valuable service. In rural communities where needs assessment, particularly statistical surveys, can be expensive and complicated, this approach can be effective. This model can also build a strong school and community partnership. This strategy has been tested in Kentucky and Florida and results of the Florida experience are highlighted below. Two Approaches to Development Needs Assessment Needs assessment has long been an important community development tool, but it is often expensive to undertake. Needs assessment can identify unmet needs in the community, provide evidence of support for policy options, and increase public involvement in policy making. If done well, needs assessment is both a process and a method. As a process, it can build leadership, group cohesion, and a sense of local involvement in the community. Some types of needs assessment, such as surveys and focus groups, provide participants a vehicle for expressing their opinions on community issues. As a method, needs assessment is a tool that helps a community plan for and implement strategies in areas as diverse as crime watch programs, business expansion efforts, and youth recreation. The survey is one of the more popular approaches to needs assessment. While surveys can provide excellent information for needs assessment, surveys need expertise, time, and resources to be accurate and relevant. A sample of 500 residents could cost $10,000 from a reputable survey company or university survey center--a cost beyond the reach of a small community or a nonprofit community group. What's more, if a community did have the resources to contract for a survey, residents may be involved only superficially in the project. Experience shows that local groups must be committed to using the survey, or else the results are relegated to sit on a shelf in someone's office. When local people conduct a survey, they become committed to using the results. Many community groups lack the money to hire professional survey centers to conduct a survey or a consultant to provide technical support. However, these community groups could benefit from the information of a survey. The problem becomes one of trying to generate a local community survey that is (a) useful and relevant, (b) scientifically valid, and (c) affordable. Many locally-initiated attempts in surveys have fallen short on one or more of these criteria. Community Service Learning Many researchers and policy makers have suggested that public schools, particularly rural schools, need to be more involved in community affairs in general, and in community development activities in particular. They argue that public schools are a valuable community resource that, in terms of development activities, have been largely untapped. Schools are often the major employer in rural areas, with a large number of college graduates who have specific skills of communication, leadership, mathematics, and social studies. Further, the school facilities can house public meetings and work areas during evening and summer hours. Finally, development projects involving public schools provide excellent educational opportunities for students. Effective leadership and citizenship requires that people understand their community and its place in the larger society (Hobbs, 1989). Thus, community service learning is one way to provide students with knowledge and experiences that are fundamental to citizenship. Service learning works to increase the relevance of classroom activities through "learning by doing" (Silcox, 1991). Much like practicums, on-the-job training, and internships, community service learning seeks to provide an educational experience that is tied to the "real world." Students can learn more about their community and their role as citizens through service projects. Service learning projects have included school based businesses, class projects to improve the community, research projects on issues or historical perspectives, and school curriculums sensitive to community needs. Many community service projects generally result in individual, voluntary efforts with local service agencies. However, they do not build effective community leadership because they lack a framework to integrate this service into aspects of community, community development, and local policy making. They also lack group decision-making, problem solving, and collaboration, leaving the experiences as isolated, individual actions (Boyte, 1991). Those advocating community service programs argue that projects should increase teamwork among students, teachers, and community members (Silcox, 1991); foster the ability to contribute in a democratic society (McPherson, 1991); and empower students (Boyte, 1991). To do this relationships between youth and adults must shift from youth being passive recipients to being active members of a team which decides on and carries out programs (Kurth-Schai, 1988). The Marriage of Needs Assessment and Service Learning A model is suggested that integrates community service learning with a community needs assessment project, each building upon the other. By involving the local schools in the survey, some of the problems of conducting a legitimate needs assessment can be addressed. The high school (and its students) offer labor, expertise in computers (and possibly statistics), potential respondents (in the case of a student survey), and a location to conduct the survey. At the same time, student involvement in a community needs assessment project can provide an opportunity for students to actively participate in a community-based project while learning about community development and strategies of community needs assessment. Students can play key roles in making decisions about how the project is designed, implemented, and utilized while working with community leaders and groups. The key to success in terms of building leadership and collaboration skills is to structure the needs assessment so that:
The challenge is one of addressing most of the issues of scientific rigor for the needs assessment while maximizing involvement, participation, and implementation of students and other local groups. Implementing the Needs Assessment: A Florida Example A needs assessment project in Immokalee, Florida, was initiated by a small group of local leaders. They wanted to obtain information from residents before committing their limited resources to any specific project. The County Extension Director consulted with a state Extension specialist and began a process of developing a partnership among local leaders, the high school, Extension, and other organizations needed to support the project. The focus of the partnership was two-fold: to generate information for community leaders' decision-making and to supply high school students with enhanced educational experiences. Several local leaders played key roles in obtaining the interest and cooperation of high school administrators and, later, in supporting the students' efforts. A local telephone company donated 10 phones to facilitate the interviews. After meeting with the County Extension Director and high school principal in late 1991, a social studies teacher decided to have two classes of seniors and juniors participate in the project. A few students from outside these classes volunteered. Nearly 60 students participated. The students participated in a series of activities, including a question writing and questionnaire design workshop, which were created to provide them with the chance to make significant contributions. The questions written by the students were combined with those of community leaders in developing the survey. Students also developed materials to promote citizen participation for the survey, including the slogan, "Don't Hang Up On Immokalee," for use in the media. The students participated in interviewer training sessions and conducted interviews. A total of 434 interviews were completed. Students completed 287 interviews and Extension program assistants completed the remaining 147 interviews. Adult supervisors monitored the calling and helped students learn to deal with problem cases. During scheduled classes, students discussed the survey to better understand the process. One student spent over 24 hours creating a computer data set from the completed surveys. Despite the "well-laid" plans, there were problems. But the students persevered and overcame these difficulties, thereby learning an important "real life" lesson. To help maintain morale, a member of the leadership group sponsored a pizza party for the students after they completed half of the interviews. In addition, a recognition program was held at the completion of the interviewing phase. After the interviews were completed and most of the students graduated, six attended a meeting and helped to plan presentations for various civic and governmental organizations (an Extension specialist conducted the data analysis for use in the presentations). Subsequently, three students, along with the Extension Director and teacher, conducted 14 presentations for a number of community organizations. Experiences Gained by Students Information was collected using pre-program and follow-up focus groups comprised of student participants, an adult volunteer focus group, and records collected during the project. Learning About Needs Assessment Many students indicated they better understood the needs assessment process: "I learned that it took a lot of people to complete the survey because there are people involved in different levels and stuff." While making a total of 3,149 dialings, most developed skill in interviewing and learned to handle a variety of situations, including refusals: "When you're talking to them at first you get nervous, but after a while you get comfortable." By completing interviews, students felt a sense of achievement: "Felt like you did something." Learning About Their Community Most students were already aware of many of the problems facing their community prior to the project. But by interviewing residents, some students appeared to have developed a broader view of local problems: "We see things differently now... Because by asking, I'm thinking more as I ask these surveys." Aspirations for Future Involvement During the pre-program focus groups, some students offered only general comments about whether they would get involved in community affairs. Subsequently, few students at the follow-up focus groups expressed aspirations for continuing their involvement in community affairs after graduation. Of those who did, the needs assessment project was viewed as a springboard for that participation: "Well, I'm more likely to be involved because here I've been involved in this already and I want to see it keep moving forward." "I think I'm more likely 'cause I really liked it [the project]." How the Survey Helped the Community The survey information was used in several ways:
Conclusion Linking community service learning with community development can effectively meet the needs of some rural communities. The successful implementation of the community needs assessment project illustrates that students can make significant contributions to the development of their community while at the same time gaining valuable experience. The partnership of high school students and teachers, community leaders, and the Cooperative Extension Service also was an important part in successfully conducting the community needs assessment survey. The project in Florida showed that school- based community needs assessments can maintain "reasonable rigor" while keeping costs low and involving local leaders and students. Experience shows that projects like this can help youth develop a better understanding of their community. This can increase students' confidence that they can contribute to their community's efforts to solve local problems. For those considering similar projects, they need to keep in mind that these should not be viewed as meeting all the necessary conditions for creating involved citizens, but they are one step in the process. A by-product of the project was an increased appreciation among some local leaders of what young people can do to help their community. As one teacher observed, "Certain power people are involved and also saw that the kids could take an active role too... I think the power group maybe beginning to look at the kids in the community differently because they saw that maybe they aren't the only ones who have to solve all the problems and all by themselves." If leaders are going to build more sustained community development, they must take advantage of the opportunity to harness the energy and enthusiasm of youth. References Boyte, H. C. (1991). Community service and civic education. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(10), 765-767. Hobbs, D. (1989). Education reform and rural economic health: Policy implications. Paper distributed by the Policy and Planning Center, Appalachian Education Laboratory, Charleston, West Virginia. Kurth-Schai, R. (1988). The role of youth in society: A reconceptualization. The Education Forum, 52(2), 113-132. McPherson, K. (1991). Project service leadership: School service projects in Washington state. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(10), 750-753. Silcox, H. (1991). Abraham Lincoln high school: Community service in action. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(10), 758-759.
Understanding and Changing
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| Perceived Style | Number of Respondents | Percent of Respondents |
|---|---|---|
| Developer | 2 | 11 |
| Manipulator | 1 | 6 |
| Taskmaster | 0 | 0 |
| Regulator | 6 | 33 |
| Comforter | 9 | 50 |
Of the 55 staff who completed the Manager Style Appraisal for their manager:
| Perceived Style | Number of Respondents | Percent of Respondents |
|---|---|---|
| Developer | 11 | 20 |
| Manipulator | 6 | 11 |
| Taskmaster | 0 | 0 |
| Regulator | 15 | 27 |
| Comforter | 23 | 42 |
These results indicated that a substantial number of managers (15 of 18) and staff (38 of 55) perceived the management styles as Regulator or Comforter. It appeared that there was strong agreement on the predominate management style used within ISU Extension.
When the results of the managers' styles were compared to the QPA assessment, it was possible to draw some conclusions about the management culture of ISU Extension's administrative team. The team's role, as indicated by the predominance of Comforter and Regulator management styles, corresponds with Peter Block's (1993) definition of patriarchy: "the belief that it is those at the top who are responsible for the success of the organization and well-being of its members" (p. 7). The traits that accompany patriarchy--caretaking, protection, and providing for the emotional morale of the staff--are among the least likely to develop staff collaboration, commitment, and creativity--the foundation of organizational competence. The results of the management survey also corroborate the findings of the QPA: a very low score for collaboration, a low but higher score for commitment, and a low but higher score yet for creativity. Because ISU Extension's management team is dominated by a patriarchal style, it is no surprise that the conditions for competence fall below what is needed to fully tap staff potential.
According to these findings, if ISU Extension wants to create an organization that fully taps the competence of its staff, the administrative team must change its management culture from patriarchy to one conducive to enhancing competence. In fact, ISU Extension's administration already has started this cultural transition. Managers are learning about their management styles and the effect they have on staff and the organization. More learning opportunities are planned to assist with this development. Administrators are also being encouraged to learn how to become more of a Developer through experiences outside the organization.
By understanding and choosing to change the management culture, the administrative team is seeking to change not only the structure and technology of ISU Extension, but the very character of the organization. It is at this level that the competence of the managers and their staffs can truly be realized.
References
Atkinson, P. E. (1990). Creating culture change: The key To successful total quality management. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer.
Block, P. (1993). Stewardship: Choosing service over self- interest. San Francisco: Berrett-Hoehler.
Bolman, L. G., Deal, T. E. (1991). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Deal, T. E., Kennedy, A. A. (1982). Corporate cultures: The rites and rituals of corporate life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Hall, J. (1987a). Productive practices survey. The Woodlands, TX: Teleometrics International.
Hall, J. (1987b). Survey of management practices. The Woodlands, TX: Teleometrics International.
Hall, J. (1988a). The competence connection: A blueprint for excellence. The Woodlands, TX: Woodstead.
Hall, J. (1988b). Models for management: The structure of competence. The Woodlands, TX: Woodstead.
Hall, J. (1990a). Management styles inventory. The Woodlands, TX: Teleometrics International.
Hall, J. (1990b). Inventory manager style appraisal. The Woodlands, TX: Teleometrics International.
Schein, E. H. (1991). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schneider, B. (1990). Organizational climate and culture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Weisbord, M. R. (1987). Productive workplaces: Organizing and managing for dignity, meaning and community. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Thomas F. Patterson, Jr.
Extension Associate Professor
University of Vermont
Burlington, Vermont
Internet: tpatters@moose.uvm.edu
Introduction
The Total Quality Management (TQM) specter has appeared out of the haze in Extension's crystal ball. Born in Japan of American statisticians who helped rebuild Japanese industry after World War II, TQM transformed cheap and unreliable products labeled "made in Japan" into goods that are now internationally known for their high-quality, reliability, and innovation. The TQM paradigm has spread to other industrialized countries around the world, forced to study and adopt the Japanese way as a desperate means to compete in the world marketplace.
While TQM has made tremendous inroads in the United States business sector in the last ten years, it has only recently begun to seep into the service industry, education, and government. Many banks, brokerage houses and insurance companies have undergone quiet "quality" revolutions. They have succeeded in increasing productivity and raising the quality of products and services without hiring more people or spending more money. Today higher education also is experimenting with TQM (Georgia Tech, Maryland, North Dakota, Oregon State, Penn State, Purdue and Wisconsin are major universities currently implementing TQM) (Chaffee&Sheer, 1992), and a recent GAO survey reports that a majority of Federal agencies are in the early stages of developing TQM programs (Hamilton, Mendelowitz&Fogel, 1991, 1992).
TQM
Total Quality Management resists simple definition for a number of reasons. It is an elusive process rather than a tangible product. It reflects an organization's unique mission, history, and culture, and, therefore, is different for each organization--what works for one organization may fail miserably at another. It involves changing the organizational culture to a long term, never-ending commitment--a race without a finish line--to process improvement (Schmidt&Finnegan, 1992).
Despite TQM's slippery disposition, there are basic tenets of TQM that many would agree upon. Among them:
Customers
Customers are the primary focus of a TQM organization. All employees have external (clientele) and internal (fellow workers) customers, defined as "anyone who depends upon your work." Quality is defined as performance "meeting or exceeding customer requirements" or in "totally delighting the customer."
How do you know whether or not you have met or exceeded customer requirements? Simple. Ask them, through periodic surveys, focus groups, suggestion boxes, and other feedback loops. TQM organizations are forever asking their customers "how are we doing?" and then taking steps to improve quality based on what they hear.
Variability
Under the TQM paradigm all work is considered a process, and all processes are variable, that is, the outputs are never completely uniform. There are two types of variation--common and special--that can be determined by simple statistical techniques. Common variation in work is expected, normal, and can be predicted. A work process that displays common variation is said to be "in control." The only way to improve a process "in control" is to make adjustments to the system, which is solely under the purview of management.
Work that falls outside of normal limits is called special variation and each case needs to be closely examined to determine the exact cause. Removal of the causes of special variation is often times best done by the people who work directly with the process. As a rule of thumb, it is said that 85% of process variability can be attributed to the system, with people being held responsible for the remaining 15% (Gitlow & Gitlow, 1987).
Teamwork
People working together in teams characterize a TQM organization that is "mission-driven" rather than "rules and regulations driven." Empowered, self-directed work teams are free from typical bureaucratic controls and assume responsibility for many functions usually performed by management, such as assigning work loads, evaluating outputs, hiring and terminating employees, even salary administration. The role of the leader in a TQM organization is changed from that of supervisor of people to process consultant, from individual evaluator to group dynamics facilitator, from order giver to listener. TQM organizations are characterized by a fierce commitment to training and often begin the transition to teamwork by teaching employees about small group dynamics and facilitation.
Focusing their attention on the sources of process variation, managers are expected to devote about 85% of their time to improving the system. TQM managers are mainly responsible for providing the training and tools necessary for people to perform their jobs. They are relieved from much of the personnel evaluation work, such as individual performance appraisal and management by objectives, that creates fear in the workplace and detracts from a quality focus.
Continuous Improvement
A TQM organization focuses on constantly getting better at what it does. This commitment to continuous improvement is frequently accomplished through ad hoc process improvement teams that are put together to address some identified organizational need or problem. These topics are often surfaced through survey and other customer feedback techniques. Statistical data are used to define the issue and measure the progress of improvements. Successful CQI (Continuous Quality Improvement) projects are often the first tangible results of TQM efforts. Continuous improvement projects have been successfully carried out in an Extension setting (Jones&Jost, 1993).
A Future Extension TQM Scenario
If an Extension system were to adapt TQM, this might be one scenario:
TQM enjoys the long term, unconditional support from top
leaders. All employees know the Extension system mission
and how they contribute toward it. Their actions are always
guided by this sense of mission, not by bureaucratic rules
and regulations. Each employee has identified his/her
external and internal Extension customers. Well
established, permanent feedback mechanisms are established
to determine different customer needs and measure Extension
program outcomes. Feedback is not used for unproductive and
threatening evaluation of personnel, but is considered a
critical component for Extension process improvement.
Extension employees benchmark the best performing
organizations in the private and public sectors, comparing
processes and learning from them.
Groups of customers work with Extension personnel on the
local, state, and federal levels as teams dedicated to
improving services to customers. The major role of
Extension administrators is to provide training and tools
that their internal customers (employees) need to do their
jobs. The Extension organization has a international
reputation for high quality training in such areas a group
dynamics, teamwork, systems thinking, and statistics, as
well as up-to-date subject matter.
Working with data and the PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act)
cycle, self directed work teams choose a focus for the team,
make assignments, develop feedback processes, evaluate the
outcomes and make process improvements. Extension employees
also belong to several ad hoc process improvement
teams--dedicated to improving Extension processes, ranging
from program development to personnel procedures.
Public Sector Pitfalls
Although there are many successful TQM pilot projects in the public sector, most of them have begun within the last few years. Three pitfalls are beginning to emerge in the public sector's adoption of TQM.
Government Culture: Politics and turnover in public sector leadership tend to fragment the adoption of TQM. TQM is a very long term process that never ends--the antithesis of the current revolving door of administrators with their own short term agendas.
Additional Customers Don't Necessarily Lead to Additional Revenues: Public organizations that improve quality and service to customers may be faced with more work with the same or even less money available to serve their additional customers. Improved quality of service in the public sector doesn't directly translate into the allocation of more dollars.
Quantity vs. Quality Dilemma: Demand almost always exceeds capacity in the public sector and this issue seems to be exacerbated by TQM. A public service organization is always faced with the issue of balancing customers who require services but cannot receive them with customers who get some but not all the services they need (Rago, 1994).
The Crystal Ball
Extension is long overdue for fundamental change. There is a palpable growing dissatisfaction with the stodgy, bureaucratic, command-and-control structure found throughout Extension, while shrinking budgets, an eroding political base, and a loss of prestige have put Extension in a tenuous position.
TQM represents a way out of Extension's current malaise. Despite the potential public sector pitfalls, TQM seems to make a great deal of sense for Extension. Extension is well positioned to embrace TQM for a number of reasons. Extension serves as the nexus of TQM efforts in higher education and the Federal government, two organizations that are experimenting heavily with TQM. Essentially Extension work is a process, which fits with the process-orientation of TQM. Extension personnel also have considerable experience working with "customers"--having developed long lasting relationships with clientele. The extensive work done in program development and evaluation over the past twenty years serves as a solid framework for future CQI efforts under TQM.
Although it takes considerable time to change organizational culture and train people to work in fundamentally new ways, Extension cannot afford to remain complacent. The millennium is bearing down on us, and those organizations that are not prepared to improve year after year will fall by the wayside. It is time to seize TQM's promise of improved organizational performance as there are other less desirable scenarios lurking in the haze of Extension's crystal ball.
References
Chaffee, E.,&Sheer, L. (1992). Quality: Transforming postsecondary education (ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 3). Washington, DC: George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development.
Gitlow, H.,&Gitlow, S. (1987). The Deming guide to quality and competitive position. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hamilton, M., Mendelowitz, A.,&Fogel, R. (1991/92). TQM at GAO. The GAO Journal, Winter, 39-47.
Jones, L.,&Jost, M. (1993). Beyond 'business as usual.' Journal of Extension, XXXXI(Summer), 18-20.
Rago, W. (1994, January/February). Adapting total quality management (TQM) to government: Another point of view. Public Administration Review, 54(1), 61-64.
Schmidt, W.,&Finnegan, J. (1992). The race without a finish line: America's quest for total quality. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Swiss, J. (1992, July/August). Adapting total quality management (TQM) to government. Public Administration Review, 52(4), 356-361.
Connee Bush, M.B.A.
Doctoral Student, Family Relations
Internet address: rmullis@garnet.acns.fsu.edu
Ron Mullis, Ph.D.
Professor
Ann Mullis, Ph.D.
Coordinator
Family Institute
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida
Introduction
During the past decade program evaluation has developed as a process distinct from educational research and has become a force for educational improvement (Worthen&Sanders, 1991). To be as effective as possible in the development and implementation of successful programs, administrators and other professionals must be aware that evaluation procedures start at the beginning of a program's development. It is no longer enough to know that certain objectives were met. It is further suggested that experienced evaluators be involved in any given program's development from its very inception. This article describes an emerging framework for Extension program evaluation called program theory.
The underlying components and relationships upon which a program is based has been termed "program theory." Lipsey (1987) defines program theory as "a set of propositions regarding what goes on in the black box during the transformation of input into output" (p. 7). Black box evaluations are those which consider what goes into a program and what comes out of a program without considering what goes on inside a program. For example, when developing a program to enhance reading skills in children age 8- 10 years old, doing pre-test and post-test on their level of reading only demonstrates that something happened, not how or why it happened. Identifying processes occurring between input and output can be facilitated during the initial development of the program by asking questions such as: is the program developmentally appropriate for the targeted age-groups, or will a particular theory of learning be used to develop techniques? Making these and similar questions a part of the planning process can support replication of successful programs as well as assessing why a program did or did not work as expected.
Evaluation in educational programs, such as those found in 4-H and youth development, has long been a process that occurs after completion of a project. Given this context, its primary purpose is to assess whether or not specific objectives have been met. Several studies reported in the Journal of Extension exemplify this type of evaluation. For example, one recent study reported on a teacher training program. The authors clearly defined problems to be addressed in this program, the objectives of the program, and how these objectives would be measured (Turner&Travnichek, 1992). Another study evaluating stress and coping programs, reported its findings in much the same way (Fetsch, 1990). Both programs were reported as successful in meeting their objectives. What is not known is why they were successful. For example, what factors were leading contributors to making the program work? Was there a particular theory used as a basis for developing the program? If so, did the results support the theory?
Over the past decade there has been a move away from the "black box" approach to evaluation. Although the use of program theory in evaluation has steadily increased over the past decade, it is not in wide use in evaluation practice (Bickman, 1987).
For most program developers and implementors, the term "theory" has meant a few assumptions about why the program should work. The transition to theory-driven evaluations means an emphasis on the development and utilization of a more intricate framework that describes the basis of the program. This does not presuppose a single correct program theory, but suggests that different theories may be applied, depending on the discipline of the evaluator. For example, in a program designed to improve a 4-H program area, one evaluator may focus on the motivations of the program leaders and volunteers, whereas another may focus on the interrelations of the system as a whole, (i.e., visibility in the community, increased competencies in youth, or approval of advisory committees). The important issue is that the evaluation be theory-driven, thus allowing examination of the causative elements underlying the program itself.
The restructuring of evaluation offers an opportunity to assess what is "right" with a program and allows these findings to be generalized to other programs. This restructuring also shifts the focus from finding out "what went wrong" to "how did this work or not work and why." Measures must be developed to assess not only what goes into a program and what comes out, but what happened in the process. A program is not complete nor fully implemented until the process has been evaluated from beginning to end.
From "Outcomes" to the "What" of Program Delivery
From this perspective, evaluators' activities take on a much broader focus than analyzing program outcomes. Scheirer (1987) explored the relation between program evaluation theory and implementation process theory. She concludes that program evaluation theory suggests what parts of the program should be measured to report the extent of implementation. That is the "what" of program delivery. In contrast, implementation process theory suggests the social system parts that should be explored to explain and manage the extent of implementation. That is the "how" and "why" of program delivery.
This shift in evaluation perspective also brings to light explicit and implicit objectives of program practitioners termed "theories-of-action" and "theories-of-use." Theories-of-action are explicit descriptions of how strategies and techniques produce outcomes. Theories-of-use are what practitioners actually do in the field. For example, a United States Department of Agriculture funded project in rural North Florida was developed, in part, to strengthen literacy skills. A major component of the program was a summer computer camp focused on second through fifth graders. The population that actually attended the camp ranged in age from four to 17 years. This occurred for a variety of reasons. Identifying these reasons is a vital part of assessing the viability and success of the program. The significant factor here is the dichotomy that exists between the espoused theories-of-action and what actually goes on in the program. Identifying both the theories-of-action and the theories-of-use is necessary in determining how a program works and helps bring together theory and practice (Kolb, 1992). One major implication illuminated by this dichotomy is the importance of discovering the implicit theories held by developers and implementors of the program being evaluated. Their expectations can effect their cooperation as well as their reactions to evaluation findings that do not fit these expectations.
Functions and Limitations of Program Theory
How can programs be made better? Program theory serves several important functions that would enable practitioners to generalize from particular evaluations and achieve consensus in evaluation planning. Among those functions are: contributing to social science knowledge, assisting policymakers, discriminating between a program's success or failure and theory failure, identifying the problem and target group, finding unintended outcomes, specifying intervening variables, improving formative use of evaluation, clarifying measurement issues, and improving consensus formation (Bickman, 1987).
Citing Dunst et al., Miller (1991) stresses the importance of a solid theoretically derived program foundation. From this perspective, the implication is that a given theory will set the basis for program goals, implementation design, and expected outcomes. For instance, theories emphasizing social and emotional development will differ operationally from those emphasizing learning of specific skills or from those stressing intellectual development.
Some concerns and problems are identified with the program theory approach. First, there are barriers of added expense. Second, evaluators may be perceived as moving outside role boundaries and as threatening to other program providers. Third, if resources are to be used on a program, it is necessary to assess whether the goals and objectives were achieved and the resources "spent" appropriately thus making the providers "accountable" for the outcome of the program. Fourth, this approach may not provide a clear yes or no answer about the success of the program.
Conclusions
Conceptually, the questions answered during program evaluation must be incorporated into the way our programs are structured. For example, an objective may be to enhance self- esteem of youth. Changes in self-esteem can be measured without really knowing what process occurred. Practitioners need to know what it was that impacted the changes measured. Were activities based on specific developmental theory? Were the activities appropriate to the ages of the program participants? Was the measure of self-esteem used appropriate to the ages of the participants? What other factors may have impacted these changes? Answers to these and other questions provide insight into how programs can be developed, enhanced, and successfully replicated.
References
Bickman, L. (1987). The functions of program theory. In L. Bickman (Ed.), New directions for program evaluation, No. 33 (pp. 5-17). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fetsch, R. J. (1990). Prevention program impacts. Journal of Extension, Spring, 34-35.
Kolb, D. G. (1992). The practicality of theory. The Journal of Experiential Education, 15(2), 24-27.
Lipsey, M. W. (1987). Theory as a method: Small theories of treatment. Paper presented at the National Center for Health Services Research Conference, Tucson, AZ.
Miller, P. S. (1991). Linking theory to intervention practices with preschoolers and their families: Building program integrity. Journal of Early Intervention, 15(4), 315-325.
Scheirer, M. A. (1987). Program theory and implementation theory: Implications for evaluators. In L. Bickman (Ed.), New directions for program evaluation (pp. 59-75). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Turner, J.&Travnichek, R. J. (1992). Measuring the success of teacher training. Journal of Extension, Winter, 38.
Worthen, B. R.&Sanders, J. R. (1991). The changing face of educational evaluation. Theory Into Practice, 30(1), 3-12.
Steve A. Dennis
Extension Intern
Department of Family and Human Development
Internet address: slxlj@cc.usu.edu
Thomas R. Lee
Extension Specialist
Professor of Family and Human Development
Glen O. Jenson
Extension Specialist
Professor of Family and Human Development
Utah State University
With nearly 80% of teenagers sexually experienced by the age of 19 (Miller&Moore, 1991), and over 50% having experimented with gateway drugs by the age 14 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990), many Extension programs have been directed to address these youth problems. Successful programs to address youth problems must involve the family (Lee&Goddard, 1989). Yet work schedules, family responsibilities, or uneasiness about sharing family problems in public settings often prevent parents from seeking help. As a result, traditional program delivery methods often fail to reach the parents who need help most.
Although parent education and support is essential to successful interventions, programs should also extend beyond the family. Winters' (1990) review of drug intervention programs suggests successful programs incorporate action and support at multiple social levels, including the family, school, and community. Utah State University's "Parenting for Prevention" and "FACTS and feelings" Extension programs have expanded community support and defrayed costs by tapping businesses, volunteers, and community access cable resources.
Project Overview
Both the "Parenting for Prevention" and the "FACTS and feelings" programs consist of video and print materials designed to encourage parents to discuss the problems of drug use and teen sexuality with their children and establish clear family expectations.
"FACTS and feelings" consists of six programs designed to assist parents and youth in discussing human sexuality. The programs present information about: (a) adolescent physical and social changes, (b) sexual values, (c) reproductive facts, (d) sexual meanings, (e) decision-making, and (f) assertiveness and refusal skills. The program conveys an abstinence message and targets families with youth, ages 10-14 (Lee, Dennis, Jenson&Miller, 1994; Miller, Norton, Jenson, Lee, Christopherson&King, 1993).
"Parenting for Prevention" approaches drug prevention from the premise that good family relations and clear expectations can reduce the risk of substance use. The programs address: (a) who's at risk, (b) active listening, (c) creating family memories with family time, (d) managing conflict, (e) using family meetings to establish a clear position against drugs, and (e) developing refusal skills. The program targets families with children 5-14 years of age.
Tapping Community Resources
Involving the community is an important but difficult step in strengthening the efforts made by families, schools, and youth groups. One means of soliciting community support and reaching "hard to reach" families is through the use of cable television. Most communities with cable television have a community access channel. These channels provide opportunities for communities to broadcast town meetings, local activities, or provide community information and education.
Atkin and LaRose (1988) report that nationally 60% of all homes serviced by cable television had at least one community access channel, and 16% of those surveyed reported viewing a community channel within the week preceding their interview. These community channels have been used to broadcast a variety of local events and community education programs (Allen, 1986; Baca&Palmer, 1985; Hardenberg, 1986; Smith, 1981).
To test the potential of this educational resource, Utah State University (USU) formed a partnership with a local cable provider to use the community access channel, known as "The Valley Channel." The USU College of Family Life in cooperation with the university's telecommunication facility and The Valley Channel produced a series of programs known as "Family Life Windows." This series consisted primarily of existing Extension video curricula coupled with an added in-studio discussion following each video program. The "Parenting for Prevention" programs were created specifically for the series and gained community support by drawing actors and experts from the local Drug-Free Youth club, D.A.R.E. program, and other community drug prevention efforts. "Family Life Windows" was broadcast every Wednesday evening at 7:30 and 10:00 p.m. and frequently at unscheduled times during the day. Since most of the programs were directed at parents, an evening time was deemed most appropriate. "FACTS and feelings" and "Parenting for Prevention" were shown over a twelve week period as part of this series.
Programs were advertised through newspapers, flyers, radio announcements, and over other cable channels. A "Parenting for Prevention" newsletter promoted the program and contained a short synopsis of each of the six programs along with alternative viewing options for families without cable access. The newsletters were distributed to 24,000 families of elementary and middle-school children in three counties with the help of the PTA. Several schools also advertised the programs through their own PTA newsletter.
Evaluation
To determine the effectiveness of using the local cable channel to provide community education programs, a survey was mailed with customer billings to 14,000 households. Due to funding limitations, it was not possible to do a follow-up mailing. However, to encourage cable customers to return their completed surveys, respondents were entered into a prize drawing to be held at a "Reach for a Natural High" night. Assisted by the marketing expertise of the cable service provider, the drawing and "Reach for a Natural High" night became a major event with significant community and business sponsorship.
Despite these efforts, the survey yielded a modest 4.5% response rate. Of the 638 surveys returned (males = 232, females = 388), only 48 respondents watched one or more of the "Parenting for Prevention" programs (six respondents watched all the programs) and 65 respondents watched one or more of the "FACTS and feelings" programs (10 respondents watched all the programs).
The majority of those who returned the surveys did not have children of the targeted ages (n = 426). Still, 86% of all respondents felt the programs provided good information and was a good use of tax dollars. And 75% of the all respondents said they would have watched had they known about the programs. Of those who viewed the programs, over half had been informed of the programs through their school PTA. About 44% had seen the programs when flipping channels, and 21% had learned of the programs through the "Parenting for Prevention" newsletter. In general, those who had seen the programs were very positive about the information they provided. Over half of the viewers reported that the program had sparked a discussion with their child, which was the major goal of the project.
Implications
Perhaps the most surprising finding from the survey was the number of parents who had not heard about the program despite the advertising efforts. This signals the importance of using multiple avenues in promoting Extension programs. Currently, the program is being expanded to other Utah counties. To increase public awareness, quarterly newsletters are being distributed through the PTA and additional Public Service Announcements (PSA) have been distributed via radio and newspaper.
Because only a minority of the respondents had elementary or middle school aged children, it seems likely that the hectic lives of parents with young children prevented them from taking time to complete and return the survey as readily as households without children. Rachman (1985) suggests mail surveys are more likely to be completed by older and better educated individuals. This appears to be the case with this survey. It is likely that the survey underestimated the number of younger parents who actually viewed the program, since young parents are less likely to return surveys. Anecdotal reports to the authors and others in collaborating community agencies, suggest that more parents viewed the program than the survey indicated. Additional parents also viewed the programs in other cable areas not surveyed. Considering this, it appears that with ample advertising, public access channels are a viable medium of broadcasting community education programs. Furthermore, the active community involvement at multiple levels helped reduce costs, build community ownership, and improve the overall effectiveness of this educational effort.
References
Allen, J. M. (1986, November). Cable television: Strategic marketing through community relationships. Paper presented at the 57th Annual Convention of the California Association of Community Colleges, Anaheim, CA.
Atkin, D.&LaRose, R. (1988, July). News and information on community access channels: Market concerns amidst the marketplace of ideas. Paper presented at the 71st Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Portland, OR.
Baca, M. L.&Palmer, G. (1985). Cable TV: A valuable learning resource. NASSP Bulletin, 69, 93-94.
Hardenberg, M. (1986). Promise vs. performance: A case study of four public access channels in Connecticut. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Journalism and Mass Communication, Norman, Oklahoma, August 3-6. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 271 748)
Lee, T. R., Dennis, S. A., Jenson, G. O.,&Miller, B. C. (1994). FACTS and feelings: Bridging the gap to home-based sexuality education. Family Perspective, 28(1), 15-29.
Lee, T. R.,&Goddard, H. W. (1989). Developing family relationship skills to prevent substance abuse among high-risk youth. Family Relations, 38, 301-305.
Miller, B. C.,&Moore, K. A. (1991). Adolescent sexual behavior, pregnancy, and parenting. In A. Booth (Ed.), Contemporary families: Looking forward, looking back, (pp. 307-326). Minneapolis, MN: National Council on Family Relations.
Miller, B. C., Norton, M. C., Jenson, G. O., Lee, T. R., Christopherson, C.,&King, P. K. (1993). Impact evaluation of FACTS and feelings: A home-based video sex education curriculum. Family Relations, 42(4), 392-400.
Rachman, D. J. (1985). Marketing today. Chicago: Dryden Press.
Smith, D. R. (1981). Community television and the Monroe county public library. Catholic Library World, 53(3), 122-124.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Drug Abuse. (1990). Drug abuse among youth: Findings from the 1988 national household survey on drug abuse. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Winters, P. A. (1990). Getting high: Components of successful drug education programs. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 35(2), 20-23.
Sue Buck
Southeast District Home Economics Program Specialist
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
Ada, Oklahoma
Internet address: sue.buck@origins.bbs.voknor.edu
As the Cooperative Extension System evolves its efforts from a disciplinary agenda to issue-based programming, there is greater opportunity for interdisciplinary approaches within the organization using technology to address controversial issues. Extension has historically provided unbiased educational information to address issues of common concern. Using videoconferencing as a tool to do this is a relatively new method in the last 15 years. Networking with outside resources to accomplish a public policy education videoconference is a recent occurrence.
Why Videoconferencing?
When a public policy issue has broad appeal and impacts more than one state, videoconferencing is a solution to bring all parties to the table. It enables those persons concerned with an issue to be involved and it promotes dialogue among the participants. According to Geri Gay (1982) "Video can also be used to document physical conditions requiring change. It's a valuable tool for providing evidence to the opposing sides, when they may not understand the actual conditions or environmental concerns" (p. 24). With these thoughts in mind, "The Impact of the Poultry Industry on the Environment" National Satellite Videoconference was conceived, developed, and broadcasted by the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service and the U.S. and Oklahoma League of Women Voters.
Background
The increasing consumption of poultry products, fueled by health concerns, has created the demand for more chicken and turkey production and processing. In the past decade or so, Oklahoma's poultry industry, located in the extreme eastern counties of the state along the Missouri/Arkansas borders, has more than quadrupled in economic importance. The farm value of broilers has increased from $54 million in 1982 to more than $240 million annually in 1992. In that same time, it has become the third largest component of Oklahoma's agricultural economy. It's projected that the industry will grow by an additional 40% by the end of this decade, according to Doye, Bellinghausen, Green, and Berry (1991).
The Issue
As agriculture comes under increasing environmental scrutiny, citizens and officials are voicing more and more concern over the potential environmental impacts of livestock operations, especially confinement systems. In the case of poultry, water quality is a major issue.
Eastern Oklahoma residents and others who utilize water from the Illinois River basin for consumption and recreation, question the impact of this industry on the quality of their water resources. Additionally, this region of the state is well aware of the tourism value of its natural resources, especially water. Fishing, swimming, boating, and river floating are key recreational industries. These industries depend upon clean water, but have the potential to create as many, if not more, pollution problems than agriculture.
The Partnerships
Clean water has become a major policy issue which has captured the interest of many organizations, including the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service (OCES) and the Oklahoma League of Women Voters. Since both organizations are concerned with providing citizens with educational information upon which to base informed decisions, a partnership was formed to produce a nationally distributed satellite videoconference, "The Impact of the Poultry Industry on the Environment," which was aired on May 12, 1992.
This project brought together many people from various disciplines and agencies. The Southeast District Home Economics Program Specialist, through contacts with the Oklahoma League of Women Voters, was able to obtain an agriculture community education grant from the U.S. League of Women Voters Education Fund; the state poultry specialist was able to identify key information sources and persuade them to participate in the program; and members of the Oklahoma State University Agricultural Communications staff provided the television, press and publications expertise to produce, publicize, and market the program.
The Videoconference
The videoconference focused on three key environmental areas related to poultry: litter waste disposal, processing waste, and dead bird handling. Utilizing both live and pre-taped segments, the program highlighted the potential problems and the various methods to address them. Attention was focused on a great deal of pro-active effort initiated by the poultry industry to prevent environmental problems.
Industry representatives, environmentalists, regulators, research specialists, and poultry producers appeared on the program, live or on tape, to examine aspects of the industry from each individual's perspective. Pre-taped segments were followed by brief discussion, which transitioned to a live, phone-in question and answer session.
The thrust of the information was to provide accurate, non-advocacy information regarding the issue of poultry and clean water. The different perspectives of the individual panel members provided the audience with a broad-base of facts and opinions. The consensus of these different perspectives was that the poultry industry has a great potential for adversely affecting water quality. The poultry industry is extremely aware of this and, at this time, is very proactive in promoting best management practices to minimize or eliminate water quality problems.
The videoconference was promoted through a variety of media. Printed material (including news releases, a flier, and camera ready copy for a brochure) was mailed to State League of Women Voters organizations, State Cooperative Extension Services, and national poultry associations prior to the broadcast. Similar materials were transmitted via electronic mail to poultry, home economics, and communications specialists at land grant universities across the nation. Additional marketing was conducted under the auspices of the Agricultural Satellite Corporation (AG*SAT).
The Participants
To encourage pre-registration, satellite coordinates of the program were only released to those who contacted OCES Agricultural Communications. More than 90 people pre-registered from 56 communities in 26 states, from Hawaii to Delaware, and from Minnesota to Louisiana.
Pre-registrants were mailed a packet of resource materials, including fact sheets and research bulletins. These resources were provided to give viewers extra background information on the issues. They were also designed to allow local sites to conduct "wrap around" sessions for discussions about the issues prior to and immediately following the videoconference.
The Results
A follow-up evaluation was mailed one month after the event to over 90 participants. Nearly one-half of those surveyed responded, with responses varying from "well done" to "wishy washy". Responses depended upon the individual's expectations and knowledge of the issues.
Those with technical skills found the program elementary. Some environmentalists expressed disappointment that the program did not "come down hard" on the poultry industry. Those with little or no pre-knowledge found the program helpful.
Intended to be a general education program for the lay public, the program focused on education rather than advocacy. An attempt was made to provide information from all sides of the issues. There was no intent to produce a "60 Minutes" confrontational "expose'." There was intent, however, to present facts, without editorial comment, to allow the public to make its own decision.
In addition to the initial airing of the videoconference, a tape of this program was placed in OCES's videotape lending library, making it available to every Extension agent and interested citizen in the state. Also, portions of this program were used to provide news features on OCES's SUNUP news magazine--a daily TV program aired over Oklahoma's state-wide public television network (OETA), reaching nearly 85,000 viewers per day. Many of these news reports were re-broadcast over OETA's evening newscast, which boasts a daily audience of 110,000. Finally, two feature segments were also used for OCES's OKLAHOMA GARDENING program, also aired on OETA, attracting 150,000 viewers per week. In total, more than a quarter of a million citizens in Oklahoma (the primary target audience), were presented with all or part of the videoconference information.
The Implications
Overall, the program was well received and was cited for being a positive learning experience. It helped expand working networks within Oklahoma, and it now serves as a role model for others to build non-traditional program linkages with organizations outside of our traditional networks. It is hoped that these new linkages can be utilized to expand the population base for future educational programs of the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service.
Implications are great for future Extension program delivery methods. Many universities today have uplinking capabilities and more people have access to downlink sites, which make "satellite town meetings" within a state and across the nation a reality. The Iowa Public Policy Education Project (PPEP) used a similar format with their videoconferences that were a series of issue programs focused on Iowans' concerns. Videoconferencing allows the timeliness of the issue to be addressed by bringing the current information about an issue to the public through the interactive quality of the program.
Videoconferencing is only one step toward the "multimedia revolution in education." In the November-December, 1994 issue of The Futurist, William E. Halal and Jay Liebowitz indicated that interactive multimedia systems promise to revolutionize education. "Distance learning can be viewed as a vast increase in the range of instruction, permitting especially gifted lecturers to reach an almost limitless number of students around the world, while other teachers give the students individual assistance," according to Halal and Liebowitz (1994, p. 23). This promotes a lifelong learning system that allows almost anyone to learn almost anything from anywhere at anytime. The combination of videoconferences and computers will provide a powerful dynamic in the 21st century.
Gary E. Miller, assistant vice president for distance education at Pennsylvania State University, states that "Now technologies such as teleconferencing, the Internet, and other interactive media not only allow students to study at an individual pace but to interact with each other, with their teachers, and with the universe of information sources, from databases to international libraries" (Halal&Liebowitz, 1994, p. 25). He goes on to say that "Universities will become true communities of scholars and will focus not on how education is delivered but on the content of education and on developing learning communities" (Halal&Liebowitz, 1994, p. 25). The potential for developing these learning communities through the Extension Systems' use of its technical ability provides the broadest application of the collaboration process in discussing public policy issues.
References
Doye, D., Bellinghausen, B., Green, P.,&Berry, J. (1991). The poultry sector: An overview. Stillwater: Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Fact Sheet.
Gay, Geri. (1982). Using video to resolve community conflict. Journal of Extension, March/April, 21.
Halal, W.,&Liebowitz, J. (1994, November-December). Telelearning: The multimedia revolution in education. The Futurist, p. 21.
Jack Thigpen
Assistant Professor
Community Development Specialist
Texas Agricultural Extension Service
Texas A&M University
Internet address: j-thigpen@tamu.edu
Extension's role as a public agency is expanding and Extension professionals must deal with increasingly complex issues. One such issue is our use of the environment. In Travis County (Austin), Texas for example, the issue of endangered species protection caused conflict between environmentalists, developers, and ranchers. Missing from the debate was information about landowners' opinions. Texas Extension was able to fill this gap and ultimately provide much more than data to address the issue.
The Issue in Travis County
The greater Austin area and much of western Travis County, harbor a number of species categorized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) as threatened or endangered under the federal Endangered Species Act (ESA). This affects the development potential of hundreds of tracts of private land. The decline in some property values in western Travis County may be due to apprehension in the real estate market over the endangered species' habitat. In addition, ranching practices of clearing cedar (ashe juniper) for pasture, fencing, and road-building may also be affected.
In 1988, representatives of Austin and Travis County approached the FWS to discuss ways in which economic as well as environmental concerns might be addressed under the ESA. The Balcones Canyonlands Conservation Plan (BCCP) was proposed as the first true area-wide habitat conservation plan undertaken in Texas. The BCCP has been described as a "quality-of-life" plan, for both the species of concern and the people in the planning region (which includes 250,000 acres). By 1992 the proposed BCCP was a controversial issue and many of these landowners felt that their interests and opinions were not being adequately addressed. It became apparent that objective information about landowners' needs and plans was needed so that educational programs could be designed for them and so that fair land-use decisions could be made.
In May 1992, under pressure from landowners and environmentalists, the Travis County Commissioner's Court approved a project to determine landowner interest in a cooperative habitat permitting effort. This information-gathering effort was not intended to generate support for the BCCP, but to give landowners a voice in resolving the conflict. The Texas Agricultural Extension Service (TAEX) was chosen to complete the survey because of the agency's rapport with landowners. A seven person steering committee representing environmentalists, developers, landowners, and business people was appointed to oversee the project. This diversity was important because although team members had different points of view, the desired end result was a survey methodology they all could support.
Survey Methodology
The 1,270 owners of unplatted land in western Travis County were surveyed by mail. To ensure a democratic process, the committee decided that each landowner would receive only one survey instrument regardless of the number of tracts owned. The survey instrument was designed to record information concerning multiple tracts. An initial mailing included a cover letter, which acquainted the respondent with the project, a survey instrument, and a postage-paid return envelope. A reminder postcard was mailed one week later and a second mailing of survey instruments to all persons failing to respond followed in two weeks. Of the 1,270 survey instruments mailed, 480 were completed and returned.
Survey Results
Respondents owned 100,341 of the 250,000 acres of the proposed BCCP. Sixty-one percent of the respondents did not consider the property their primary residence. Table 1 illustrates that when asked about their knowledge of the federal Endangered Species Act, 43.8% replied they knew nothing or very little about it, 31.3% knew something, and 24.9% said that they knew quite a bit or a great deal about the subject. Respondents expressed great interest in learning more about the Endangered Species Act. Sixty-three percent said they were interested or very interested, 17.3% were moderately interested, and 19.7% were slightly or not at all interested in learning more about how the Act affects Travis County landowners.
| Table 1
Landowners Knowledge of and Interest in the Federal Endangered Species Act | |
|---|---|
| How much do you know about the requirements of the federal Endangered Species Act? | |
| Nothing/Very little | 43.8% |
| Some | 31.3% |
| Quite a bit/A great deal | 24.9% |
| What level of interest do you have in learning more about the act? | |
| Not/Slight interest | 19.7% |
| Moderate interest | 17.3% |
| Interested/Very interested | 63.0% |
Although the sample was selected based on a high probability that the land contained endangered species habitat, Table 2 shows that only 12.6% of the respondents (13,155 acres) believed they will need permits for compliance with the Endangered Species Act in the next five years. Over one-third (34.1%, 24,069 acres) were not sure. The remaining 53.3% (56,378 acres) reported they will not need permits.
| Table 2
Landowner's Perceived Need for Permitting Under the Federal Endangered Species Act | |
|---|---|
| Do you think that your land will need a permit to comply with the Endangered Species Act? | |
| No | 53.3% (56,378 acres) |
| Not Sure | 34.1% (24,069 acres) |
| Yes | 12.6% (13,155 acres) |
Landowners were asked to choose between five categories of desirability for five selected approaches to obtaining a permit for land use under the federal Endangered Species Act. Over one- half (53.5%) found an alternative public/private permitting option at least somewhat desirable. More than half (57.5%) answered that a revised BCCP would be at least somewhat desirable and 49.8% felt this way about a private co-op alternative. Less than half (45.6%) responded that the proposed BCCP was at least somewhat desirable and 42.7% found an individual approach to permitting at least somewhat desirable.
Table 3 shows that few expressed interest in donating land in lieu of making cash payments for permitting. Of the 184 respondents answering this question, 16.9% were interested in land donations in lieu of cash payments. Over one-third (34.1%) were at least moderately interested.
| Table 3
Interest in Alternatives to Permitting for Compliance with the Endangered Species Act | ||
|---|---|---|
| Level of Interest | Land Donation | Conservation Easements |
| None/Slight | 82.3% | 65.9% |
| Moderate | 8.2% | 11.9% |
| Interested/ Very Interested | 8.7% | 22.2% |
In summary, this survey found that most respondents classified their land as agricultural, but expect a large decline in the amount of land used for agriculture and an increase in the amount used for endangered species preserves and wildlife habitat. Most respondents were interested in educational programs about endangered species, but few thought they would need permits to comply with the Endangered Species Act. The desirability of five different permitting methods was measured. An alternative public/private approach, a revised BCCP and a private cooperative method were ranked one, two, and three, respectively, for both number of landowners and number of acres.
Information for Decision-Making
The timely and accurate information about landowner environmental issues provided by Extension enabled the Travis County Commissioner's Court to make better informed decisions regarding Bond Issues for the county. In March of 1993, the team made a formal presentation accompanied by a 125 page final report of the results from the Travis County Landowner Survey project to an open session of the Travis County Commissioner's Court. This meeting was televised and resulted in further television and print media coverage. The Commissioner's Court is currently using the information regarding: (a) location of affected property, (b) current and expected future land use, (c) knowledge and interest in the federal Endangered Species Act, (d) the perceived need for compliance by landowners, and (e) the desirability of various alternatives for habitat permitting, land donations, and conservation easements as a basis for policy decisions regarding bond issues and environmental planning. Over 500 copies of the results of the survey were distributed to TAEX faculty, county officials, and agency professionals.
Although only about a third of landowners responded to the survey, results of this project are the first objective information about their perspectives regarding the ESA and its implications for the environment, agriculture, and development. They are being used in several important ways: (a) the Travis County Commissioner's Court, who authorized and helped to finance the project, is using the results in making decisions relating to bond issues and understanding the needs of their constituents; (b) Travis County Extension is designing educational programs for county residents regarding the ESA based on the needs identified in the survey; and (c) the results are also being used to educate Austin residents about western Travis County landowners' feelings regarding the ESA and how they intend to act regarding these requirements. This Extension programming effort is allowing decision makers and the public to better understand the current and future plans that Travis County landowners have for their property.
Building the Extension Educational Program
In addition to providing important information, the survey project gave Extension a basis for landowner education and public policy education in Travis County. Immediately following the completion of the analyses and generation of the final report a summary of the results were mailed to all 1,270 landowners. This allowed them to directly receive the same information that the Commissioner's Court was using for decision-making. For the first time during the entire BCCP process, landowners now had an objective reporting of their land-use plans and ideas about the various alternatives to the BCCP. The findings were also reported in front-page articles in the Austin American Statesman, the Austin Business Journal, and the Lake Travis View, as well as immediate television and radio news coverage. This news coverage served as an important outreach educational tools for all county landowners, including those who had participated in the survey.
The process of conducting this project also enabled the formation of a broad-based team of landowners, environmentalists, land developers, and communities to work together on environmental issues. Arguably, the most important result of this project was the formation of a working group comprised of persons with very different agendas and backgrounds. A necessary component of a successful project dealing with a controversial issue is the ownership of the plan by all involved parties. TAEX's role of liaison between the groups made this a reality. The team's ability to bring these diverse parties together and provide them with objective expert subject-area information may have been one of the most important components of the entire project.
This project illustrates that solid survey research work can play an important role in educational programs targeted to all parties involved with environmental issues. Extension Specialists working with County faculty can create a complementary team that serves all clientele--rural, urban, environmentalists, and developers. Extension, in its role as disseminator of valid research methods and results, can play an important part in developing educational programs designed to bring conflicting parties together and to serve all clientele. The carefully chosen steering committee that represents all involved parties should be an integral part of any Extension information-gathering project. A three-day conference in the Fall of 1994 focusing on private property rights and environmental issues was co-sponsored by Extension and many of the groups that were involved with the research project. This conference allowed landowners, concerned organizations and individuals, state and federal agency representatives, educators, and local government officials to develop a dialog that encouraged constructive communication on endangered species issues on privately owned land.
Rama B. Radhakrishna
Research Associate
Internet address: rradhakr@psupen.psu.edu
B. Alan Snider
Professor
Department of Agricultural and Extension Education
The Pennsylvania State University
One of the goals of Extension's national health agenda "Decisions for Health" is to expand the ability of communities to strengthen their health and health related infrastructure needs (United States Department of Agriculture-Extension Service&University of Wisconsin Extension, 1992). Under this goal, Extension educators will identify and develop strategic partnerships and coalitions at local, state, and national levels involving health providers, educators, and consumers. Towards this end, Penn State Cooperative Extension, The Pennsylvania Department of Health, and Fox Chase Cancer Center have joined hands to address the issue of tobacco use among teenagers.
In September 1993, needs assessments were conducted in six Pennsylvania counties (Bucks, Clarion, Columbia, Franklin, Wayne, and Westmoreland). These counties were selected based upon a socio-demographic review and factors associated with youth tobacco use. One of the purposes of this needs assessment was to ascertain a more detailed profile of six communities and their needs for developing a grass-roots community coalition to address tobacco use among youth. Specifically, this study sought to determine:
Methodology
Descriptive research methodology was used to collect data. Five hundred eleven individuals from the six counties were selected to participate in the needs assessments. These 511 individuals included local leaders, elected officials, representatives from health, service and religious organizations, teachers, business groups, and volunteer agencies.
A mail survey was developed to collect data for the study. The instrument had four sections: (a) assessing problems relative to tobacco and alcohol use in the community, (b) tobacco use prevention activities, (c) organizational information, and (d) respondent information. The instrument was validated for content and face validity by a panel of 16 individuals comprised of Extension agents, health education professionals, advocates for smoke-free Pennsylvania, and Pennsylvania State University faculty and graduate students. A total of 355 individuals responded to the survey for a return rate of 70%. Data were analyzed using frequencies, means, and percentages.
Results
Demographic Profile
A majority of the respondents were male (55%). Regarding age, 49% were in the 25-44 year old age category and 46% were in the 45-64 year old age category. One hundred ninety-five (55%) of the respondents represented an agency or an organization. Of this 195, 46 (24%) were from educational institutions, 31 (16%) from human resource organizations, 25 (13%) from youth service organizations, 16 (8%) from religious institutions, and 14 (7%) from health service agencies. The remaining 160 respondents represented business persons, local leaders, individuals, and youth. Respondents were asked whether or not they currently use tobacco products. A little over one-half (56%) had never used tobacco products, while 30% did not use tobacco 30 days prior to responding to the survey. However, 11% and 3% of respondents did smoke and chew tobacco respectively 30 days prior to responding to the survey.
Assessment of Youth Issues
Respondents were asked to check the five most serious problems facing youth in their communities. A majority of the respondents (54%) indicated that cigarettes as a serious problem in their communities. In addition, 34% indicated that chewing or smokeless tobacco is also a serious problem. The other serious problems facing their communities included: alcohol, teenage pregnancy, vandalism, and sexually transmitted diseases. When asked at what age most youths normally try cigarettes/chewing tobacco, slightly over half (52%) checked the age category under 13, while 47% checked 14-17 years category. Sixty percent indicated that tobacco advertisements encourage youth to use tobacco. Respondents said that youth are most likely to get tobacco from friends (40%), followed by vending machines (30%), and stores (26%).
Important Resources and Groups to Prevent Tobacco Use by Youth
Respondents were asked to identify the five most important resources to prevent tobacco use by youth. Peer counseling and support to encourage youths not to use tobacco products was identified as the most important resource (64%), followed by enforcement of current restriction on tobacco sales to minors (57%), elimination of all use of tobacco products in schools (49%), and more emphasis on tobacco in the school curricula (39%).
Further, respondents identified parents and families (90%), youth themselves (89%), elementary and secondary schools (77%), mass media (73%), and youth service organizations (48%) as having the greatest potential to address youth tobacco use.
Implications
It appears that most respondents were aware of and knowledgeable about issues related to tobacco use in their communities. Awareness of these issues and perceptions about various issues relative to tobacco will be of immense use to Extension agents for organizing community coalitions. Extension agents should consider these aspects when recruiting members for their coalitions.
The results of this needs assessment has provided valuable information pertaining to the needs of the coalition, resources available in the community, perceptions of problems related to youth, and potential solutions. In addition, the results have helped Extension agents to: (a) identify membership for their coalitions, (b) establish goals and objectives, (c) develop action plans, and (d) develop agenda for their coalition meetings.
Extension agents should consider including parents and families, youth, representatives from elementary and secondary schools, mass media, and youth service organizations as potential members of their coalitions. Since 46% of the respondents in this study represented educational institutions, Extension agents should include schools, teachers, school administrators, and students in their coalitions. Schools are often the second agency (the first being family) to see a problem with the child. In many communities, schools have played an active role in addressing issues related to youth.
A summary of the needs assessment results was sent to all participants and a short summary of the results were also published in local newspapers. To follow-up on needs assessments results, two inservice workshops were conducted for Extension agents, which focused on coalition building strategies and developing action plans. Extension agents are using information presented in these workshops to organize their coalitions. As of November, 1994, all six counties had established coalitions. They have also recruited members for their coalitions. Membership in these coalitions include: girl and boy scouts, 4-H, dentists, teachers, a county commissioner, nurses, representatives from American Cancer Society, Drug and Alcohol, youth service organizations, and others. Activities of the established coalitions include: establishing a name for the their coalitions, developing a mission statement, identifying leadership for the coalitions, setting goals and objectives for their coalitions, and developing action plans for the next year.
References
United States Department of Agriculture-Extension Service&Wisconsin Extension. (1992). Decisions for health--an Extension system agenda (National Extension Health Agenda Task Force Special Project, No. 91-EXCA-2-0148). Madison, WI: Author.
George Flaskerud
Extension Crops Economist
Associate Professor
Department of Agricultural Economics
North Dakota State University
Fargo, North Dakota
Internet address: gflasker@ndsuext.nodak.edu
Workshops are effective when they target producers having similar expertise. At a recent intermediate level marketing workshop, producers were targeted who had achieved proficiency in the fundamentals of marketing, and who desired to learn advanced marketing techniques in a setting where they could discuss marketing with other producers of similar expertise. Prior attendance at a beginning level marketing workshop presented by Extension was encouraged as a prerequisite.
According to inventories completed during the intermediate level workshop and a follow-up survey, participants improved their marketing knowledge and changed their marketing behavior. In comments, participants indicated that they learned considerably more in this workshop than in other workshops where no prerequisite was stipulated.
A majority of the 201 producers who attended one of the 12 two-day workshops presented in 1992 and 1993 were well educated, financially secure, and at about the mid-point of their farming career according to a profile that was developed from a questionnaire completed during the workshop (Table 1).
| Table 1
Characteristics of Workshop Participants in an Intermediate Level Marketing Workshop in 1992-1993 (n = 201) | |
|---|---|
| Item | Amount |
| Age 30-44 | 57% |
| College Degree | 42% |
| Previous Marketing Workshop | 58% |
| Farming Experience | 17 years |
| Crop Acres Operated | 2211 acres |
| Storage | 82077 bushels |
| Marketing Plan Used | 41% |
| ncome Primarily From Crops | 71% |
| Gross Farm Income | |
| Above $100,000 | 71% |
| Above $250,000 | 28% |
| Above $500,000 | 11% |
| Off-Farm Family Income | |
| Above $10,000 | 56% |
| Above $20,000 | 39% |
| Above $30,000 | 25% |
| Assets | |
| Above $250,000 | 74% |
| Above $500,000 | 50% |
| Above $1,000,000 | 21% |
| Liabilities | |
| Below $100,000 | 42% |
| Below $250,000 | 75% |
| Below $500,000 | 92% |
Most participants operated crop farms large enough to take advantage of size economies, and many followed a marketing plan. The profile fit expectations about potential participants. Consequently, the workshop was appropriately planned.
Risk management, marketing plans, basis, storage returns, futures, and options were reviewed during the first one-fourth of the workshop. Contracts, synthetic options, fences, and a multi-year marketing strategy were discussed in the second and third quarters. A case study for practicing newly learned skills was featured during the last one-fourth of the workshop. Participants were encouraged to discuss exercises and case study situations in groups of three or four, but to make independent decisions. The case study (a modification of one by W.I. Tierney and R.N. Wisner, 1991) was followed by a discussion of successes, failures, and reasons for decisions.
Participants completed inventories to determine their marketing knowledge at the beginning and end of the workshops. The inventories were developed from publications by C. O'Connor and K. Anderson (1989), Chicago Board of Trade (1989), and Minneapolis Grain Exchange (1991).
The t-test was used to verify that participants in the workshops improved their marketing knowledge. For each subject area, the null hypothesis for the test was that participants did not improve their understanding of marketing concepts. A significant t-value indicates, to the contrary, that participants did improve their level of understanding as a result of the workshop (Steel&Torrie, 1960; Turner & Travnichek, 1992). Results of the inventories and 10 t-tests are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
The results indicated that participants significantly improved their knowledge of marketing concepts during the workshops: learning of the concepts was significant at the .01 level in all but one subject area, which was significant at the .05 level (Table 2).
| Table 2
Comprehension of Marketing Topics by Participants According to Inventories Completed During an Intermediate Level Marketing Workshop in 1992-93 (n = 201) | ||
|---|---|---|
| Item | Preworkshop | Postworkshop |
| Test Scores (29 Questions) | 71% | 82%** |
| Rating (High=5) | ||
| Self-Evaluation | ||
| Historical Basis | 2.9 | 3.8** |
| Storage Return | 3.0 | 3.8** |
| Hedging With Futures | 2.8 | 3.5** |
| Hedging With Options | 2.7 | 3.6** |
| Cash Forward Contract | 3.8 | 4.1** |
| Basis Fixed Contract | 2.5 | 3.2** |
| Delayed Price Contract | 3.1 | 3.3* |
| Minimum Price Contract | 2.2 | 3.0** |
| Hedged-to-Arrive Contract | 1.7 | 2.6** |
| ** Indicates a significant change at the .01 level. * Indicates a significant change at the .05 level. | ||
Participants also demonstrated that they plan to apply their newly learned skills: most indicated by the end of the session, that they planned to partly replace traditional techniques with more advanced ones such as futures or option hedges (Table 3).
| Table 3 Percentage of Participants Planning to Use Various Marketing Techniques to Sell Their Hard Red Spring Wheat Crop the Following Year According to Inventories Completed During an Intermediate Level Marketing Workshop in 1992-1993 (n = 201) | ||
|---|---|---|
| Technique | Preworkshop | Postworkshop |
| Percent of Participants | ||
| Cash Sale | 90 | 78 |
| Cash Forward Contract | 65 | 68 |
| Futures Hedge | 36 | 45 |
| Options Hedge | 52 | 70 |
| Minimum Price Contract | 21 | 4 |
| Delayed Price Contract | 30 | 12 |
| Basis Fixed Contract | 21 | 14 |
Producers generally followed through with their plans according to a follow-up survey conducted in 1994 (Table 4). However, the changes that 45 respondents actually made in marketing behavior were considerably smaller than planned. For example, the use of options after attending the workshop increased to 51% (Table 4) instead of the 70% planned (Table 3), mainly because they felt uncomfortable with the technique.
| Table 4
Techniques Used to Sell Hard Red Spring Wheat Before and After Attending an Intermediate Level Marketing Workshop in 1992-93 and Reasons for Not Using Techniques Afterwards, According to a Following-up Survey of Participants in 1994 (n = 45) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Technique | Before Attending | After Attending | ||||
| Technique Used | Technique Used |
Reasons* | ||||
| A | B | C | D | |||
| Percent of Survey Responses | ||||||
| Marketing Plan | 27 | 78 | 7 | 4 | 4 | |
| Storage | 93 | 84 | 2 | 4 | ||
| Cash Sale | 96 | 93 | 2 | |||
| Cash Forward Contract | 64 | 67 | 16 | 4 | 11 | |
| Futures Hedge | 22 | 24 | 24 | 13 | 36 | 7 |
| Options Hedge | 33 | 51 | 13 | 13 | 22 | 9 |
| Minimum Price Contract | 9 | 18 | 29 | 18 | 18 | 9 |
| Delayed Price Contract | 31 | 24 | 27 | 16 | 22 | 9 |
| Basis Fixed Contract | 2 | 9 | 36 | 29 | 16 | 7 |
| Hedged-To-Arrive (Basis Open) Contract | 2 | 7 | 36 | 29 | 16 | 9 |
| *Reasons for not using a particular technique: A. Chose not to use the technique. B. Lacked understanding about the technique. C. Uncomfortable about using the technique. D. Preferred using an elevator contract instead of futures or options. | ||||||
In conclusion, participants learned marketing concepts and changed marketing attitudes in the targeted workshops. This was demonstrated in inventories and confirmed in a follow-up survey. A refresher workshop may be needed to make producers comfortable with some marketing techniques. The established profile of the targeted group will be useful for designing the refresher and other workshops.
References
Chicago Board of Trade. (1989). Marketing clubs: A hands-on approach to marketing. Chicago: Author.
Minneapolis Grain Exchange. (1991). The