Volume 32 Number 1
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June 1994 Volume 32 Number 1 |
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Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors:
James C. Summers, President, Missouri, North Central Directors Editorial Committee:
Emmett Fiske, Washington, Chairperson
Editorial Staff:
Michael Lambur, Editor
Technical Support Staff:
Thomas R. McAnge, Jr., Technical Advisor
Virginia Cooperative Extension Welcome to the new electronic Journal of Extension
Mike Lambur On behalf of all the publishing staff at Virginia Tech, welcome to the Journal of Extension in its new electronic format. We are excited by the opportunity to be the host institution for this milestone venture. We know our new format represents a significant change from what we have been use to and comfortable with. There are many challenges before us, and with your help we are certain we can make this a successful undertaking. Our goal is to continue to provide a forum for publishing the best and latest information and opinions about a wide variety of Extension issues, experiences, approaches, practices, and techniques. The content of the Journal remains essentially the same as before. Submission categories include: Feature Articles, Research in Brief, Ideas at Work, Tools of the Trade, and a new Commentary section. We are particularly interested in hearing from our readership through the Commentary section. In this section, we would like to promote a dialogue of issues important to Extension. To this end, we will work towards publishing the Journal six times a year and decreasing the turnaround time of manuscript submission to publication to six months or less. The change to an electronic format has been an extremely challenging and adventurous learning experience. Many people have been involved and need to be acknowledged. Teresa Hypes and Cheryl Kieliszewski are the backbone of the editorial operation. Without them I would be truly lost. Tom McAnge and Patrick Robinson at Virginia Tech and Dirk Herr-Hoyman of Florida are responsible for the technical aspects of publication. Without them we would not be able to publish electronically. Ellen Ritter, the former editor, did a wonderful job of providing information on editorial operations to assure a smooth transfer of these tasks, including suggestions for the new electronic format. Colleen Schuh, the outgoing assistant editor, has been invaluable in making the transition and is the driving force in marketing the electronic Journal. Jim Summers, president, and Judith Jones, of the Journal of Extension Board have provided exemplary leadership, administrative support, and direction in this transition. Thanks also to all of the Board and Editorial Committee members who have been extremely helpful and willing to provide assistance at a moments notice to get the new electronic Journal up and operational. Please continue to communicate your comments, ideas, and suggestions on the new electronic format. Let's all work together to make the electronic Journal of Extension a useful and effective resource for the Extension system. MTL
Transferring Technology Through the Internet Channel
Penny Risdon Technology can result from the application of science to add value, simplification, diversification, and productivity to a process or product. However, technology's value wanes unless it can be transferred to a user who can apply the technology to create a tangible benefit. This article presents ideas on how the National Science Foundation's Internet computer communication service can facilitate the technology transfer process by projecting its use in a flow-system model. Such a flow-system model can serve as a strategic planning tool for Extension personnel and other key decision-makers to make constructive interventions to facilitate progress in transferring technology to a tangible end use. The technology transfer process is presented with six phases: technology requisition, technology innovation, technology confirmation, technology marketing, technology application, and technology evaluation. Each of the six phases is briefly described with examples of Internet's services in aiding key actions which facilitate the transfer of technology. The Internet computer communication services can be viewed as an international newspaper which has different sections for specialized information. Internet has three basic services, e-mail, telnet, and ftp. Electronic mail (e-mail) is similar to placing a message in a personalized newspaper, in which only the receiver(s) gets that part of the newspaper. Telnet is similar to subscribing to a specialized section of a newspaper. It is used to connect to other computers on the Internet. File transfer protocol (ftp) is similar to having a specialized section of a newspaper sent to your computer. It allows transfer of files from another computer to your computer (Knol, 1992). Key actions for the six phases can take a multitude of forms, involving these or other Internet services. The technology requisition phase is depicted by research priorities being established by advisory councils at the county, state, and/or federal level. The technology transfer process begins when citizens raise concerns about a situation or problem and request a solution. An Extension agent can send a message (e-mail) to the state subject-matter specialist to ascertain if the problem has been confronted previously and request related references. One example of requisitioning information was the requests for emergency information generated during the "Hugo" disaster to be made available during the 1993 Midwestern states flood crisis. A specialist may refer the agent to resources available through one of the Internet information storage areas or information servers. Within the Cooperative Extension System, several state Extension Services have electronic storage areas which contain agriculture and family resource information. Two examples of such information servers are PENPages at Pennsylvania State University and almanacs at the Oregon State and the University of Wisconsin. If resources weren't easily available, the specialist could communicate about the problem with other specialists nationally or internationally through e-mail discussion groups. Discussion groups, forums, mailing groups, and listservs are special interest groups where issues are discussed via the Internet computer communication system. Additionally, the specialist could use Internet services (telnet, gopher, or wais) to search through informational sources to find related resources. Once information has been accumulated, a specialist starts communicating ideas of how science can be used to solve the problem or improve the situation. This technology innovation phase is represented by the exchange of information which takes place between the specialist, colleagues, and administrators to advance ideas on the application of science. This activity may aid the specialist in further refinement of theories and gain suggestions for other possible applications of the technology. E-mail discussion groups should be actively supported by all Extension professionals to encourage analysis, support, and/or development of ideas. Trotter and Risdon (1990) address the issue of morale benefits which accrue from colleague interaction, establishing the close relationship between morale and productivity. The technology confirmation phase is represented by the Extension professional conducting research which provides data in support of the underlying theory about technology and then communicating the results via Internet services (e-mail or discussion groups) to colleagues and administrators. Key actions in this phase would be in-house reports, presentations, and/or publications substantiating research success; such communications could be posted through Internet discussion groups or posted on information services and/or almanacs. The technology marketing phase of the process is concerned with disseminating the technology beyond the land-grant college. Key actions for science liaison involve educating potential consumers to the social, economic, and environmental benefits of the new technology. During the fourth phase, decisions need to be made concerning consumers who could potentially benefit from the technology. There could be frequent e-mail interaction between specialists and agents to establish a demographic profile of anticipated consumers before organizing communication channels (Risdon, 1990). Knowing where the potential client usually gains knowledge of specialized products and or services will influence the selection of communication methods. E-mail discussions with news groups could be used to exchange ideas on communication channels for transferring the technology. It is best to use a variety of communication channels to stimulate public awareness and understanding of new technology (Kaimowitz, 1989). Tightly-focused educational programs presenting new technology could be shared with agents and selected clients in the next county, state, or half-way around the world via Internet. The technology application phase concerns the understanding of users' or consumers' behavior and establishing predictable steps to monitor the application of technology. Social, economic, and environmental factors influence the rate of adoption of new technology. Extension professionals need to be aware of factors such as cost, convenience, and regulations which influence users' acceptance of new technology or factors which might serve to prevent the adoption of technology. The ratio of the number of clients applying the technology to the total number of potential consumers needs to be carefully monitored (along with the impact on special interest groups), to establish the market share reached. Again, e-mail messages between specialists and agents or e-mail discussion groups could serve as a platform for discussion and fact gathering. The sixth phase of the technology transfer process documents the success level of technology adoption. Key actions for the technology evaluation phase are to establish assessment criteria for authenticating socio-economic and environmental benefits or harm. Guidelines for evaluating different types of technology innovations have been proposed (Echeverria, 1990). Such guidelines could be made available on information servers. Assessing technology transfer effectiveness generally requires specific criteria which can provide a basis for measuring the worth of new technology (Arnon, 1989). The stronger the evaluation criteria, the more useful it is for making decisions on present and future funding. Ideas for evaluation criteria could be exchanged through e-mail discussion groups. The technology transfer process ends when Extension professionals report evaluation findings back to the funding agency (Leifeld, 1993). The technology transfer process describes the linkage which integrates the adoption of new science knowledge, and the role Internet services can play in aiding the process. The flow-system model has been presented to bring awareness and understanding of the role Internet service can have within the Extension community. The Internet computer communication service may empower Extension personnel with an effective tool to aid the successful application of new technology. Those wanting to learn more about how to use the Internet services should contact their local or state computer consultant. References Krol, E. (1992). The whole internet. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly & Associates. Trotter, P., and Risdon, P. L. (1990). Performance counselling. College and University Personnel Association, XXXXI, 21-24. Risdon, P. L. (1990). Developing effective extension educational publications. Journal of Extension, XXVII(Fall), 16. Kaimowitz, D., Snyder, M., & Engel, P. A. (1989). Conceptual framework for studying the links between agricultural research and technology transfer in developing countries. The Hague, Netherlands: International Service for National Agricultural Research. Echeverria, R. G. (1990). Methods for diagnosing research system constraints and assessing the impact of agricultural research. The Hague, Netherlands: International Service for National Agricultural Research. Arnon, I. (1989). Agricultural research and technology transfer. London: Elsevier Science. Leifeld, C. (1993). Victims or architects of change? Journal of Extension, XXXI(Spring), 6.
Growing Through the Stages: A New Look at Professional Growth
Roger A. Rennekamp
Martha A. Nall
University of Kentucky In rapidly changing environments, both organizations and the people who make up those organizations either change with the times or risk becoming obsolete. So as Extension positions itself to address contemporary issues affecting society, professional staff members will need to engage in lifelong learning in order to maintain professional expertise in relevant areas (Martin, 1991). The Personnel and Organization Sub-Committee of the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP) echoes these sentiments in a 1992 report:
Career development and enhancement for the individual
employee are part of the overall (change). To move
through the 1990s, this part of human resource
management should be synchronized with other
organization restructuring strategies. The continuing
professional development of faculty and staff will be
necessary to meet the demands and expectations of the
new workplace (Extension Committee on Organization and
Policy, 1992).
But all too often, professional growth is a hit-or-miss process. Participation in professional development opportunities is seldom done to meet a specific need articulated in advance. The growth that occurs is often serendipitous and may or may not strengthen areas of real need. In this article we introduce a model for professional growth currently being used by the Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service that encourages advance planning and focuses on the individual agent. The most unique feature of this model is that it acknowledges variation in professional growth needs at different points in one's professional career. A Career Stage Approach In many careers, employees progress through a number of upward job changes. For example, an employee may move from sales associate to department manager to store manager to regional manager. However, professional careers often do not have such a structured career ladder to follow. Recognizing the unique characteristics of professional careers, Dalton, Thompson, and Price (1977) introduced a career stage model for professional growth that identifies and describes four distinct stages of professional careers. Associated with each career stage are identifiable characteristics and needs that guide thoughts, behaviors, and actions at that particular stage. Building upon the work of Dalton, Thompson, and Price, we have modified and adapted the original model for use in the Cooperative Extension Service (Rennekamp & Nall, 1993). The model suggests that there are four distinct stages in Extension careers. The four stages in Extension careers are labeled, "entry," "colleague," "counselor," and "advisor." Each stage includes a distinct set of motivators that can drive professional development at that point. These motivators provide both the impetus for participating in and the criteria for selecting from among various professional development opportunities. The Entry Stage The entry stage corresponds to a time in one's career where the individual first enters the profession or a new job within the profession. It is essential that all professionals move out of this stage to attain career satisfaction. The entry stage is characterized by psychological dependency. Central motivators for professional development include attaining the foundation skills required to do the job and understanding the organization's structure, function, and culture at that point in the organization's history. Motivators for professional development at the entry stage include: (a) understanding the organization's structure, function, and culture; (b) attaining base level technical skills; (c) giving relevancy to previous training; (d) exercising directed creativity and initiative; (e) moving from dependency to independence; (f) exploring personal/professional dynamics; and (g) building relationships with professional peers. The Colleague Stage The colleague stage can be a satisfactory level for many professionals for a number of years, as long as growth in expertise or responsibility continues. Some people never need to move beyond this level, thriving on independent work (Simonsen, 1986). Individuals in the colleague stage have been accepted as members of the professional community and independently contribute their expertise to solving problems and carrying out programs. The colleague seeks to build at least one area of expertise for which he or she is noted and often shares that expertise on developmental committees and through other special assignments. Motivators for professional development at the colleague stage include: (a) developing an area of expertise; (b) becoming an independent contributor in problem solving; (c) developing a professional identity; (d) gaining membership in the professional community; (e) expanding creativity and innovation; and (f) moving from independence to interdependency. The Counselor Stage Professionals who have reached the counselor stage are ready to take on responsibility, either formal or informal, for developing others in the organization. At the same time, they must not neglect their own personal growth and development. To accommodate personal development needs counselor-level professionals often seek to develop additional areas of expertise beyond those they currently possess. Counselors often chair committees or take on leadership roles in professional associations. Rather than being independent contributors they understand the need for an interdependent role and accomplish much of their work through others. They are boundary-spanners and often have extensive networks both within and outside the organization. Motivators for Professional Development at the counselor stage include: (a) acquiring broad-based expertise; (b) attaining leadership positions in professional circles; (c) developing networks with other organizations; (d) stimulating thought in others; (e) counseling other professionals; (f) developing coaching and mentoring relationships; and (g) facilitating self-renewal and rebirth. The Advisor Stage Individuals in the advisor stage play a key role in shaping the future of the organization by "sponsoring" promising people, programs, and ideas. The advisor has often developed a distinct competence in several areas of expertise and often has a regional or national reputation. Advisors have a thorough understanding of the Extension organization and can be a catalyst for positive change. They are capable of exercising formal and informal influence in the decision-making process. Motivators for professional development at the advisor stage include: (a) becoming involved in strategic organizational planning; (b) achieving the respect of others in the organization; (c) engaging in innovation and risk-taking; (d) understanding complex relationships; (e) achieving a position of influence; (f) "sponsoring" individuals, programs, and people; and (g) increasing responsibility. Putting the Model to Work We believe the model provides an excellent base from which professionals can begin to focus and articulate their plans for growth. Below we outline five key steps for using the model as a guide for planning professional growth.
The Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service is committed to enabling all professional staff members to reach their fullest potential both as individuals and as members of the Extension system. We believe that by supporting staff members in professional growth we improve job performance as well as increase levels of personal satisfaction. In planning for professional growth, we encourage the use of a career stage approach. The approach requires a long-term perspective and encourages work toward clearly articulated professional development goals while being flexible enough to accommodate shorter-term changes in roles and program focus. A long-term perspective enables us to more efficiently and effectively use the time we are able to devote to professional development. The short-term flexibility allows us to respond to the changing needs of society and the continual evolution in the way we perform our jobs. References Martin, D. (1991). Professional growth: A personal journal. Fort Collins: Colorado State University Cooperative Extension Service. Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (1992). The 21st century professional in the midst of organizational change. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture. Dalton, G., Thompson, P., & Price, P. (1977). The four stages of professional careers: A new look at performance by professionals. Organizational Dynamics, 6, 23. Rennekamp, R. A., & Nall, M. (1993). Professional growth: A guide for professional development. Lexington: University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service. Simonsen, P. (1986). Concepts of career development. Training and Development Journal, November, 70-74.
Challenges to Diversity from an African-American Perspective
Jacquelyn W. McCray A complete understanding of challenges to Extension diversity from the African-American perspective requires recognition of the very different and difficult social, political, and cultural history that characterizes the presence of people of African decent in this country. This paper presents an historical overview of social and political factors that limit the amalgamation of African Americans into the mainstream of American life, briefly describes traditional response behaviors of African-Americans given this historical background, and identifies current barriers to Extension diversity efforts resulting from the factors. Historical Perspective When Africans first came to America approximately 350 years ago, they were not fleeing religious persecution, not intent on finding a better way of life, not seeking haven in the economic and political systems of this country, and it was not of their own volition or will. They had been captured, torn from their home land, and held in bondage. Those who first came were indentured servants who served their masters for seven years and were then freed to establish their own livelihood and households. Later arrivals were much less fortunate. Slavery, which became legal by a law of 1661, stripped African-Americans of all civil rights. Although slavery was abolished with the Emancipation Proclamation of 1865, many of the rudiments and ugliness of slavery permeate society even today. The institution of slavery was for all practical purposes an economic system requiring harsh political and social sanctions to insure its continuance and viability. From an economic perspective, slavery provided low-cost manpower that supported the capital-intensive agrarian society of the South and was the foundation of the extensive wealth held by major slave-holding states. In the year prior to the Civil War, six of the top ten states ranked nationally by per capita wealth were slaveholding states in the South. Twenty years later, not one southern state ranked in the top thirty. From a social and political perspective, the southern caste system grew out of the need to maintain a void between the people of African decent and the rest of society. Contrary to some beliefs, only a small minority of the white population owned slaves, but the whole system was based on a well-ordered society, with well-defined classes where members of each group--including the non-slaveholding farmers, the business and professional men, the yeoman farmers, the freed Africans, and the slaves--knew their place. James Ezell, a renown scholar of the South, notes that the South is really a state of mind. It is as much cultural and political as geographic and climatic (Ezell, 1963). Other authors who have written about the South, suggest that the rest of the nation never understood the South, and the South never ceased to resist and resent. Decades of things as they are, remaining as they are, changing in no appreciable respect, built in the southern mind a strong inbred conservatism; and years and years of enforced stasis (supported by the Jim Crow political environment that was the order of the day until the late 1950s and early 1960s) built into the southern mentality a skepticism of change and a strong inclination to let things be. The influence of this southern mentality is particularly problematic to Extension's diversity efforts for a number of reasons. First, Extension's roots are in agricultural production and much of its early history evolved in the South. Second, Extension is a well-ordered society with well-defined protocols. And third, most African-Americans are no more than one or two generations away from a southern background. Many problems encountered in building a multicultural Extension organization from the perspective of African-American personnel and audiences are grounded in this history. African-American Culture Culture refers to the totality of the ways of life of a people and includes the basic conditions of existence, behavior, style of life, values, preferences, and the creative expressions that emanate from work and play. There can be little doubt that the ways of life for African-Americans in this country are different in major respects from the ways of other ethnic groups. There are similarities, but major differences do exist. The repository for the culture of any people is the family, and in the African-American family resiliency, adaptability, and sheer strength are primarily responsible for this group's survival in an alien and hostile environment. The strength of African-American people is found within. Within the family, within its segregated communities and churches, and within the individual. For years, African-Americans have been masters of internally rebuffing external hostilities. Other historical responses included prescribed avoidance behaviors. But yet, in no real sense different than with any other group, people become weary of continuous external hostilities. More recent response behaviors have included advocacy and direct confrontation. These responses all represent patterned ways of surviving and living, and doing things in an effort to maintain a sense of equilibrium. From an Extension perspective African-American audiences are frequently labeled "hard to reach." Are African-Americans uninterested in the educational opportunities offered by Extension organizations? Do they simply refuse to take advantage of educational programs that can improve the quality of their lives? The answer is a resounding "No!" Education has been a most sought after prize for African-Americans even during slavery, when to learn to read and write was to risk death. Most African-Americans recognize that education has been, and still is, the most successful exit from poverty. African-Americans are hard to reach because in many respects the Extension System is viewed as something for other people. Most people would be hesitant to attend a meeting, program, or activity (even though it's advertised for the general public and accompanied with EEO statements) that is held at a church, country club, or other location that might not receive them on some other day, for some other occasion. The Realities of Extension If Extension is to become truly multicultural, we must address some current realities of the system that present challenges to the environment we seek to develop. Extension is people-focused and we face challenges from both within and outside the system. But, our diversity efforts are internal, addressing our responses to each other and to our programming efforts. Not that we don't need to combat negativism from within the system, but we must also recognize that challenges to diversity exist from outside sources, including traditional audiences and Extension stakeholders. For African-American employees, it is often the external climate that increases the frustrations and hostilities that surface or fester on the job. How many times has your organization made (or failed to make) personnel and or program decisions on the basis of political expediency, or the lack thereof? Motivation to seek opportunities within the system may be diminished for African-American employees given consideration of possible roadblocks. Such obstacles may include: (a) potential hostilities in a new work environment, (b) negative stereotypes from clients and/or stakeholders, (c) limited opportunities for spouse to find work (d) race tax on housing or other forms of discrimination in the community, and (e) uncertainty about a new school environment for their children. Finally, when management problems exist in an organization employees may fail to distinguish between what is a management-style difficulty and the perception of exclusion. For example, when there is autocratic leadership, limited opportunities for advancement, when the distribution of power is held in the hands of a few, and when communication is poor or one-way, any group outside the sphere of authority is likely to feel devalued. But, the perceived threat is compounded for African-Americans who remember the Jim Crow days when acts of exclusion were directed at them and sanctioned to maintain the status quo. It's often said that African-Americans dwell too much on the past. But frankly, our past continues into the present. Oral history is an important part of African-American culture. Alex Haley's saga of "Roots" was a result of a story-telling tradition within our families. He learned the story of his African ancestry and the trials of slavery through stories passed down from generation to generation. The family reunion is particularly important in cultivating and maintaining direct contact with our past. Stories of the strength of our ancestors is our heritage of strength to our children. In summary, African-American sensitivities are shaped by the mix of human environments and life situations that is America. But there is hope! I believe that as an Extension System we must support a posture of social liberation for African-Americans. For those millions of African-Americans who are unreached and untouched by the Extension System, a system supported and maintained by public funds, we must develop effective outreach. In addition, with our interest in accountability and impact assessment, we need to measure progress from the point of entry. This is particularly important in terms of programming for diverse audiences. A financial management program in a public housing project is not going to yield the same measurable results within the same time frame as a session with traditional audiences. If our expectations are unrealistic, our perceived successes may be diminished. I believe the same is true for new Extension employees. Extension is a different organism, and we (all of us) need to give support, encouragement and understanding to new employees who are less familiar with the system and its challenges. From a social development perspective, we must nurture new relationships of power, dignity, and opportunity for all. But we must all look at ourselves and seek to understand our personal motivations, expectations and responses. According to DuBois (1969), "The most difficult stage in the struggle for justice in America will be reached when it is clear that fundamental inequities persist in spite of litigation, legislation and direct confrontation." These words were initially published in 1908. At the time they were written DuBois was pondering the future. That future is now the present. A version of this paper was presented at the Cooperative Extension System's Commitment to Diversity and Pluralism Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico October 25-29, 1992. References Dubois, W. E. B. (1969). The negro American family. Westport, CT: Negro University Press. Ezell, J. S. (1963). The South since 1865. New York: Macmillan.
A Perfect Fit: Involving Youth with Disabilities in 4-H
Roger Tormoehlen
W. E. Field Tommy, who is blind, wants to show a steer in the county 4-H Beef Show. Would you let him? Carol, who uses a wheel chair, wants to join a local 4-H club. What kind of problems might be encountered? Tommy and Carol are only two of the approximately 4.3 million school-aged children in the United States who have disabilities and could benefit from full participation in 4-H activities. Great strides have been made in the formal education system to educate children with disabilities, but it was not designed to meet all the needs of these youth. Efforts are also needed to ensure that children with disabilities also have broader educational opportunities including participation in non-formal educational programs such as 4-H. All youth, regardless of their physical and mental conditions, need and deserve the opportunity to be involved in activities unique to their own special talents and interest. They also need to be integrated, to the greatest extent possible, with other children with and without disabilities in preparation for adulthood in a world with great diversity. For this reason, adults working with organizations such as 4-H, should be well informed about disabilities and their implications for involvement of youth. An initial reaction by many "able-bodied" individuals when encountering young people with disabilities is that they cannot participate in "regular" activities. This point was illustrated to one of the authors several years ago while working with the Wisconsin 4-H program. A ten-mile bicycle ride for 4-H members attending State 4-H Club Congress had been organized. One of the twenty participants who had signed-up to go on the ride was a young man named David, who had multiple sclerosis. David's disease had progressed to the point that he had extreme difficulty walking and usually used a wheelchair. The teen leader in charge of the group indicated that, in her opinion, there was no way that David would be able to ride a bicycle, let alone complete a ten-mile ride. Fortunately, David's county 4-H agent had contacted the State 4-H office indicating that David, despite his physical impairment, would have no problem with the bike ride. The route selected for the bike ride contained an extremely steep hill. Of the 20 bike riders David was one of only seven to make it up the hill without getting off and walking. It was later learned that David was very withdrawn and generally did not participate in county or state events. He had signed up to attend State 4-H Club Congress because he could participate in the bicycle outing. The joy and confidence David gained from participating was tremendous. Relying on appearance alone, it would have been easy to assume that David, because of his physical impairment, would not have been able to participate in a so called "regular" activity (in this case a bike hike). Had that assumption been made and David prohibited from participating, he would not have gotten the joy of riding with the other youth, and they would not have learned about David's special talent and that a disability does not mean being unable to be involved. Often an adult will discourage or deny a child with a disability from participating as a safe way to "protect" the child from potential failure. When this happens, everyone loses. Legal Implications With the signing into law of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) on July 26, 1990 the old question of "Should we accommodate children with disabilities?" has been replaced with "When and how are we going to accommodate children with disabilities in 4-H programs?" This act clearly states that discrimination against people with disabilities in employment, transportation, public accommodation, communications, and activities of state and local government is prohibited. ADA has very special implications for 4-H programs since they are sponsored and financially supported by state and local government agencies. Therefore, all facilities, services and communications associated with 4-H must be made accessible, according to specific guidelines. Does this mean that every activity must be made accessible to every individual with a disability? The answer is no, but there needs to be demonstrated a reasonable effort to accommodate an individual wanting to participate. Benefits of Mainstreaming How do we make 4-H truly accessible to all youth and what are the benefits associated with integration of children with disabilities into traditional 4-H activities? Just as David's bike ride demonstrated so clearly, everyone will need to make an effort to remove both the physical and attitudinal barriers to full participation. It won't be easy and in some cases might prove to be expensive, however, the benefits reaped will be substantial. These include:
Successful Projects A frequently asked question when dealing with youth with a disability is "Can they participate in the projects and activities presently conducted through the 4-H program?" Leaders who have worked with youth who have a disability have identified many existing projects that can be successfully used with children with disabilities. These include projects related to animals, ceramics, crafts, entomology, flowers, food preparation, food preservation, forestry, gardening, genealogy, health, latch hook, models, nutrition, photography, rabbits, sewing, strawberries, weather, weeds, wildlife, windowsill gardening, and woodworking. With creativity, flexibility and the willingness to experiment any project can be modified for youth with disabilities. Some sample project adaptations are:
Program Developed A cooperative effort between the Department of 4-H Youth and the Breaking New Ground Resource Center at Purdue University (phone: 817-494-5088) has resulted in the development of resource materials, including a leader's guide and two brochures, aimed at addressing the issue of ensuring that all youth have the opportunity to fully participate in 4-H programs (contact: Roger Tormoehlen, Perfect Fit Program, Department of 4-H Youth, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907; phone: 317-494-8429). The project's purposes are to:
Program Activities In addition to the development of the resource materials cited above, a three-fold process has been initiated to assist 4-H professionals and volunteers in their efforts to make the 4-H program accessible to youth with disabilities. These steps included:
Summary Non-formal educational opportunities have not been, or have been perceived as not being readily available to youth with disabilities. The problem may be partly due to the lack of knowledge by 4-H professionals and volunteers about disabilities and their implications for youth involvement. 4-H professionals and volunteers must work to make sure that youth, regardless of their physical or mental conditions, have the opportunity to be fully involved in the 4-H program. All youth--whether rich or poor, gifted or disabled--deserve the chance to reach their fullest potential.
An Extension Perspective of the Minor Use Crops Pesticide
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| Table 1. Some vegetable crops (minor use crops) sold at the Vineland Produce Auction, Vineland, NJ. | ||
|---|---|---|
| Arrugula | Dandelions | Parsnips |
| Artichokes | Dill | Peas |
| Asparagus | Eggplant | Peppers (bell) |
| Beans | Endive | Peppers (non-bell) |
| Beets | Escarole | Potatoes |
| Broccoli | Garlic | Pumpkins |
| Broccoli raab | Horseradish | Radish |
| Brussels sprouts | Kale | Rutabagas |
| Cabbage | Kohlrabi | Spinach |
| Carrots | Leeks | Squash (summer) |
| Cauliflower | Lettuce (leaf) | Squash (winter) |
| Celery | Lettuce (head) | Sweet Corn |
| Cilantro | Melons | Sweet Potatoes |
| Chinese cabbage | Mustard Greens | Tomatoes |
| Collards | Onion, green | Turnips |
| Cucumbers | Parsley | Watermelons |
Re-registration of pesticides will require additional research and testing by the manufacturers, costing millions of dollars. Minor use crops account for about one-half of the nation's $70 billion worth of agricultural sales, but the pesticides used on these crops are only a small percentage of total pesticide sales. Pesticide manufacturers seek the major crop registrations (cotton, soybeans, corn) in which the returns justify the investment in time and money. They do not find it economically feasible to spend the time or money necessary to re-register existing minor use crop pesticides, let alone to develop and register new pesticides for these crops. Economic reasons, as well as environmental concerns, have resulted in the cancellation of over two dozen federal pesticide registrations (labels) since 1980 that were important to pest management in minor use crops (Table 2).
| Table 2. Pesticide label losses in vegetables 1981-1992. | ||
|---|---|---|
| Amiben | EDB | Pydrin |
| Antor | EPN | Randox |
| Azodrin | Ethion | Systox |
| Bidren | Fundal | Tenoran |
| Botran | Furadan G | Tok |
| Chlordane | Maneb | Toxaphene |
| Dylox | Parathion | Trithion |
| Endrin | Phosphamidon | Vorlex |
| Enide | Pirimor | Zolone |
| Plictran | ||
To obtain a more complete picture of how Extension agents view the current and future situation with minor use crop pesticides, 18 agricultural agents with Extension responsibilities related to vegetable crops were surveyed. These agents were located throughout the eastern U.S. coastal states and included nine Extension specialists, seven county agricultural agents, and two research/Extension personnel. A total of 16 agents (89%) responded to this survey.
The survey included questions about factors that could affect minor use crop pesticide labels, including re-registration, IR-4, and Integrated Pest Management (IPM), and how these relate to their Extension programs to assist growers in pest management for vegetable production.
Re-registration
When asked whether or not label losses due to re-registration would significantly impact vegetable production in their region, most agreed that FIFRA 88 would likely make pest control more difficult. Seventy-two percent said yes, 11% maybe, 6% said yes in certain years, and 11% said no impact will occur. However, it is important to point out that, because additional pesticide labels will probably be canceled due to re-registration, these responses will likely change in the near future. Pesticides such as methamidiphos, mevinphos, naled, oxydemeton-methyl, and others may be canceled in the next few years due to the high cost of re-registration.
The insect pests of most concern when considering the lost or soon-to-be lost pesticide labels are listed in Table 3. These insect pests are difficult to control and include many sap-sucking insects such as aphids, thrips, whiteflies, and mites. Previously, these insect pests were controlled using certain broad-spectrum insecticides, and as these materials have been and will be lost, the availability of different chemical classes of insecticides decreases, which will make it even more difficult to control these pests.
| Table 3. Vegetable insect pests of greatest concern to agricultural agents when considering the label losses and potential losses due to re-registration. | |
|---|---|
| aphids | cutworms |
| stink bugs | diamondback moths |
| thrips | whiteflies |
| mites | soil pests |
Most respondents also stated that soil insect pest control will be significantly impacted. Pests such as wireworms and grubs have traditionally been difficult to control even with the use of insecticides. Without insecticides, economic control will be impossible since there currently are no alternatives.
All but two respondents felt that the loss of broad-spectrum pesticides will lead to increased pesticide resistance. The over-use of pyrethroids was mentioned most often as an example of increased pesticide resistance due to losses of pesticide registrations. Pyrethroids are already ineffective against several important pests, including the Colorado potato beetle and diamondback moth larva, throughout the eastern U.S. (Forgash, 1981). Most agricultural agents reported that pyrethroids favor aphid outbreaks by killing the natural enemies without affecting the pyrethroid-resistant pests.
Several respondents believe resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) will increase if growers are forced to abandon the broad spectrum insecticides and overuse pyrethroids and Bt's. Resistance to Bt has already been documented for the Colorado potato beetle, diamondback moth, and gypsy moth (Rossiter, Yendol, & Dubois, 1990; and Tabashnik, Cusahing, Finson, and Johnson, 1990). Additionally, one respondent stated that a reduction in available pest control chemicals will result in higher post-harvest losses.
The loss of broad-spectrum insecticides will likely lead to an increase in insect-transmitted plant diseases. Seventy-five percent of those surveyed said plant diseases would increase, 19% felt they might increase, and 6% said no increase would occur. Most of the diseases of concern were those that are transmitted by aphids, leafhoppers, or thrips, which were the insect pests described as most likely to occur as serious pests in the near future due to cancellation of effective insecticides.
IR-4
Only 69% of those responding were active participants in the IR-4 program, although all but one felt that the IR-4 program was helpful in retaining or obtaining minor crop labels. The primary reason for non-participation was the lack of professional recognition obtained from the University. Most respondents felt that their participation in the IR-4 program will decline in the future due to overly strict record keeping and the excessive amount of paper work required for each project. Other reasons included "not enough time" or "not enough funding." Reduced federal and state funding has resulted in fewer Extension agents, area specialists, and support staff (Thompson, 1991). Traditionally, these are the most active IR-4 program participants within the University system. Because of the reduction in available funds and personnel, Extension agents must provide more educational meetings and newsletter information to make growers aware of the re-registration process, and enlist their direct involvement in grower groups working with pesticide registrants under EPA's guidance. Growers must use all available information and participate as much as possible, and they will not be able to rely solely on Extension (Aylsworth, 1983).
Integrated Pest Management
All of the respondents agreed that integrated pest management is important and is the key to the production of vegetables in the future. Although biological and cultural controls will likely become commonplace, more than 60% of the respondents stated, in almost exactly the same words, that "pesticides will likely always be needed for pest management in minor use crops." Pesticides should be used judiciously in a pest management program utilizing all effective methods of pest control.
Summary and Recommendations
In summary, pesticide registration cancellations have, and will continue to have, a negative impact on U.S. vegetable production. In states like New Jersey, where minor use crops account for more than 88% of agricultural production, this would be disastrous. Vegetable growers can expect increased insect, disease, and weed pest problems because effective alternative measures are simply not available. Effective and economic alternatives to pesticides must be available for growers to implement before the minor crop pesticide registrations are canceled.
Extension personnel should help growers contact their state, regional or national IR-4 program to become involved in pesticide registration and re-registration. Training sessions should be arranged to assist growers in these efforts. Growers could be made aware of, and encouraged to join, other grower organizations or groups that have similar pest control needs to develop strategies, share information, and express their needs at all levels of administration. These grower groups could also be encouraged to fund certain studies which support a specific pesticide use or product. Educational meetings and grower newsletters will help disseminate information on the successes of these activities.
What research can do, and what society demands, do not necessarily match. Current research lags behind the needs of production agriculture, and there are no alternatives available to targeted pesticides. The option of using different classes of insecticides is still one of the most important tools we have for resistance management. Growers need to maximize the use of all available pest management tools, including the pesticides we now have, to better manage the pest populations.
Education is the most important factor in the safe and environmentally responsible use of agricultural pesticides. The education of growers and farm workers concerning proper pesticide use must be continuous. The public also needs accurate information on important issues facing modern vegetable production, such as food safety, the pesticide registration process, risk/benefit assessment, integrated pest management, and environmental impacts. Knowledge of these issues will help the public better understand the risks and benefits of pesticide use necessary to maintain our high quality, high quantity vegetable production.
A version of this report is available as New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station publication No. D-08130-08-93. This research was supported by State funds and by the United States Hatch Act.
References
Aylsworth, J. D. (1993). A new look for extension. American Vegetable Grower, 41, 14-17.
Forgash, A. J. (1981). Insecticide resistance of the Colorado potato beetle. Advances in Potato Pest Management. Stroudsburg, PA: Hutchinson Ross.
Rossiter, M., Yendol, W. G., Dubois, N. R. (1990). Resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in gypsy moth: Genetic and environmental causes. Journal of Economic Entomology, 83, 2211-2218.
Tabashnik, B. E., Cusahing, N. L., Finson, N., Johnson, M. W. (1990). Field development of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in diamondback moth. Journal of Economic Entomology, 83, 1671-1676.
Thompson, T. (1991). IR-4 needs grower and financial input to succeed. The Grower, 24, 32-33.
U.S. Census of Agriculture (1987). (AS87-AZ-51). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Robert J. Fetsch
Professor and Extension Specialist
Human Development and Family Studies
Colorado State University Cooperative Extension
Internet address: fetsch@lamor.colostate.edu
Deb Gebeke
Family Science Specialist
Cooperative Extension Service
North Dakota State University
Nationwide, Cooperative Extension professionals are responding to the public's requests for parenting, communication, and other social and economic programs. In offering these educational programs, Extension must be accountable and measure results. We need to establish results that speak to the people's needs and to stakeholders' expectations.
Although the Cooperative Extension System has a long history of helping people help themselves, many Extension professionals have difficulty demonstrating the results and impacts of their educational programs. If Extension faculty can aggregate and compare preventative educational program results both within and across state lines, we can begin to provide the kind of data that our supporters at the state and national levels can use to speak with conviction about our results to funders. This article describes the ongoing testing of a pretest-posttest tool and a method for providing valid, reliable data about family life programs to Extension clientele and other stakeholders.
Situation
Across the United States, a need exists for research-based, social and economic educational programs that strengthen families. In a recent national study, when asked how critical and urgent they considered "strengthening the family" as a national priority, Americans ranked it seventh most critical of 33 social and economic issues (Jenson & Warstadt, 1990). According to a statewide Colorado needs assessment, "strengthening the family should be a national priority" was ranked first of 33 social and economic issues by a sample of selected local people (n = 344) and third most critical by a sample of Extension advisory committee members (n = 384) (Weigel, Fetsch, Jenson, Yang, & Rogers, 1992).
Because strengthening families was a critical issue in Colorado and North Dakota, the authors responded to specific requests by providing preventative educational programs (parenting, communication, problem-solving, balancing work and family, stress and time management) and by evaluating program results using a new tool as pretest and posttest measures of program participant changes.
One of the Cooperative Extension System's special contributions to our nation is its research-based educational programs that invite families to identify their strengths and marshal their resources so they can meet family members' changing needs. Another is its use of land grant university program evaluation resources to develop tools and methods that determine which programs work best with whom.
Objective
The objective of this study was to pilot test the Cooperative Extension Program Evaluation Survey (CEPES) (Fetsch, 1994), which provides results data on seven dependent variables measuring behavioral changes, tax dollars support, family coping, quality of life, self-esteem, stress and depression levels. Validity coefficients of the three subscales by Hamilton McCubbin (family strain, family coping, and quality of life) are .87, .80, and .82 respectively; reliability indexes are .69, .71, and .76 respectively (McCubbin, 1987; McCubbin, Olson, Lavee, & Patterson, 1985). CEPES also provides demographic information and controls for potential changes in family strain levels.
Problem
The problem we faced was how to evaluate the legitimate results of family life programs. Traditionally, Extension educators have used fairly "soft" instruments to obtain knowledge, attitudinal and behavioral results according to the Bennett hierarchy (Bennett, 1975, 1980). These were acceptable for convincing many people inside Extension of the legitimacy of family life programs. Today, however, as revenues become scarcer, Extension faculty are questioned about the differences their programs make. Legislators who have to decide which programs to fund are becoming more sophisticated about legitimate quasi-experimental methodology.
Method
For more than a decade, Cooperative Extension family life specialists have collaborated to develop, test, and share methods for obtaining results of family life programs (Fetsch, 1991). A number of state specialists worked with Hamilton I. McCubbin, Dean, School of Family Resources and Consumer Sciences at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, to identify and test short, sensitive, common, valid, and reliable instruments to collect empirical data documenting family life program impacts. McCubbin gave permission for Extension family life specialists to use his copyrighted instruments. We used four questions to guide our selection from among these instruments:
From these instruments, the authors developed the Cooperative Extension Program Evaluation Survey (CEPES) (Fetsch, 1994). To pilot test CEPES, we evaluated family life programs in parenting, communication, conflict resolution, stress management, and balancing work and family with 13 different audiences (N = 244) in two states. We used CEPES pretests early during the educational programs. For immediate feedback from participants during the workshops, we guided them in scoring two subtests (family coping-coherence and quality of life). We provided nationwide norms reported by McCubbin, Olson, Lavee, and Patterson (1985) so participants could see how their scores compared with those of others. We used a 10-Step Method to incorporate the self-assessment component into the content of the educational program, to guide participants through the evaluation process, and to "sell" them on completing and returning posttests (Fetsch, 1993). We mailed out CEPES posttests two to five months later.
Evaluation and Impact Data
So what? How effective are our programs? According to the Bennett hierarchy (Bennett, 1975, 1980), a critical indicator of the effectiveness of an educational workshop is whether or not participants improve their behaviors as a result. Programs at all 13 sites resulted in self-reports of positive behavioral changes as a direct result of the program. Fifty percent to 88 percent of respondents reported making one to three positive behavioral changes. They changed in four major ways, indicating positive answers to the following statements: (a) we seek encouragement and support from friends, (b) we've improved our financial management practices, (c) I manage conflict better, and (d) we've increased our use of effective family coping strategies. Incidentally, participants in the programs also indicated positive attitudes about use of tax dollars to support such educational programs. The range of support by the groups was from 73 to 100 percent.
Discussion
The Land Grant and Cooperative Extension Systems must address social and economic conditions. The needs of the people demand that we do so. At the same time, we must be accountable for programming results. Extension professionals interested in addressing social and economic issues of their constituents can now assess their program results using CEPES. CEPES is timely and superior to some of our previously used program evaluation tools. It has good reliability.
CEPES is useful to county agents and specialists with family life programming responsibilities. It could be used by 4-H youth development professionals to determine their leader training results. CEPES could be applied by agricultural professionals who see the potential for enhancing the human relationship skills of farm and ranch families.
CEPES may also be useful to Cooperative Extension program leaders and Department Heads who want to assist their specialists and agents in being accountable and in comparing and aggregating the results of programming efforts. These evaluation results may then be used to drop or modify weak, ineffective programs, to strengthen strong ones, and to report results to clientele, county commissioners, state and national legislators. CEPES can help us do what we do best--provide effective research-based programs.
References
Bennett, C. F. (1975). Up the hierarchy. Journal of Extension, XII(March/April), 13-22.
Bennett, C. F. (1980). Teaching materials on "Seven levels of evidence": A guide for extension workers (ESC-575, Supplement 1). Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture.
Fetsch, R. J. (1991, November). Preliminary Colorado results using cooperative extension program evaluation survey (CEPES). Paper presented at the National Meeting of Extension Specialists NCFR Pre-Conference, Denver, CO.
Fetsch, R. J. (1993). Help us help you: 10 steps to results. Unpublished paper, Colorado State University, Department of Human Development & Family Studies, Fort Collins.
Fetsch, R. J. (1994). Cooperative extension program evaluation survey: Pretest & posttest. Unpublished paper, Colorado State University, Department of Human Development & Family Studies, Fort Collins.
Jenson, G. O., & Warstadt, T. (1990). A ranking of critical issues facing American families. Logan: Utah State University Cooperative Extension.
McCubbin, H. I. (1987). FIRA-G family index of regenerativity and adaptation--general. In H. I. McCubbin & A. I. Thompson (Eds.), Family assessment inventories for research and practice (pp. 285-302). Madison: University of Wisconsin.
McCubbin, H. I., Olson, D. H., Lavee, Y., & Patterson, J. M. (1985). The family paradigm album: Family invulnerability test stress, strengths and adaptation. St. Paul: University of Minnesota.
Weigel, R. R., Fetsch, R. J., Jenson, G. O., Yang, R. K., & Rogers, D. L. (1992). Issues validation: A new environmental scanning technique for family life educators. Family Relations, 41, 251-255.
Garry L. Keeler
County Extension Agent
Douglas County
Mike D. Tokach
Extension Specialist
Livestock Production and Management
Robert D. Goodband
Extension Specialist
Swine
Jim L. Nelssen
Extension Specialist
Swine
Mike R. Langemeier
Extension Agricultural Economist
Livestock Production
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas
Extension specialists and agents have an important role to play in helping producers understand and utilize information to increase the value of their products in consumer markets. In the swine industry, for example, producers have an abundance of knowledge at their fingertips to help them produce high quality market hogs. However, when it comes to marketing, a great deal of confusion exists about different packer buying programs. One goal of the Kansas State University (KSU) Lean Value Marketing Program was to make marketing terms better understood and show producers how to get the most money for their hogs.
Consumer demand for lean pork has increased during the last 10 years. Packers are realizing the extra value of lean hogs that reduce the need for trimming excess fat. At the same time, swine producers understand that producing hogs with excess fat is inefficient and unprofitable. These facts have led to changes in terminology of swine performance and profitability. New terminology includes lean gain per day, sort loss, grade premium, and percentage carcass muscle.
Producers typically market their pigs to several packers, and a lack of uniformity in measuring and reporting carcass data exists among companies. Because of this inconsistency, producers find it difficult, if not impossible, to compare their market hogs with pigs from other operations. Producers also have difficulty understanding and comparing carcass data from their own pigs sent to different plants. A uniform carcass lean value program would make comparisons between different producers meaningful and would provide technical information necessary to implement genetic, nutritional, or management changes.
The objectives of this program were to help Kansas producers understand the carcass merit of their pigs when marketed on a wholesale cut basis and to allow them to make comparisons with pigs from other producers.
Procedures
Thirty-four Kansas producers, representing 15 counties, each supplied 25 market gilts for this program. Producers from four major swine producing areas in Kansas were represented. The gilts were slaughtered at Reeves Packing Company in Ada, Oklahoma. To enroll in the program, producers: (a) had to know the genetic background of the gilt, and (b) had to pay a prorated share of the freight from their farms to the plant in Oklahoma. Producers were asked to supply gilts weighing between 230 and 250 pounds.
For identification at the plant, each producer's group of gilts was tagged with a different color ear tag. After slaughter, carcasses were individually weighed and backfat was measured by KSU personnel as soon as the hot carcasses entered the cooler. Backfat measurements were taken at the first, tenth, and last ribs, and at the last lumbar vertebrae on the midline of each carcass. The measurements were slightly higher than if measured on chilled carcasses or off the midline. Thus, the values reported are higher than typically reported in the literature, because backfat shrinks or contracts during chilling.
The carcasses were spray-chilled overnight and fabricated into wholesale cuts on the following morning. All wholesale cuts of a producer's group were individually weighed. Loins were the only closely trimmed wholesale cut (fat cover of 1/8" or less).
Results and Discussion
Each producer in the survey received a complete printout of the value and percentages of each wholesale cut for all producers' pigs. However, the producers were given only the identity of their own group of pigs. From the results, sort loss was identified as a critical factor that producers should consider when marketing hogs. Sort loss is the amount deducted from the producer's marketing check for those carcasses that weigh outside the optimum carcass weight range. The average sort loss for the 34 producer groups was $1.08 per head, with a range of $0.00 to $4.95. The average producer in this study marketed 4,000 hogs per year. Thus, the average sort loss represents $4,320 in lost annual income. For the producer with a sort loss of $4.95 per head, the annualized loss would be $19,800. If this sort loss could be eliminated by one employee spending an average of 2 hours per week (104 per year) weighing market pigs, the potential return would be $190.38 per hour. For the average $1.08 sort loss, the hourly return would be $41.53.
The five producers who had no sort loss deduction routinely weigh individual market hogs before loading for slaughter. Thus, sort loss has an enormous impact on the profitability of carcass merit buying programs. All packing plants have a much greater sort loss penalty for light weight hogs than for heavy ones. Generally, hogs that are above the optimum weight are discounted 1 to 2% of base price. However, hogs falling below the optimum weight limit are discounted 20 to 40% of base price. Therefore, it is better to sell hogs that are too heavy rather than too light on a carcass merit system. The reason for the greater penalty on underweight hogs is the decline in plant processing efficiency. It takes almost the same amount of time to dress a light weight pig as it does a heavier hog.
The grade premium or carcass value is the added price that a producer receives for producing an extra lean carcass. The grade premiums ranged from $.06 to $6.04 per head, with an average of $3.39. For the average producer in this study marketing 4,000 hogs yearly, a $.06 per head premium would translate into an annual $240 return, whereas a premium of $6.04 per head would generate an annual return of $24,160. Therefore, the value of purchasing lean boars and changing genetics can be justified easily by producers needing to improve the leanness of their market pigs.
Yield or dressing percentage is the carcass weight divided by live weight. There are only two reasons for determining yield: (a) to allow the producer to determine the optimum live weight to obtain a carcass that falls into a packing company's preferred weight range, and (b) to allow the company to convert to a live weight market price. Producers often misinterpret yield as an indicator of the quality of their pigs. The major factors explaining the differences in yield among hogs from different producers marketed at the same plant are gut fill and trim loss. The largest components of the differences in yield of hogs from the same producer marketed to different plants are variations in skinning, head removal, and distance to the packing plant.
The yields in this study ranged from a low of 73.86% to a high of 76.29%, with an average of 74.97%. The inverse relationship between yield and percent lean results in producers with fatter pigs receiving a yield premium. Yield can be influenced only by decreasing live weight in relation to carcass weight. Carcass merit programs that indicate a yield premium on the slaughter sheet only serve to confuse producers, because they are being paid only for actual carcass weight. As a hypothetical example, Table 1 shows the "yield premium" for two hogs that have identical 171.5 lb carcasses. One pig was marketed under normal procedures, whereas the second pig was held off feed for 12 hours to decrease gut fill and increase yield. Live weight of the two pigs were 235 and 230 lb, respectively. Thus, yields were 73.0% and 74.6% respectively. The plant standard for this weight of carcass is 73.0%. The total carcass value of the two pigs is the same, because they have the same carcass weight. For the second pig, the yield premium is needed to convert to a common live weight price. Yield is valuable information in determining the optimal market live weight needed to minimize sort loss; however, yield premium is actually only a back calculation to live price.
| Table 1. Fallacy of Hog Yield Premiums. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carcass Weight Value | Live Weight | Carcass Price1 | Live Price2 | Yield Premium | Live |
| 171.5 lbs | 235 lbs | $99.47 | $99.47 | $0.00 | $99.47 |
| 171.5 lbs | 230 lbs | $99.47 | $97.29 | $2.18 | $99.47 |
| 1 Carcass price = $58/cwt. 2 Live price = $42.30/cwt. | |||||
Project Impact
The Kansas State University Lean Value Marketing Program was designed to provide producers with insight concerning the value of their pigs when marketed on a wholesale cut basis. This program allowed producers to directly compare the actual worth of their pigs with that of pigs from other producers. More importantly, this project demonstrated to producers the economic incentive of producing hogs that are lean and uniform.
Producer awareness was an important part of this program. Results from this study have been shared with a majority of Kansas swine producers as well as producers from surrounding states. The KSU Swine Day program included comments on this project and a poster display. The procedures and results were shared with county Extension agents at their annual livestock update training session. After this session, several area pork producer groups asked to have the information presented to their organizations during the winter. Sort loss was the most asked-about topic during the presentations. Three issues of the KSU Swine Update Newsletter discussed the topics of sort loss, grade premium, and yield.
The program has been featured in the Kansas Farmer publication and the KSU Ag Report, which is circulated to 18,000 people, including KSU College of Agriculture graduates, legislators, college deans, and county Extension councils.
In April of 1993, results from this study were presented at the National Meeting of the American Association of Swine Practitioners in Kansas City, Missouri. Two poster presentations of the KSU Lean Value Marketing Program were made at the Midwestern Section of the American Society of Animal Science in Des Moines, Iowa in March, 1993. The poster display also was exhibited at the Kansas Cooperative Extension Service/Agricultural Experiment Station Annual Meeting in April, 1993 for county agents from across Kansas and KSU Extension and research staff.
This project demonstrated the economic impact that an Extension program can have with producers in changing their marketing and other management practices. It has enhanced the understanding of carcass merit marketing by producers, Extension agents, and Extension specialists. This program also will be pivotal to the adoption and analysis of lean value genetics in the years to come.
Sara Hudgens Burczy
Regional Specialist
Nutrition and Food
Internet address: uvmext_berlin@clover.uvm.edu
Marjorie M. Bowin
Graduate Research Assistant
University of Vermont Extension System
Montpelier, Vermont
This research study was supported in part by a University of Vermont Graduate College Summer Research Fellowship.
Wellness is more than the absence of illness. Health has been defined as a position on a continuum, from illness and premature death on one end to wellness, or optimal health, on the other (O'Donnell, 1986). Wellness is multi-dimensional and involves a person's entire lifestyle.
Research has shown that lifestyle choices affect the quality of health and well-being and, thus, where one is on the health continuum (Girdano, 1986; Selleck, Sirles, & Newman, 1989; and Sloan, Gruman, & Allegrante, 1987). Wellness programs focus on positive health behaviors that enable people to move from their current state of health to a higher level of well-being. Recognizing the relationship between health and productivity, many employers in the U.S. now provide wellness programs for their employees. A 1992 national survey of worksites with 50 or more employees found that 81% offer one or more health promotion activities (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1993). Employers view these programs as a means of taking a more active role in health cost containment and the health status of their employees.
Purpose and Objectives
The purpose of this study was to assess the wellness needs and interests of University of Vermont (UVM) Extension System employees. By identifying areas of perceived need, this study could assist leaders within Extension and the university as a whole in the planning and development of employee health promotion activities designed to improve the health and well-being of Extension faculty and staff, as well as to boost morale and enhance performance.
Specific objectives of the study were to: (a) assess the perceived health-related needs, interests, and practices of UVM Extension System employees; (b) investigate the attitudes of Extension faculty and staff regarding the prospect of an employee health promotion program; (c) determine if UVM Extension System employees perceive organizational and co-worker support for the practice of positive health behaviors; and (d) identify major goals plus desired topics, programs and activities for a wellness program for Extension employees.
Methods
A mail questionnaire developed by the researchers was used to gather data for the quantitative part of the investigation. For the qualitative portion of the study, four focus group interviews were held.
During the time this study was conducted, the UVM Extension System was undergoing a significant reduction in workforce affecting the total number of employees who would be active as of July 1, 1992. That projected number of employees was 135, with 57 employees located on the university campus and 78 located off campus at field offices. This total included 86 females and 49 males; 72 were faculty members and 63 were program and clerical staff. Since this population was relatively small, all were included in the survey sample.
The 27-question survey was developed based on a review of other existing health information surveys and related literature (Aday, 1989; Babbie, 1973; and Nickens, Purga III, & Noriega, 1980). As this was a new instrument, a pre-test was conducted with five university employees who were not included in the sample for the final survey. The instrument was also critiqued by three UVM faculty with expertise in survey research methods. The questionnaire contained four sections. The first section included demographic data, such as gender, age, position (faculty, program staff or clerical), location (on or off campus), length of employment, Extension FTE, hours worked for Extension per week, and hours at another paying job per week. Questions in the second section assessed interest in an employee wellness promotion program. This section included questions relating to the components of a wellness promotion program, specific programs and activities which should be offered, intent to participate, cost sharing, and when programs should be offered. The third section concerned health and lifestyle. Respondents were asked about their smoking, weight, seat belt use, blood pressure, cholesterol, stress, back pain and daily dietary habits. The fourth section addressed workplace culture with questions about support by co-workers and the organization for positive health practices. At the end of the survey, an open-ended question was included asking the respondent to provide his/her own definition of wellness.
Pre-notification about the mail questionnaire was given to all UVM Extension employees through an electronic mail message from the Extension associate director in late April. The questionnaire, a cover letter, incentive prize drawing information and an addressed, stamped return envelope were sent to the survey sample in early May. A follow-up mailing to those who did not respond to the first request was done three weeks later. This mailing included a new cover letter, a second copy of the questionnaire, and an addressed return envelope. The final cut-off date for receipt of completed questionnaires was June 10. Completed questionnaires were reviewed and coded, and the data was entered into the UVM VAX computer for statistical analysis procedures using SPSS software. Statistics used include frequencies, percentages, and cross tabulations (Orlich, 1978; Alreck & Settle, 1985; Aday, 1989).
Thirty-one Extension employees, nearly a quarter of the total population, participated in the focus group interviews (each group consisted of 7-9 employees). Participants represented variations in position, geographic location, age, length of service, and gender. Participation was voluntary and it was made clear that the ideas and opinions shared by individual participants would be kept confidential. During the initial recruitment, the purpose and format of the interviews were explained via phone or in person. Follow-up letters were sent, to confirm dates and locations and provide additional background information. About a week before each scheduled focus group session, recruits were again contacted through electronic mail to help ensure participation. All participants voluntarily signed a consent form prior to the beginning of each session.
The 1 1/2-hour focus group interviews were conducted during the last week in May and the first week in June 1992. Three were held at Extension field offices with the fourth held on the university campus. The Extension educator who designed the study moderated all sessions using the nominal group process and other recommended focus group interview techniques (Stewart & Shamdasani, 1990; Kirk & Miller, 1986; and Krueger, 1985). The same set of five questions was used with each focus group. All sessions were tape recorded and detailed written notes were also taken by an assisting faculty member.
Findings and Recommendations
A 79% response rate was received for the survey. The majority of faculty and staff who completed the questionnaire had positive feelings about the prospect of an employee wellness program being offered, with 93% indicating that they were at least moderately interested; 40% of the total indicated they were excited about the prospect. No respondents were opposed to the prospect, and only eight were not interested. In addition, a large number of respondents (91%) said they would expect to participate in wellness program offerings. This level of interest was supported by the findings of the focus group research.
On the questionnaire, the components selected most often for inclusion in an Extension employee wellness program were: (a) exercise and fitness activities, (b) a component on mental and emotional health, and (c) lifestyle enhancement workshops /seminars. Wellness educational programs of most interest to survey respondents included balancing work and leisure, stress management techniques, and relaxation training. Respondents also indicated the greatest interest in the following fitness/sports activities: (a) walking/running, (b) hiking, and (c) canoeing/boating.
All but one of the 32 invited Extension employees took part in the focus groups. Participants identified major goals for an employee wellness program and provided input on kinds of topics, programs and activities they would like to see included. They also identified potential benefits and drawbacks associated with having such a program, and suggested ideas on how to move forward with an employee wellness program.
Based on a combined analysis of the questionnaire and focus group findings, the following recommendations were made to the University of Vermont Extension administration:
A complete report of the research findings, including an in-depth discussion of the recommendations, was shared with state and regional Extension administrators and with key personnel involved with the new university employee wellness program.
From Research to Action
During the year following this needs assessment study, a six-member Extension wellness team provided leadership for a number of activities designed to increase awareness about wellness and promote healthier lifestyles among UVM Extension employees. Using the findings from this research, they carried out specific actions that targeted one of their action plan goals: "to improve the health and well-being of all Extension employees in order to strengthen and enhance both the individual and the organization" (Campbell, 1992).
Wellness orientation sessions for Extension faculty and staff were led by team members at regional office conferences and on-campus meetings. Wellness action groups, comprised of interested faculty and staff, were formed to promote wellness among all Extension employees at various times during the year. "Wellness: Focus on You" was the theme of the 1993 UVM Extension Spring Conference, where nearly 100 faculty and staff participated in a day filled with wellness workshops, lifestyle awareness opportunities, and recreational activities. The conference topics and activities were based on the research data from this study. Wellness concepts have been integrated into Extension activities at little or no cost. Activities based on these concepts include stretch breaks at meetings, fitness activities at conferences, healthy refreshments, walking programs, stress management workshops, and humor in the workplace.
Furthermore, as the University of Vermont's employee wellness program is being developed, the findings from this study continue to serve as a guide for the design and implementation of programming that addresses specific needs and interests of Extension employees. Recognizing the lead Extension took in identifying and addressing its employees' wellness needs, the university has included an Extension liaison on a new UVM employee wellness committee, which serves as an advisory group to the wellness program coordinator.
Conclusions and Implications
Historically, Extension has provided education for healthy living. One of the goals of Extension's national Decisions for Health agenda focuses on people adopting healthy lifestyles (National Extension Health Agenda Task Force, 1992). The adoption of healthy lifestyle practices by Extension employees is important for many reasons, not the least of which is that, to be most effective, educators must be positive role models for what they teach.
In addition, organizations are only as healthy and productive as their employees. In times of tight budgets and spiraling health care costs, employee wellness programs offer cost-effective opportunities for promoting positive health behaviors that lead to increased productivity, improved morale and reductions in health care costs (Gebhardt & Crump, 1990; Selleck et al., 1989; Marcotte & Price, 1983; O'Donnell & Ainsworth, 1984; and Sloan et al., 1987). Using needs assessment data, a team approach and, in many cases, existing resources, Extension organizations in other states can follow Vermont's example by providing wellness activities that improve their employees' health and well-being, and at the same time, increase their ability to address health-related issues of the 90's. Such programming can ultimately strengthen and enhance both the individual and the organization.
References
Aday, L. (1989). Designing and conducting health surveys. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Alreck, P. L., & Settle, R. B. (1985). The survey research handbook. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
Babbie, E. R. (1973). Survey research methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Campbell, J. (1992). UVM extension system team action plan. Plan developed at Mountainside Wellness Conference, Bolton Valley, Vermont.
Gebhardt, D. L., & Crump, C. E. (1990). Employee fitness and wellness programs in the workplace. American Psychologist, 45, 262-272.
Girdano, D. A. (1986). Occupational health promotion: A practical guide to program development. New York: Macmillan.
Kirk, J., & Miller, M. L. (1986). Reliability and validity in qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Krueger, R. A. (1985). Focus group interviewing - Step by step instructions for extension workers. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota.
Marcotte, B., & Price, J. H. (1983). The status of health promotion programs at the worksite - A review. Health Education, July/August, 4-9.
National Extension Health Agenda Task Force (1992). Decisions for health: An extension system agenda. (Report). Washington, DC: National Extension Health Agenda Task Force.
Nickens, J. M., Purga III, A. J., & Noriega, P. P. (1980). Research methods for needs assessment. Washington, DC: University Press of America.
O'Donnell, M. P. (1986). Definition of health promotion. American Journal of Health Promotion, 1, 4-5.
O'Donnell, M. P., & Ainsworth, T. (1984). Health promotion in the workplace. New York: Wiley & Sons.
Orlich, D. C. (1978). Designing sensible surveys. Pleasantville, NY: Docent.
Selleck, C. S., Sirles, A. T., & Newman, K. D. (1989). Health promotion at the workplace. AAOHN Journal, 37, 412-421.
Sloan, R. P., Gruman, J. C., & Allegrante, J. P. (1987). Investing in employee health. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Stewart, D. W., & Shamdasani, P. N. (1990). Focus groups: Theory and practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service (1993). 1992 national survey of worksite health promotion activities: Summary. American Journal of Health Promotion, 7, 452-464.
David Schmidt
Graduate Assistant
S. Kay Rockwell
Evaluation Specialist
Internet address: coex003@unlvm.unl.edu
Larry Bitney
Farm Management Specialist
Internet addresss: agec005@unlvm.unl.edu
Elizabeth A. Sarno
University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension
Lincoln, Nebraska
Successful Farming magazine predicted in 1983 that 80% of American farmers would be using microcomputers to assist them in farm management by 1990. And, Odell (1989) commented that microcomputer use on farms, and in agribusiness, has become an essential part of good management. In the early 1980s, agricultural operators who first attempted to use the new microcomputer technology encountered problems such as expensive hardware and little, if any, software relating to agriculture. Ten years later the situation is reversed; the cost of hardware has dropped dramatically and companies are offering an enormous selection of agricultural software. This study examines how agricultural operators' microcomputer use progressed through the 1980s. It considers demographic attributes of the agricultural operator who owns a microcomputer; it also explores the implications for Extension programming in the 1990s related to microcomputer use in agricultural operations.
Out of a random sample of 748 Nebraska agricultural operators surveyed by mail in 1989, 35% identified first if they owned a microcomputer and then (a) how they used it, (b) why they used it, (c) how they kept farm/ranch records, and (d) how they integrated the microcomputer into their marketing strategies (Sarno, 1991). In a previous random sample of 532 Nebraska agricultural operators surveyed by telephone in 1983, 70% responded about their ownership of a microcomputer (Rockwell & Goding, 1984). Using a chi-square test of significance at <.05, there were no differences found on age and educational level of the agricultural operators when compared between the 1983 and 1989 samples. Comparisons between those who owned microcomputers in 1983 and 1989 were unrealistic to calculate because the percentage of microcomputer ownership was only 3% in 1983. However, chi-square comparisons at <.05 were used to compare responses of microcomputer owners and non-owners in the 1989 survey.
Results
Microcomputer Owners vs. Non-owners
The percentage of agricultural operators owning microcomputers increased from 3% in the early 80s to 25% in the late 80s. By 1989, about half of the non-owners felt that a microcomputer would be useful for their operation. Microcomputer owners and non-owners differed in age and education. While 52% of the microcomputer owners were under age 45, only 38% of the non-owners were. While 69% of the microcomputer owners had post-secondary schooling or training, only 37% of the non-owners did. The difference in age supports Iddings and Apps' (1990) finding that many agricultural operators felt they were too old to learn to use the microcomputer they purchased and thought the younger generation would be better able to do so. Although Morris (1987) also found age and education to influence attitudes toward computer use, he concluded that education rather than age influences the attitude because the older generation was less likely to have a formal education.
Microcomputer owners and non-owners also differed on gross income levels. While 69% of the microcomputer owners had a gross farm income above $100,000, only 38% of the non-owners did. This lends support to Yarbrough's (1990) finding that farmers making more than $200,000 annual sales perceived that microcomputer use results in a net economic gain.
Microcomputer Use in Accounting Systems in the Late 1980s
Although 57% of the agricultural operators used hand-kept records and 22% saved receipts, bills, and checks until the end of the year, microcomputers were beginning to emerge as a major aid in keeping records. By the late 1980s, 14% used microcomputers for accounting and 7% had someone else use their checks to enter items into a computer accounting system. Slightly under two-thirds (63%) of all agricultural operators felt it would be beneficial for them to keep better records than they were currently keeping. However, computer owners were more likely to indicate a need for better records (76% of computer owners vs. 60% of the non-owners). As an entire group, agricultural operators reported their reasons for not keeping better records involved not having enough time to do so (65%), outside help costing too much (39%), and just not liking recordkeeping (29%). Agricultural operators citing lack of time as a major barrier to microcomputer use parallels the findings of Taylor, Hoag, and Owen (1991).
The 14% adoption rate for using microcomputers for accounting combined with nearly two-thirds of the agricultural operators feeling it would be beneficial to keep better records supports Yarbrough's (1987) conclusion that computerization of an operation is a complex process involving drastic new ways of imagining and manipulating information. Yarbrough believes the intellectual skills the agricultural operator needs to creatively manipulate data are far more complex than the actual skills needed for operating a computer.
Among microcomputer owners, the task of making accounting entries tends to be shared about equally between males (53%) and females (46%) in all agricultural operations. However, where the record keeping system utilized a microcomputer, males were more likely to be responsible for making the accounting entries than females (67% vs. 33%).
Nearly three-fourths (73%) of the owners used the microcomputer for word processing that may or may not be related to their farming operation; 70% used them for accounting. Almost half (46%) used the microcomputer for production records and decision making; 20% used them for marketing; 10% for feed formulation.
Using Microcomputers in Marketing
For all farmers, the top four major sources for marketing information were radio (66%), television (46%), newspaper (40%), and electronic market news terminal (28%). However, the microcomputer owners were less likely than were the non-owners to use newspapers (owners, 25% to non-owners, 45%), radio (51% to 71%), and television (25% to 54%); the microcomputer owners were more likely to use electronic market news terminals (owners, 54% to non-owners, 19%).
By the late 1980s, agricultural operators were starting to make use of sales contracts, futures options, and hedging contracts. However, the microcomputer owners were more likely to regularly use (a) sales contracts for grains (owners, 38% vs. non-owners, 18%), (b) sales contracts for livestock (8% vs. 4%), (c) hedging for grains (12% vs. 3%), (d) hedging for livestock (14% vs.3%), (e) futures options for grains (13% vs. 2%), and (f) futures options for livestock (14% vs. 3%). Almost all (94%) of the microcomputer owners who regularly use sales contracts, hedging, and futures options reported gross incomes above $100,000.
Implications for Extension Programming
These findings suggest that Extension needs to target specific groups of agricultural operators for educational programs related to microcomputer use in agricultural operations. Two specific groups include the younger farmer and the female farm operator. In addition, microcomputer owners need different programs than those who are contemplating purchasing a computer and just starting to explore its capabilities for their agricultural operations.
Agricultural operators under age 45 are integrating microcomputer technology into their operations at a faster rate than other farmers. Therefore, educational programs utilizing microcomputers should provide opportunities for youth who are interested in production agriculture as well as the young adult who has chosen farming as a career. The younger agricultural operators need community based opportunities to learn about, and apply, the microcomputer technology to their particular agricultural operations. Youth should be able to start learning how to use and apply the microcomputer technology through high school agricultural education classes or through 4-H programs.
The female partner in the agricultural operation tends to lag behind in using the microcomputer. Therefore, programs need to target young women who are partners in the agricultural operation, as well as young women in high school settings or in 4-H clubs. The programs should focus on helping women develop the skills and self-confidence necessary to use the microcomputer for accounting, as well as obtaining and analyzing marketing information.
Separate programs need to be developed for microcomputer owners and non-owners (those who are contemplating purchasing a computer or just starting to explore its capabilities for their agricultural operation). These "new" or "potential" microcomputer users need programs that will build confidence and help them feel comfortable with the technology while the owners need to further enhance their knowledge and skill.
Programs for computer owners could be further subdivided to target those experienced with marketing methods such as sales contracts, hedging, and futures options and those without such experience. Educational programs for the microcomputer users need to be sequenced so these "users" can build upon previous experience and competence. Because time was cited as a major barrier to microcomputer use, computer skills should be integrated into programs that teach agricultural operators about basic accounting and management techniques.
Summary
Successful Farming's prediction that 80% of the American farmers would use the microcomputer to assist them in managing their operations has not been realized. However, the 1980s was a period of growth for the adoption of the microcomputer in agricultural operations. The 1990s is the time to meet the challenge of providing education for agricultural operators to increase the use of microcomputers in managing their agricultural production operations. Extension needs to target both youth and young adults as well as the female partner in agricultural operations. Microcomputer educational programs need to be divided so programs address both the basic microcomputer concepts as well as more advanced concepts that further enhance the skills of those who have already started applying the technology in their specific situation.
References
Iddings, R. K., & Apps, J. W. (1990). What influences farmers' computer use? Journal of Extension, XXVIII(Spring), 19-20.
Morris, D. C. (1987). A survey of age and attitudes toward computers. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 17, 73-79.
Odell, K. S. (1989, February). The software sampler. Agricultural Education Magazine, pp. 11-12.
Rockwell, S. K., & Goding, M. (1984). The use of AGNET and microcomputers: A survey of Nebraska farmers and ranchers. Unpublished paper, University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension Service, Lincoln.
Sarno, E. A. (1991). Nebraska agricultural operators' ownership of microcomputers: A literature review and analysis of a Nebraska survey. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Maryland, College Park.
Taylor, M. T., Hoag, D. L., & Owen, M. B. (1991). Computer literacy and use: North Carolina's extension computer education laboratory. Journal of Extension, XXIX(Winter), 14-16.
Yarbrough, P. (1987). Emerging generalizations on the diffusion of computers: An interim report. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Rural Sociological Society, College Station, TX.
Yarbrough, P. (1990). Information technology and rural economic development: Evidence from historical and contemporary research. (Project: Information Age Technology and Rural Economic Development). Washington, DC: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.
Fielding E. Cooley
Staff and Organizational Development Coordinator
Oregon State University Extension Service
Corvallis, Oregon
Internet address: cooleyf@oes.orst.edu
The comment rolled across the audience of Western states' Extension Service faculty in a single wave loud and clear: "Yeah, we can all become better facilitators, but Extension wants us to be educators. Our performance is not evaluated on how well we facilitate community conflicts." Mumblings of confirmation came from the audience of 70 attending a workshop on environmental conflict resolution. They had just been told that as Extension educators in a world of escalating change, their role as facilitators in conflict-laden issues will increase.
Some Extension educators attending the workshop were timid about facilitating community conflicts. Others had experience working with conflicts but wanted performance evaluation criteria that would reward their role as facilitators. Both had good points. Extension's promotion and tenure policies should reward and encourage facilitators who work with community groups. I do not think, however, that we need a special new category of recognition for facilitation. I argue, rather, that we need to change our view of what constitutes Extension education and teaching. If Extension is to significantly impact conflict laden issues at the local level, we must shift our educational paradigm. We can no longer afford to have "teaching" as Extension's dominant educational view. Instead, we must reach out from the educational paradigm of "learning."
Teaching Versus Learning
What, you ask, does the distinction between teaching and learning have to do with facilitating conflict-laden issues? Everything. If you believe you are teaching, that is, you provide knowledge for students to soak up, then the role of facilitator has no place in your view of education. The teaching paradigm, in this case, does not allow facilitation to be considered an educational event. The traditional role of teacher is that of an autocrat in charge of a classroom of students. Teachers choose the texts, design the curriculum and the lessons, and instruct the students. Students in this situation are largely passive. They accept what the teacher presents, ask a few questions, and react to the educational dinner table set by the teacher. The result is students with information that they struggle to apply in the real world.
In conflict-laden situations, all of the people involved have interests at stake and are struggling to apply what they know and can do to influence the outcome. Hence, the problem, conflict, disagreement, or stalemate, where victors and victims whirl in a slurry of issues and values, is created. It is a situation ripe with opportunities for learning and behavioral change that could result in improvement in the performance of community institutions and natural systems. When Extension agents facilitate processes for groups working with conflict-laden situations, and they do so in ways that emphasize learning rather than teaching, education results. The extent to which a teacher sets an educational table that encourages citizens to control what and how they learn shifts the role of teaching toward the learner-centered paradigm.
Conflict-Laden Issues
Let me give some examples of why the facilitator role can be extremely effective in a conflict-laden educational setting. Consider there are three types of conflict: conflicts over values, facts, and strategies (Schmuck & Runkel, 1985). My values may be rooted in religion, yours in science. I believe abortion is a sin. You believe science can determine when life begins for a human and that pregnant women should have the right to choose an abortion in the first trimester of pregnancy. An Extension agent can teach about those value differences to groups having an interest in this issue, but that teaching is not likely to change their values or result in behavior changes and agreement. On the other hand, if an agent facilitates a process that identifies the larger contextual issue of unplanned pregnancy and helps the interest groups explore the values they hold in common; then real problem-solving, learning, and appreciation can begin.
Each stakeholder group brings their set of facts to the issue of what to do with old growth forests. Environmentalists know that cutting trees contributes to the greenhouse effect and reduces ecological diversity. Industrialists know that old forests are decaying. Old forests cannot be managed for maximum productivity unless they are cut and replanted. Extension specialists can teach all of these "facts" but experience shows each stakeholder group just continues
