Questions & Answers for Authors

Q&A for Authors

Submission Instructions

Instructions for Submitting Articles

Review and Evaluation Process

Review and Evaluation Process

Editorial Committees and Board

Editorial Committee and Board

Feature Articles

What Cooperative Extension Should Know About the Americans with Disabilities Act

McBreen, David

Designing Meaningful Satellite Programs: The Many Faces of Homelessness Project

Greer, Edrie Ziebarth, Ann

The Magic Years: Parent Education by Spanish Language Radio

Cudaback, Dorothea Marshall, Mary K. Knox, Josephine

Agents Contribute to Statewide Program Designs in Yardwaste Management

May, James H. Simpson, Thomas W. Relf, Diane

Perceptions of Large-Scale Cornbelt Farmers: Implications for Extension

Musser, Wesley N. Patrick, George F. Ortmann, Gerald F. Doster, D. Howard

Research in Brief

Communication Needs In Extension

Weigel, Daniel J.

Evaluation of Dietary Guideline Bulletins Revised for a Low Literate Audience

Achterberg, Cheryl L. Van Horn, Barbara Maretzki, Audrey Matheson, Donna Sylvester, Gina

Ideas at Work

Baby's First Wish: A Successful Monthly Newsletter

DelCampo, Diana S. Hamilton, Wendy V.

Turning Regulation Into Education

Hogan, Mike Simeral, Ken

Producer Involvement in Watershed Management

Ward, Barry W. Pittman, Mark I. Amos, Roger Bauer, Gary

Tools of the Trade

Take the Mystery out of Media

Brown, H. Dennis

Seasonal Price Patterns for Crops

Flaskerud, George Johnson, Demcey

"Sell What You Sow!"

Kolodge, Craig

Extension Journal, Inc.

Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers.

Board of Directors:

James C. Summers, President, Missouri, North Central Directors
Kathy Treat, Vice President, New Mexico, Epsilon Sigma Phi
Janice Leno, Secretary, Oregon, National Association of Extension Home Economists
William Meyer, Treasurer, Wisconsin
Judith Jones, Virginia, Southern Directors
John Bentley, Georgia, 1890 Institutions
Kenneth R. Bolen, Nebraska, Member-at-Large
Henry M. Brooks, Maryland, ECOP
Leon Brooks, Maryland, National Association of Extension 4-H Agents
Roger G. Crickenberger, North Carolina, Member-at-Large
Eldon Fredericks, Indiana, ACE
Dana Hallman-Bama, Washington, DC, ES/USDA
Michael Lambur, Virginia, Journal Editor
Janet Poley, Nebraska, Member-at-Large
Ellen Ritter, Texas, Member-at-Large
Trish C. Sacks, Massachusetts, Northeast Directors
Jerry Schickendanz, New Mexico, Western Directors
Ann Sheelen, New York, Member-at-Large
Gail Skinner-West, Minnesota, Member-at-Large
Larry Wilson, Illinois, National Association of County Ag. Agents

Editorial Committee:

Emmett Fiske, Washington, Chairperson
Soneeta Grogan, New York
Kevin Hayes, Oklahoma
Barbara Hunter, New Hampshire
Gregory K. Hutchins, Alabama
Donna Iams, Arizona
Donnie R. King, South Carolina
Thomas W. Knecht, North Carolina
W. Dennis Lamm, Colorado
Michael McKinney, Florida
James L. Novak, Alabama
Kathleen Parrott, Virginia
Ann V. Peisher, Georgia
Kathy Prochaska-Cue, Nebraska
Roger Rennekamp, Kentucky
Lloyd Royston, Alabama
Walter Taylor, Mississippi
Bill Umscheid, Kentucky
Elaine Ward, Texas
Barbara White, Washington, DC

What Cooperative Extension Should Know
About the Americans with Disabilities Act

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), which became law in January 1992, has been described by the media and politicians as the most sweeping social legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Its provisions are so broad as to be practically elusive. Indeed, even its proponents admit that the law is somewhat amorphous, particularly with regard to its definition of "disability." The National Council on Disability--the federal agency in charge of determining the Act's implementation--defines disability as "any known physical or mental limitation." In light of this generality, the former Chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), Evan J. Kamp, Jr. predicted in July 1992 that the following year would bring a 20% increase in complaints of civil-rights violations, or 15,000 new cases (Kilborn, 1992). In fact, by March 1993, more than 9,000 legal complaints had been filed under the Act, "an unprecedented number in the history of civil-rights legislation" (Rockwell, 1993). As with all new laws, individuals and corporate groups pursue protection or favor. Albert C. Eisenberg, senior director of the American Institute of Architects, says "I get a couple of calls every day from architects around the country; most of them are trying to figure out how to take advantage of the law" (Spayd, 1992).

The essential conditions of the law are "reasonable public accommodation" and "undue burden," both of which are so broadly defined that even attorneys are finding them difficult to specify. However, providing educational services is clearly defined in the Act as necessary to accommodation for the disabled. Administrators who are responsible for programs to include students with disabilities may find that past actions taken to comply with the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 are no longer adequate. Under the new law, providing inclusive services for disabled students may still be expensive, potentially subject to litigation, and perhaps judged evasive by the provider's claim of "undue burden." For better or for worse, the determination of suitability or unsuitability will ultimately rest with the courts. In fact, the EEOC's regulations concerning the ADA are deliberately unspecific, by their own admission, because the Commission believes that decisions can be made only on a case-by- case basis, i.e., court cases. At this juncture, the courts have not defined "reasonable accommodation" or "undue burden." The situation is further exacerbated by the fact that governmental and quasi-governmental agencies have written regulations pursuant to the titles of the law, i.e., the EEOC, the Department of Education, the Department of Transportation, the Agricultural Department, and the Justice Department, to name a few.

Keep in mind that the enterprises of Cooperative Extension programs may be particularly vulnerable because their venue is usually coordinated at a wide variety of sites in a panoply of local missions, many of which could easily be judged as marginal or unsuitable for the inclusion of disabled clientele. An off- campus location--perhaps a place of local business, a church, or a public library, for example, may not live up to the full expectations of the law, even though these locations may be covered by it. Two basic questions emerge: (a) What are the responsibilities of Cooperative Extension agents and administrators in the programming of services in this area of institutional higher learning? and, (b) How can you ensure that your attempts to provide inclusion meet with the spirit of the Act?

Findings and Intent of the Americans with Disabilities Act

In passing the law, Congress found the following (U.S. Congress, 1990):

1. "43 million Americans have one or more physical or mental disabilities, and that this number is increasing as the population grows older."

2. Discrimination against individuals with disabilities persists in such "critical areas as employment, housing, public accommodations, education, transportation, communication, recreation, institutionalization, health services, voting, and access to public services."

3. Individuals with disabilities "continually encounter various forms of discrimination, including outright intentional exclusion, the discriminatory effects of architectural, transportation, and communication barriers, over-protective rules and policies, failure to make modifications to existing facilities and practices, exclusionary qualifications standards and criteria, segregation, and relegation to lesser services, programs, activities, benefits, jobs, or other opportunities."

4. Census data, national polls, and other studies "have documented that people with disabilities, as a group, occupy an inferior status in our society, and are severely disadvantaged socially, vocationally, economically, and educationally."

The Act states that its purpose is to eliminate discrimination against people with disabilities, to provide enforceable standards, to ensure that the federal government plays a central role in enforcing these standards, to use Congressional authority to enforce the Fourteenth Amendment, and to regulate commerce as a direct means of addressing discrimination against people with disabilities.

At WVU, the leadership moved swiftly to develop a comprehensive approach to the provisions of the Act. Top Extension Service administrators first attended a training seminar offered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to familiarize themselves with government guidelines, regulations, and procedures. Significant steps were then taken to ensure not only that the legal provisions of the Act were adhered to, but also to affirm the university's commitment to all of the state's citizens:

• Extension Service leaders became directly involved with the development and conduct of training workshops for their 425 employees. Their involvement conveyed the importance of the ADA precepts.

• ADA coordinators were appointed in each county to be the local authorities on disability issues. These people were trained to be conversant in ADA issues and accommodations and to recognize the significance of the legislation in meeting the needs of the citizenry.

• A rapid-response channel of communications was clearly established to enable local agents to make decisions about issues of accommodation, with the guidance and approval of the central administration. These agents were granted immediate phone access to the primary decision maker.

• Before the program was adopted state-wide, it was pilot tested in one of the 55 counties. An audit of facilities and activities was conducted in this county to determine the levels of compliance and to ascertain the degree of awareness and concern on the part of the agents.

• From the pilot test came a plan for implementation. Extension Services' staff provided definitions, policies, training schedules, and agendas. This plan was distributed to all of the staff for comments and action. Lines of authority were clearly delineated and procedures were expressly enumerated.

• A public notification strategy was adopted that would allow disabled participants to make known in the most efficacious manner the kind of accommodation they would need to be included in the typical classroom milieu. The sine qua non of this policy is communication at all levels within the Extension organization and with the disabled constituent groups.

• Finally, the WVU Extension Service distributed a self- evaluation and compliance form to each of its agents to document their efforts to meet the spirit and the letter of the law. Based on USDA guidelines, this evaluation form forces agents to realize the extent and impact of the law and to make the necessary accommodations, often in advance of the fact.

These initiatives have given a firm and purposeful direction to the WVU Extension Service's attempts not only to comply with the law, but also to live up to its historical mission. Implicit in the program is an awareness that perfection is impossible, however much desired; but the striving for it to assure equality is a fundamental requirement of the human condition.

Facilities

The facilities modifications required under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 guidelines may not be adequate under the new law. Begin an audit of existing access strategies to determine what more needs to be done. Remember that off-campus locations may not live up to current expectations. (For Extension agents, this is a critical issue.) There are many unanswered questions! According to the ADA mandate, new buildings designed after January 1993 must meet more stringent standards than those that are simply being modified. But what role will Extension play in the design decisions? Partners in cooperative programs may have to decide on a case-by-case basis which of its members will accept the primary liability.

Marketing

The ADA requires that communication with people with disabilities be equal in all respects to communication with other groups. Assess your marketing strategies to ensure that advertising and recruiting are directed to people with disabilities. Closed-captioning in TV ads and Braille publications, along with other ideas, may need to be considered.

Decision Making

Administrators of off-campus programs who previously had local autonomy may find that the expenditures and adjustments to accommodate the disabled student are beyond their budget and authority. Local constituent-group representatives--AIDS awareness organizations, hearing-impaired advocates, and protectors of the blind--will probably have to be included in the decision-making process. Guidance will likely come from central administration about how to deal with these parochial demands, about how the funds will be made available, and about the efficacy of the program. Because the federal government has declared its intention to oversee the law (regardless of state initiatives), seek policy guidelines from your institution's highest management levels.

Faculty

Awareness of the special needs of the disabled will be a requirement for all faculty. Disabled participants will have the right to flexible schedules, modified exams and training materials, and even note-takers or interpreters. For those unable to travel, video instruction with its unique aspects may become a requirement, and faculty must be prepared to develop proficiency in the medium. Inservice training for faculty may be needed to heighten their sensitivity and to make them aware of alternative delivery systems.

Resources

Special equipment, such as telecommunications devices for the hearing-impaired or Braille PC's for the sight-impaired, may require new or untried fund-raising efforts. Cooperative Extension administrators, agents, and other personnel designated to be responsible for the provisions of the Act should investigate government grants, community participation, or special fund-raising events to help defray the cost and to heighten awareness of the plight of the disabled and of the need to include them in the mainstream educational process.

Policies

All of your institution's policies concerning admission, grading, discipline, and general access must be reviewed with an eye to accommodating the disabled student (or faculty member). Keep in mind that the spirit of the new law is inclusion, not segregation. Separate but equal is no longer acceptable unless you can prove an "undue burden."

Evaluation

Establish a methodology for overview and for continuous monitoring of policies and procedures dealing with disabled constituents. Keep abreast of the outcomes of court cases related to the ADA and be flexible, ready to adjust rapidly to court-mandated criteria, and anticipative of consequent legislative or judicial actions.

Kilborn, P. T. (1992, July 19). Big change likely as law bans bias toward disabled. The New York Times, section 1, pp. 1, 24.

Rockwell, Jr., L. H. (1993, July 7). Wheelchairs at third base. National Review, pp. 47-50.

Spayd, Liz (1992, January 24). Business faces $2 billion overhaul to lower barriers. The Washington Post, p. A21.

United States Congress. (1990). Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Public Law 101-336. Washington, DC: 101st Congress.

Designing Meaningful Satellite Programs:
The Many Faces of Homelessness Project

Satellite videoconferencing is no longer a novel programming method for Extension staff or much of our clientele. This distance education medium can be highly successful when program planners follow effective instructional design principles (Marder, 1987). Such programs also save specialist and participant travel time and bring to remote sites a wealth of expertise that might not otherwise be available.

We have difficulty, however, designing programs that address topics outside Extension's traditional areas of expertise such as homelessness in non-metropolitan areas. A recent satellite videoconference in Wisconsin successfully united more than 300 people in 40 locations across the state to learn more about urgent housing needs, share their perceptions about homelessness, and question experts about alternative solutions.

Here is what some of the viewers had to say about the program, which was called "The Many Faces of Homelessness:"

     "I am very excited about the enthusiasm of the group
     that attended in our county.  We will be starting a
     housing coalition.  This satellite program served as a
     catalyst in bringing these people together."

     "Participants seemed particularly touched by the case
     studies.  We will be meeting again to form a housing
     coalition to look at substandard housing in the
     county."

     "Opened my eyes to the large number of homeless people.

     It let me see the situation through their eyes."

The design team, composed of two content specialists, one producer/instructional designer, several Extension Family Living county faculty members, and representatives from various state agencies and organizations, developed the following program goals:

1. To increase participants' awareness of the urgent housing needs in non-metropolitan as well as metropolitan areas.

2. To illustrate successful programs that have mitigated the homeless problem in specific non-metropolitan areas of Wisconsin.

3. To help build local coalitions of participants who can address the problem.

The University of Wisconsin-Extension Cooperative Extension follows a philosophy that the satellite portion of the videoconference is only one part of the total learning experience; on-site activities and print materials are just as important. Because the video portion tends to take more time and monetary resources, it is often easy to relegate other teaching tools to the background. A special attempt was made with "The Many Faces of Homelessness" to design a total distance education learning experience. The importance of the local site facilitator was underscored by involving several county faculty members in the videoconference design, thereby giving them the opportunity to feel "ownership" in the program.

Developing a satellite video program on homelessness presented several challenges. First, there was a common misperception that homelessness is only an issue in our larger metropolitan cities. Studies have shown, however, that there is a significant number of homeless people in rural areas and in smaller towns and cities across the state. Many of these individuals are in greater crisis because of the lack of assistance in their communities (Legislative Council Staff, 1991). To make this point "real" to the participants, our design team decided to tape on-location interviews with homeless people living in various non-metropolitan places. Although this added significantly to our budget, we anticipated that these interviews would illustrate the reality of non-metropolitan homelessness and highlight a few programs that have made a difference in people's lives.

Our second challenge was to encourage participants to follow through in a meaningful way with the information and ideas obtained from the program. To increase chances for follow-up, we designed pre-and post-program activities into the program mix. Given the subject of the program, we expected that many of the participants would come with diverse backgrounds and would not necessarily know each other before the meeting. We also anticipated that for some participants, this would be their first Extension program.

To encourage interaction at each site, we gave facilitators specific guidelines for involving participants in the distance learning experience. A few days before the program, site facilitators were asked to participate in a phone conference, where the materials in the Site Facilitator's Guide were reviewed. The program agenda, protocol for interaction, overview of print materials and a brief background discussion strengthened the site facilitators' comfort level about their roles.

The pre-satellite segment was primarily devoted to one of two site activities that facilitators could select, depending on the experience and composition of the local audience. Because this was the first statewide program addressing non-metropolitan homeless issues, and because there was little research available on the extent of homelessness in these areas, participants were asked to make a quick assessment of the perceived number of homeless persons, as well as the availability of affordable housing in their communities. At the end of the activity, pre-selected facilitators from six sites faxed to the studio a summary of their results using a special sheet that was provided in the Site Facilitator's Guide. The results were not meant to be scientific, but were designed to reflect a "snapshot" of the current homeless picture as our participants across the state perceived it.

During the first half-hour of the satellite segment, one of the content specialists analyzed the site activity data and reported the results. This was an exciting and innovative use of real-time interaction, which is an important component of successful distance education programs.

Other satellite segments included live interviews with statewide experts on homelessness, pre-recorded interviews with homeless persons, a panel discussion with directors of successful programs assisting homeless persons, and call-in question and answer opportunities for participants to interact with our panelists. Post-satellite activities were designed to focus on the third program goal of building local coalitions to address urgent housing needs. Participants were provided a list of local services available to assist homeless persons, a resource list, an opinion poll, and a program evaluation instrument. Site facilitators were encouraged to invite discussion of local concerns and to provide opportunities for participants to schedule future meetings to discuss coordinating local services or how to take steps to address local housing needs.

Thirty of the 40 site facilitators responded to the evaluation instrument included in the Site Facilitator's Guide. Eighty-nine percent of facilitators felt that homelessness was an issue of importance to their community.

Eighty-one percent of the 240 respondents indicated that, overall, the program provided what they wanted. Nearly half of the respondents (48%) were new to Extension, never having attended an Extension program before. In addition, although the program was not promoted outside of Wisconsin, a number of out-of-state viewers watched the program. These viewers were from Utah, Ohio, New York, the District of Columbia, Nevada, Kentucky, Arkansas, Minnesota, Idaho, Oregon and Nebraska.

The supporting print materials, including a Site Facilitator's Guide and Participant handouts, were rated as very useful by 81% of the facilitators. Fifty-two percent of the facilitators considered the promotional materials highly useful.

More than half of the respondents indicated that they planned to share the knowledge they gained from the program with others, and 71% learned new things. Most importantly, half of the respondents indicated that they planned future programming on the homelessness issue in their counties during the next year.

Written comments on the evaluation instruments from both facilitators and participants indicated there was strong interest in meeting again to discuss local action. More than 25% of the sites planned post-program activities designed to build or strengthen coalitions of people influencing housing in local areas.

The success of this videoconference resulted partly from integrating the conference with an overall Extension program focusing on concerns about affordable housing. By following sound principles of good videoconference planning, we achieved our program goals of increasing awareness of urgent housing needs in non-metropolitan areas, highlighting successful programs addressing homelessness, and facilitating community coalition-building to ameliorate urgent housing needs in the state.

We recommend that others planning similar programs follow some or all of the following guidelines used in designing this satellite videoconference. First, we identified a critical issue that was part of an on-going Extension effort. Second, we built a team to plan and produce the program including those with content expertise, production/instructional design skills, and people outside the University who have special knowledge and community contacts. Third, we clearly identified the target group that could make a difference in addressing the concerns of homeless people. Fourth, we involved site facilitators and gave them an orientation prior to the program broadcast. Fifth, we built pre- and post-satellite segment activities into the program to provide a local framework for important concepts. Sixth, during the program, we shared the human side of the issue through on-location interviews with homeless people. Seventh, we made printed materials an integral part of the program and did not subordinate them to the satellite broadcast. Finally, we provided both participants and facilitators with the opportunity to interact and share their ideas though live question and answer segments, "instant" opinion polls, and evaluation instruments.

Overall, we believe that following these and similar instructional design guidelines in the future will magnify the success of Extension's issues programming delivered via distance learning.

Marder, J. (1987, August). Principles of effective videoteleconferencing--what to do and what to avoid. Paper presented at Distance Learning Conference, Madison, WI.

Legislative Council Staff. (1991). Legislation on homelessness. Wisconsin Legislative Council Report No. 12 to the 1991 Legislature. Madison: Wisconsin Legislative Council.

The Magic Years: Parent Education by Spanish Language Radio

Extension's justifiable concern about young children prompted one of our newest national initiatives, Plight of Young Children (PYC). One aspect of this initiative promotes educational programs for parents of infants and preschoolers who are at risk of delayed development, neglect, or abuse. Our Magic Years series, a California PYC program, is designed to provide needed information to one group of parents, Spanish-speaking mothers, likely to face especially difficult child-rearing challenges.

Hispanics, our fastest growing minority group, grew 53% between the 1980 and 1990 censuses--a growth rate more than seven times that of the non-Hispanic population (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1993). Today, one in ten persons in the United States is Hispanic and it is expected that by the year 2050 one in five persons will be so identified (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1993). Hispanic families are unevenly distributed; 34% of the nation's Hispanics live in California, 19% in Texas, and 10% in New York (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1993).

Life for Hispanic families is often difficult. Compared to white non-Hispanic families, Hispanic families are more likely to be poor and their children are more likely to live with a single or an unmarried mother (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1993; Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, 1991). Hispanic children are more likely than non-Hispanic children to do poorly in school (Curiel, 1991) and to drop out before completing the tenth grade (Nicolau & Ramos, 1990).

Our concern about Hispanic parents prompted us to conduct a series of focused interviews with members of the Hispanic community. From these interviews, we learned that Hispanic women wanted and needed parenting information and that Spanish language radio is a popular source of information and entertainment for Spanish-speaking mothers.

In response to our interviews, we developed "The Magic Years (Los Anos Magicos de la Infancia)," a series of 40 three- to four-minute parenting information radio spots for parents of infants and toddlers. The series, broadcast on Spanish language radio, includes 16 scripts related to child abuse and neglect (handling personal tensions effectively, preventing childhood accidents, using non-physical discipline, etc.), four scripts on nutrition and food, and nine on play and teaching. Other scripts deal with such topics as showing affection, communicating with children, and building children's self-esteem. The topics were chosen in consultation with a Hispanic mental health worker.

The series has been aired twice. Each series was publicized by Spanish language radio, flyers distributed through Hispanic agencies, and items in Spanish language newspapers. Enrollees were promised a set of handouts on parenting and an invitation to a post-series fiesta. Listeners enrolled in the series by phoning the county office of Cooperative Extension where a Spanish-speaking interviewer completed a pre-program questionnaire about child development and parenting. Each series aired at regularly scheduled times. One hundred and thirty-five people signed up for the first series of broadcasts, 119 for the second.

The one-hour, end-of-the-series fiesta featured Mexican music, clowns, radio station personalities, pinatas, raffles of donated prizes, and refreshments. These were lively and popular events attended by mothers, fathers, and children. During the fiestas, those who had signed up for the series were interviewed again, 61 at the first fiesta, and 93 at the second.

Of the 135 women who signed up for the first radio series, 8% were younger than 20, 24% were between 20 and 24, 50% between 25 and 34, and 19% 34 years old or older. Sixty-six percent had less than an eighth grade education; 33% had received some high school education and of these, 2% had attended college. Forty- seven percent had one or two children, 44% had three or four children, and 10% had five or more children. To simplify and shorten the interviews, we did not ask for personal information at the second airing.

Participants' pre-program responses to some interview questions indicated a need for child development or parenting information. Sixty-two percent believed that most children are ready to be toilet trained by their first birthday; 50% believed parents should punish children who have temper tantrums to make them stop; 57% believed that when children won't eat their dinners, parents should fix something special just for them; and 61% believed that parents can keep babies safe by telling them not to touch things and "then you don't have to baby-proof your home."

Between the pre-program and post-program interviews for each radio series, a significant number of participants improved their correct responses to certain questionnaire items. The 61 first- series respondents were more likely to give correct responses to the two statements: "Even good parents feel overstressed sometimes," and "Spanking is the best way to make children behave."

The 93 second-series respondents were significantly more likely to give correct responses to four questions (McNemar's test for pre- and post-test differences, p<.05):

• "You can teach children right from wrong by spanking them."

• "Parents should punish children for temper tantrums to make them stop."

• "You can spoil babies by comforting them when they cry."

• "Some babies do things just to make trouble for parents, like crying a long time or soiling their diapers."

The success of the program was also reflected in participants' spontaneous comments (translated from Spanish):

• "The program was extremely helpful in showing methods of raising my two year-old daughter, Alejandra, and 16 month- old son, Andres."

• "Before the program, I considered all children the same, but afterwards I came to the conclusion that the way our parents educated us may not necessarily be the way we should educate our children."

• "I learned the value of sharing time with my children; the program had great impact with my husband, too."

Several parents said they were looking forward to similar programs in the future. One suggested that the next program might be on the magic years of adolescence.

After the first airing, we developed a set of 14 one-page, illustrated handouts in English and Spanish on the parenting topics which our interviews with participants had indicated were particularly desired and needed. The topics included managing stress, playing with infants and toddlers, sibling rivalry, managing temper tantrums, discipline, toilet training, nutrition, and parent-child communication. A set of these handouts was given to each parent who attended the second fiesta.

This initial test of "The Magic Years" suggests that many Spanish-speaking mothers need and want information about parenting and child development, that they will listen to a radio series on parenting, and that the series will positively influence some listeners' parenting knowledge and beliefs. The parents we reached appreciated the practical and understandable parenting information, the easy-to-read illustrated Spanish- language handouts on parenting topics, and the family-oriented fiesta.

Our Magic Years program could not have succeeded if we had not listened and responded to our Hispanic informants. They taught us that they cared deeply about their children and wanted to help them succeed in what, for many, was a new and confusing environment. They nudged us into developing a program that fit their special needs and lifestyles. Programming for them was challenging and terrifically rewarding.

As we in Cooperative Extension work to address the Plight of Young Children, we must respond sensitively to the needs of our growing numbers of ethnic minority parents. This will not be business as usual; we will have to learn from them what kind of information they want and how they want to receive it. We may be surprised by what we learn.

Charles Stewart Mott Foundation. (1991). A state by state look at teenage childbearing in the U.S. Flint, MI: Author.

Curiel, H. (1991). Strengthening family and school bonds in promoting Hispanic children's school performance. In M. Sotomayor (Ed.), Empowering Hispanic families: A critical issue for the '90s. Milwaukee, WI: Family Service America.

Nicolau, S., & Ramos, C. L. (1990). Together is better: Building relationships between schools and Hispanic parents. New York: Hispanic Policy Development Project, Inc.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1993). Hispanic Americans today, current population reports. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Agents Contribute to Statewide Program Designs
in Yardwaste Management

Cooperative Extension can play a significant role in addressing the problems of diminishing landfill space by targeting yardwaste composting. Most yardwaste is currently disposed of in landfills and is estimated to comprise 15 to 20% of municipal solid waste volume (May & Simpson, 1990). However, composting is a highly efficient means of converting organic waste into useful materials and has been used for thousands of years.

In 1989, at the request of the Virginia Assembly, Virginia Cooperative Extension (VCE) conducted a feasibility study for the Department of Waste Management. An important part of the study was a survey of local Extension agents throughout the state. Extension agents are in the unique position of having firsthand knowledge of how Virginia nursery operators, farmers, and home gardeners use yardwaste compost. Some agents are also involved in, or are aware of, local programs for municipal composting.

The results of the survey were instrumental in formulating recommendations regarding needed public educational programs and pilot projects identified in the feasibility study. As a result of the feasibility study, four bills were introduced and two bills have been passed in the Virginia legislature. One of the approved bills grants municipalities the authority to ban yardwaste from their landfill, providing they have a composting program in place. The other allows farmers to accept yardwaste from municipalities for on-farm composting. In addition, the Department of Waste Management authorized funds for VCE to prepare and publish the Virginia Yardwaste Management Manual. This serves as a guide for municipalities and Extension agents on promoting and implementing composting programs. VCE has undertaken an educational program to increase municipal and homeowner yardwaste composting and the use of compost on public and private land.

A survey was developed at Virginia Tech, by the authors, and sent to 125 VCE agents in agriculture. The survey was designed to determine the agents' perceptions of: (a) current yardwaste management in their locality; (b) citizen participation in backyard composting; (c) local government interest in composting/recycling; (d) potential uses of compost by homeowners, nursery operators, local government, and farmers; (e) potential for privatization of compost facilities; and (f) need for public education programs.

Management of Yardwaste

Seventy-two percent (90) of the Extension agents in agriculture responded to the survey. Seventy-four percent of the respondents stated that their locality had a separate leaf collection program. Of those, 70% disposed of the leaves by landfilling. Six percent stockpiled the leaves for later landfilling, and only 8% composted the leaves in some form. Nearly one-third (32%) had a give-away program, although only 21% of those gave away more than half of the leaves collected.

Bulk disposal of grass clippings at the landfill was allowed by 88% of the localities represented. However, 79% of the agents indicated that less than one-quarter of the residents in their area remove grass clippings from their lawns. This was encouraging because grass clippings are difficult to collect, and contribute to odor problems in large-scale composting, and are better left on the lawn or composted in the backyard. Eleven percent of the households in the agents' localities participated in backyard composting. Thirty-two percent of the respondents were aware of local government interest in initiating yardwaste recycling plans in their area, and 8% of those already had a formal committee or plan in place.

Uses of Compost

Virginia has few municipal yardwaste compost facilities in operation. Therefore, most people, including agents, are not familiar with the properties of compost and some misconceptions exist about its use. Agents' perceptions of the use of yardwaste compost by homeowners, nurseries, local governments, and farmers are presented in Table 1. According to the table, the number one perceived use is mulch, followed by soil amendment, organic nutrient source, and use in lawn establishment.

Yardwaste compost, when produced on a large scale, is a dark, crumbly material, similar in texture to peat moss. Due to the grinding and screening in processing, it is too fine to be used as a suitable mulch. Most people familiar with backyard leaf composting, where partially decomposed leaves are used as a mulch, assume that yardwaste compost has the same texture and erroneously consider it a mulching material.

Yardwaste compost is also very low in macronutrient content and would not be of much value as a nutrient source. It does, however, contain many of the trace elements or micronutrients. It is also an excellent soil conditioner and can be incorporated into the soil to increase the water holding capacity, increase the cation exchange capacity (CEC), and improve the soil tilth. Some of the agent responses indicate a need to first educate the Extension agents on the properties of, and uses for, yardwaste compost. In response to this observation, in-service training for agents and advanced training for Master Gardeners have addressed the manufacture and use of yardwaste compost.

Compost Facilities

Forty-five percent of the agents responding indicated that their locality would be interested in contracting with a private firm to accept and compost bulk collected leaves and grass clippings for a fee less than the landfill tipping fees. The agents indicated that likely operators of such a facility would be waste management firms, nurseries or landscaping contractors, and biological farmers. Less likely would be greenhouse operators and farm and garden suppliers.

Educational Programs

Programs needed for educating the public on using yardwaste compost were identified through the survey also. Two-thirds of the responding agents indicated the need to educate the public on using compost and local governments on managing yardwaste. Over half of the agents (52%) responded positively to the need for educating the private sector on yardwaste compost technologies and possible business opportunities. Forty-six percent indicated the public should be educated on ways to compost in the backyard. Seventy-five percent of the respondents indicated the most effective educational program or activity would be demonstrations and pilot programs on large-scale composting technology. Thirty-six percent of the agents stated they would like their locality to be considered as a site for a pilot project. Two-thirds indicated that brochures for homeowners would be effective, followed by publications on technologies, presentations to the nursery associations, field days, press releases, and seminars. The least effective methods identified for disseminating information were the most technologically advanced: radio and TV, video tapes, slide sets, and teleconferences.

Comparison of Survey Results

The results from the survey sent to VCE agents were compared to results from a similar survey of Virginia landfill managers, and showed similarities in several of the responses. When asked about methods of disposing of leaves, 70% of the agents and 76% of the landfill managers responded that their locality sent them to the landfill. Seven percent of the agents and 6% of the landfill managers responded that their locality stockpiled the leaves for later use. Only 6% of the landfill managers use some type of public giveaway program for leaves, while 32% of the Extension agents indicated their locality participated in such a program. Eighty-six percent of the landfills allow bulk disposal of grass clippings at their site, while the Extension agents indicated that 88% of their local landfills allowed this.

According to the landfill managers, 34% of the municipalities have established a group to study alternative uses for yardwaste, such as composting, while the agents indicated this number to be 32%. Thirty-one percent of the landfill managers indicated that yardwaste composting was feasible in their locality, while 45% of the Extension agents indicated it was feasible.

The Extension agents are much more optimistic than the landfill managers about the amount of participation in giveaway programs and the feasibility of establishing a yardwaste composting program in their locality. Otherwise, the responses to the survey questions are very similar. This provides one measure of the validity of the survey and the accuracy of data obtained from Extension agents in assessing conditions in their communities.

As in other states, VCE is becoming a major source of information for educating the public, as well as large scale operations, on producing and using backyard compost. The agents' responses to the survey were instrumental in developing educational programming to address yardwaste. This educational programming has included the following actions.

1. Agents and Master Gardeners have been provided with training on the properties and uses for compost and teaching tools for their educational programs. Teaching tools include publications and slide sets for lectures and seminars.

2. A pilot composting project which includes research and education components has been established in Radford, Virginia.

3. A field day was conducted and Extension agents, farmers, nursery operators, and local government officials were invited. Technologies, equipment, and uses of compost were demonstrated by Virginia Tech researchers. Participation in this program has given the agents a working knowledge of yardwaste composting systems from collection to distribution to the public.

4. Public education on backyard composting has been conducted on a statewide basis via radio, press releases, and brochures for distribution at retail outlets.

5. An Extension research associate was hired, partly with Extension funds, to conduct applied research on composting, both backyard and large scale, and coordinate the dissemination of information to agents and the public through demonstrations, field days, publications, slide sets, and videos.

Agents have a sound knowledge of the needs and potential for their community in yardwaste management and an understanding of what educational programs are effective in producing change. They are an excellent resource for collecting information for projecting needs and planning action. Surveys designed to collect adequate information and agent recommendations are a useful tool in program planning.

May, J. H., & Simpson, T. W. (1990). The Virginia yardwaste management manual. (Cooperative Extension Publication No. 452-055). Blacksburg: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Simpson, T. W., & May, J. H. (1990). The feasibility of a yardwaste composting program for Virginia (House Document No. 34). Richmond: Virginia General Assembly.

Perceptions of Large-Scale Cornbelt Farmers:
Implications for Extension

Reduction or lack of increase in public funding is causing Extension systems in many states to consider program restructuring. Extension administrators and personnel are examining program content to ensure that critical needs are being met. Participation of those using Extension Services in this process is important to ensure that their interests are being considered. Representative individuals may serve on planning or advisory committees and informal methods can be used to solicit views of knowledgeable individuals. These methods are useful for obtaining subjective viewpoints; however, they can be misleading because they are not broadly based and may not consider perspectives of the larger potential audience.

This article reports the results of a survey of the farm management problems and opportunities of large-scale, cash-grain farmers in the mid-west who participated in an Extension workshop. These farmers are a current Extension audience who provide traditional political support for Extension, and their perceptions can be useful in planning future Extension programs.

Farmers who attended the three-day 1991 Top Farmer Crop Workshop at Purdue University were sent a questionnaire to complete before the workshop. This workshop has been held annually since 1968 and participants paid a $160 registration fee. A total of 80 useable questionnaires were received from 102 participants. Eight states were represented in the sample, with 48% coming from Indiana, 25% from Illinois, 14% from Ohio, and 6% from Iowa.

The questionnaire focused on a number of management topics, but this article focuses on three open-ended questions contained in the last part of the questionnaire.

1. What factors might lead to a different direction for your farm operation in the next 10 years?

2. As you look ahead over the next 10 years, what do you anticipate will be your most difficult management problems?

3. As you look ahead over the next 10 years, what do you anticipate will be your most significant management opportunities?

Responses to these questions were classified and tabulated into the broad categories reported in this article. General results of the study are summarized in Ortmann, Patrick, Musser, and Doster (1992).

The average farm operated by the respondents was 1,820 acres (691 acres owned)--more than four times the 433 acres operated by the average North Central farm (Hepp & Edwards, 1991). Individual and family ownership arrangements accounted for over 90% of the sample. Corn and soybeans accounted for 74% of gross farm sales. All had gross farm sales of over $100,000, with 35% exceeding $500,000 in 1990. In comparison, only about 30% of Indiana farms had gross farm sales exceeding $100,000 in 1990 (Barnard, McNamara & Falck, 1991). Respondents averaged 39.7 years of age, younger than the average 52 years of U.S. farmers (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1987). The mean 14.9 years of formal education was also higher than the educational level of the average farmer. Over 76% considered themselves above average in management skills. Most of the respondents were in the $250,000-$499,999 range of net worth, with 63% having a net worth of less than $500,000.

Sixty-six farmers (82.5%) responded to the question on factors that might lead to a different direction for their farm operations in the next 10 years (Table 1). About 30% identified changing market conditions as the most important factor. Closely related to this factor was changing enterprise profitability and effects of technology leading to different enterprise mixes on the farm. Jointly, these two factors accounted for nearly 60% of responses. Changing family relationships (24%) and labor changes (18%), as well as changes in financial circumstances (14%) were also factors expected to significantly influence the direction of business. Adverse weather, government programs, and environmental issues were also seen as important by some farmers.

The three most important factors are all related to traditional Extension farm management programs. The greater perception of importance of markets probably reflects the joint effects of internationalization of agricultural commodity markets and declining support from federal commodity programs. Opportunities for increasing emphasis on Extension marketing programs are suggested to supplement the important production and financial emphasis of the past.

Seventy-two farmers (90%) gave responses to the question on the most difficult management problems over the next 10 years (Table 2). Issues regarding the hiring, training, and retention of quality employees were of concern to nearly one-third of respondents. Problems regarding finance, including obtaining capital, reducing debt, maintaining profitability/cash flow, and where to invest were considered as important by 29% of the respondents. Environmental issues were prominent (22%), as were marketing problems (17%). Transfer of the business to children and partnership issues (14%) and land expansion (11%) were the most important other responses.

Some differences are apparent in these responses compared to those in Table 1. The prominence of labor-management problems validates its importance as a factor in changing farms as asked in question 1. In contrast, transfer of business was actually listed as a problem by fewer respondents than the number who saw it as changing their business. Marketing was also seen as less of a problem than as something that would change their business. However, finance and environmental issues were much larger as management problems than as factors changing the business.

Sixty-three farmers (79%) responded to the question about the most important management opportunities over the next 10 years (Table 3). Nearly one-half of the respondents indicated that expanding their business would be a vital management opportunity. About 29% mentioned lowering unit costs (increasing efficiency or productivity) by using new technologies and no-till operations. Taken together, these two broad management opportunities were mentioned by 76% of the respondents. Marketing opportunities were also regarded as important by 35% of the responding farmers, hiring and retaining quality labor by about 10%, and financial progress/management by 8%. In a sense, all the indicated management opportunities combine to make farmers more productive and competitive in the future farming environment.

These responses exhibit some differences in relation to previous questions. Expansion of the business was given much greater importance than in previous questions. Lowering costs of production was related to a factor changing the business--new technology. In contrast, marketing was a significant response on all three questions. Finally, labor, finance, and the environment were much less prominent than in the previous questions.

While responses to the three questions had similarities, there were some differences. Overall, the responses indicated that traditional Extension programs for commercial farmers related to new technologies, marketing, and business expansion are consistent with these farmers' perceptions. Marketing was especially prominent in all responses. Finance, family/business relationships, and other traditional areas rated high as management problems. An issue of less traditional Extension emphasis is labor management. Environmental issues also seem to be of more importance and would provide opportunities for expanded Extension efforts. The relative importance of human relationships with family members and employees indicates that these large-scale farmers have much more complex personnel problems than are commonly perceived for the single family farming unit than in the past. An opportunity apparently exists for partnerships between Extension personnel in farm management and those in other program areas with expertise in human relationships.

Barnard, F. L., McNamara, K. T., & Falck, J. (1991). Results of the Indiana farm finance survey for 1991 (Purdue Agricultural Economics Report, November). West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University.

Hepp, R. E., & Edwards, W. E. (1991). Small, medium and large farms in the north central region: A statistical profile. In the Proceedings of the North Central Extension Workshop. Columbia: University of Missouri, Extension Division.

Ortmann, G. F., Patrick, G. F., Musser, W. N., & Doster, D. H. (1992). Information sources, computer use, and risk management: Evidence from leading commercial cornbelt farmers (Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 688). West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University.

United States Department of Commerce. (1987). 1987 Census of Agriculture. Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census.

Journal Paper Number 14424, Office of Agricultural Programs, Purdue University. Professor Musser was formerly Professor of Agricultural Economics at The Pennsylvania State University, State College. Both Professors Musser and Ortmann were formerly visiting professors at Purdue University. Professor Ortmann gratefully acknowledges financial support from BP Southern Africa and the Centre for Science Development. Views of the authors do not necessarily reflect those of these organizations.

Communication Needs In Extension

How well does information flow between field staff, state specialists, and administration? Effective internal communication is critical to the success of any organization, public or private. The flow of information can be particularly troublesome for organizations, such as Extension, where offices are separated by great distances.

Distance, time demands, program autonomy, and limited face-to-face interaction in an Extension system can create communication breakdowns and lead to lost time, inefficiency, destructive rumors, conflict, and dissatisfaction. This study was undertaken to assess the communication needs of staff in a state Extension system.

Nevada Cooperative Extension has an area-based structure in which 16 county Extension offices are organized into four administrative areas. Each area is administered by an area director. State specialists are supervised by department chairs in their respective campus-based departments.

A total of 55 questionnaires and cover letters were mailed with a return envelope to all field staff (area and county) and state specialists in the Nevada Cooperative Extension system. The questionnaire contained a 24-item scale adapted from the Organizational Communication Audit (Goldhaber & Rogers, 1979) to assess the amount of information currently received, information needed to be received, and the sources of that information. Specific items on the questionnaire pertained to internal communication issues such as performance expectations, advancement opportunities, personnel changes, decision making, developments in Extension, impact of changes, and sources of information. The response rate was 75% (24) for field staff and 89% (16) for state specialists.

Both field staff and state specialists expressed a need for greater information than they were currently receiving. Staff particularly wanted more communication about:

1. job performance (performance expectations, clear directions, consistent directions, advancement opportunities, how job relates to the total operation);

2. decision making (how decisions are made, how ideas and requests are being handled, input into decisions which affect them); and,

3. future developments (future direction of Extension, impact of changes upon job responsibilities).

Few differences were found between field staff and state specialists.

The most frequently used channel of information for staff is a mid-level manager or department chair, particularly about information related to job performance, decision making, and organizational policies. The in-house newsletter was the primary source for announcements, accomplishments and personnel changes. The grapevine was used primarily for communication about how decisions were made, changes and directions within Extension, advancement opportunities, interests of colleagues, and personal news.

Knowing the organizational communication needs of Extension staff can be useful in enhancing an effective and dynamic organization. Effective communication can build morale, reduce misunderstandings and conflicts, and help Extension respond more quickly to public needs. Staff need access to timely and accurate information, especially in time of great change and stress.

A number of strategies can improve communication, such as using a variety of methods to send information, ensuring that information is sent in a timely manner, conducting periodic progress reviews with staff throughout the year, making sure staff training procedures clarify job roles and relationships, instituting a mentoring system, exploring additional communication training, and implementing a regular process to gather input and feedback from staff. In Nevada, efforts have already begun to increase staff involvement in system-wide decision making, to review performance evaluation procedures, and to develop a proactive plan for organizational change. Efforts like these can improve morale and help staff adjust to changing times.

Goldhaber, G. M., & Rogers, D. P. (1979). Auditing organizational communication systems. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Evaluation of Dietary Guideline Bulletins
Revised for a Low Literate Audience

Despite recent advances in audio and video technology, the field of nutrition education in the United States is overwhelmingly print-oriented. In addition, most of the print materials available are written at a level that makes them inaccessible to low- to mid-literate individuals (Hynak-Hankison, 1989; Stemmerman, 1991).

The purpose of this study was to compare changes in knowledge that resulted from reading revised and unrevised nutrition print materials in a sample of lower-literate adults, i.e., adults who read at the 5th-8th grade level. The study and materials were developed by a collaborative, team approach that included specialists from Cooperative Extension, nutrition, reading and literacy, and adult learning.

The control bulletins were adapted directly from the Human Nutrition Information Service (1989a, 1989b, 1989c & 1989d) dietary guidelines. The content was unchanged in the control versions, but relatively small sections were selected out of the original set of four bulletins and reproduced in three shorter booklets ranging from 4-9 pages in length. The control bulletins focused on individual topics as opposed to the original brochures which addressed several different topics at once. Paper size was unchanged at 8 1/2 x 11 inches. The treatment bulletins or revised materials were reformatted and rewritten to improve readability and (theoretically) comprehension of the information. The reformatting was guided by standard recommendations for materials targeted to lower literate audiences (Collins & Read, 1989; Doak, Doak & Root, 1985; Nitzke, 1987). The smaller sections of content, larger lettering, and increased white space combine to make the materials easier to process and read (Gaston & Daniels, 1988; Van Horn, 1989). The reading level was reduced from grade 9 to a grade 4 level as assessed by a computerized readability program (RIGHTWRITER, 1992). Paper size was unchanged. The topics, number, and length of treatment bulletins matched the control bulletins.

Four focus groups were conducted during the formative stages of bulletin development with representatives of the target audience recruited from Adult Basic Education (ABE) classes. These focus groups helped the project team with the choice of illustrations and graphics, lay-out and format, content focus, and word choice used in the treatment bulletins. Both sets of bulletins addressed the identical issues including shopping and label reading, fast food restaurants, and snacks.

Study participants (n = 295) were recruited from both rural (48%) and urban (51%) areas from ABE classes and job retraining programs. Participants were randomly assigned into treatment or control groups.

A 35-item multiple choice test was administered immediately prior to reading either a treatment or control bulletin and again immediately after reading a bulletin. A short demographic survey was also administered with the pretest as well as the reading subtests of the Tests of Adult Basic Education (CTB/McGraw-Hill, 1987) to verify literacy levels. Descriptive statistics and analysis of variance for group comparisons were computed using SPSS (1988).

The age of the study participants ranged from 16-60+ years with the largest number (43.7%) of the sample in their twenties. Most (71%) were women, single (57.6%), had at least some high school education (63.1%), were unemployed (73.9%), and earned less than $7,500 per year (56.9%). Almost a third had children (32.9%) or other adults (30.5%) living with them. A majority (72.2%) reported no health problems and most (71.5%) performed their own food shopping. Only 6.8% were Expanded Food and Nutrition Program (EFNEP) participants. Twenty percent of the sample read at less than a 5th grade level (low-literate), 54.5% read at a 5th-8th grade level (mid-literate), and 25% read above the 8th grade level. There were no differences between treatment and control groups.

Mean scores for pre- and post-tests indicated no statistical difference between treatment and control bulletins overall or for the rural or urban subgroups. There was no difference in knowledge gain from pre- to post-intervention by reading level, although readers with a higher literacy level scored higher in knowledge on both pre- and post-tests regardless of any other factor (see Table 1). In short, every group made approximately a two-point gain from pre- to post-intervention and the revisions appeared to have a negligible effect.

Because these results were contrary to what was expected, we re-examined the data on an item-by-item basis to determine if there were more subtle changes made. Changes on any test question were unlikely from pre- to post-intervention unless an individual marked unsure to that question on the pretest. For example, one question read, "Which is not a type of sugar?" Almost 28% of the sample were not sure at pre-test, but only 11% were not sure at post-test. This 17% change accounted for almost all of the 22% gain in the correct answer at post-intervention. In a few cases, participants changed an incorrect answer to a correct answer. For example, 73% of the sample incorrectly said, "The healthiest margarine has: no cholesterol" in the pretest. This response dropped 13.6% at the post-test where as the correct answer, "The healthiest margarine has: polyunsaturated fatty acids listed first on the label," increased by 13.9% on the post-test. However, when participants changed their answer from pre- to post-test, it was not always in the proper direction. Thus, the overall scores did not change significantly from pre- to post-intervention.

We concluded that the lack of improvement in knowledge due to materials revision may have been due to a relatively weak intervention, an inappropriate sample, and/or an inappropriate evaluation. Since great care was taken in the development process to ensure that the revisions made to the bulletins reflected the best available knowledge on how to communicate to lower literate audiences, this explanation appeared unreasonable. Only half the sample actually tested at the reading level targeted (5-8th grade), but it was large enough to detect a change if there had been one. Moreover, there should have been a differential effect with the other reading levels and there was none. Much less time was spent on developing the evaluation instrument than on developing the reading materials. Thus, the test instrument itself may have interfered with the participants exhibiting the extent of their learning. If so, we would have expected to see a differential effect on gain that depended on reading level. Verbal interviews or other qualitative evaluations might have produced different results.

With no alternative explanation, we were forced to re-examine our materials and initial assumptions. We finally concluded that, in fact, it was not worth the effort of rewriting the original materials for a lower literate adult audience. Merely reducing the volume of content in the original bulletins appeared to be as satisfactory as rewriting and reformatting. However, the process of revision itself may have been the fundamental flaw. We recommend that in the future educators develop materials for this target audience from scratch rather than revise pre-existing materials. These materials should prove more effective, but this hypothesis should be tested as well!

The results of this research have direct implications for Extension outreach efforts. Literacy levels are a major concern for print brochures, especially since many of the readily available materials from USDA are written at a 9-12 grade reading level. Therefore, usefulness of these materials with many audiences at high risk has been questioned. Simultaneously, the effort to revise such materials is very time consuming and costly. This study implies that concern is indeed warranted; however, it also suggests that Extension should not invest limited resources in revision efforts, but develop new materials specifically for lower literate audiences when possible.

Collins, D. E., & Read, H. (1989). Plain English: A guide to standard usage and clear writing. Scarborough, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

CTB/McGraw-Hill. (1987). Tests of adult basic education. Monterey, CA: Author.

Doak, C., Doak, L., & Root, J. (1985). Teaching patients with low literacy skills. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott.

Gaston, N., & Daniels, P. (February, 1988). Guidelines for writing for adults with limited reading skills. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Human Nutrition Information Service. (1989a). Preparing foods and planning menus using the dietary guidelines (USDA Publication No. HG 232-8). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Human Nutrition Information Service. (1989b). Making bag lunches, snacks, and desserts using the dietary guidelines (USDA Publication No. HG 232-9). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Human Nutrition Information Service. (1989c). Shopping for food and making meals in minutes using the dietary guidelines (USDA Publication No. HG 232-10). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Human Nutrition Information Service. (1989d). Eating better when eating out using the dietary guidelines (USDA Publication No. HG 232-11). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Hynak-Hankison, M. T. (October, 1989). Literacy crisis: Implications for nutrition and dietetic professionals. Topics in Clinical Nutrition, 4, 63-70.

Nitzke, S. (1987). Research into practice example: Reaching low-literate adults with printed nutrition materials. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 87 (Suppl. 9), S73-77.

RIGHTWRITER. (1992). User's manual [computer program]. Carmel, IN: Que Software, A Division of Prentice Hall Computer Publishing.

Statistical Package for Social Sciences. (1988). SPSS-X User's Guide (3rd ed.) [computer program manual]. Chicago: SPSS, Inc.

Stemmerman, M. G. (November, 1991). Readability of selected public health information materials. Tri-State Literacy Council, Cabell County Public Library, 4559 9th Street Plaza, Huntington, WV 25701.

Van Horn, B. H. (1989). Readability. Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy. The Pennsylvania State University, 204 Calder Way, Suite 209, University Park, PA 16801-4756.

Author Notes

This research was supported, in part, by a CSRS approved Hatch Grant #3110 from the Agriculture Experiment Station, College of Agriculture, The Pennsylvania State University.

Baby's First Wish: A Successful Monthly Newsletter

Baby's First Wish is a month-by-month newsletter for parents of new babies and is patterned after similar successful newsletter programs in Nevada, California, and other states. The program allows Extension to reach audiences in an efficient manner. The strength of New Mexico's program and other states' programs is the timeliness of its inception and the way it was transferred to the counties.

Baby's First Wish was introduced to New Mexico Cooperative Extension just after the system had experienced significant downsizing and spiraling budget deficits. With fewer personnel and less funding, it seemed almost impossible to get a statewide program off the ground. Morale was low and it was difficult for state specialists to get county agents to buy into programs that took time and energy that the agent did not have. Baby's First Wish answered the need for efficient, quality programming at a time when state and county staff felt less than hopeful.

The newsletter program met the criteria for county programming: supplying low input with quality output and reaching an at risk target audience with a finite number of participants (parents of newborns). Because county agents routinely collaborate with other agencies, acquiring mailing list names takes a minimal amount of time. Once the county offices are equipped with the computer label program and newsletter supplies, the program is easy to deliver.

The newsletter program is also efficient in terms of time and money spent on agent training. A training package which includes such items as an orientation video; volunteer job description; computer label instructions; public display board materials; built-in evaluation tool; written and audiotaped publicity and marketing materials; and strategies for acquiring clientele names is mailed to the agent. Subsequent telephone conference calls replaced traditional on-site training. This type of training allowed agents to remain in the county and to troubleshoot with their peers. County agents particularly appreciated not having to leave their daily county duties to start a new program.

The Baby's First Wish program was timely and efficient. In 12 months (August, 1993, to August, 1994), county Extension offices moved from reaching zero parents of babies to reaching about 3,000 New Mexican Families. This feeling of accomplishment has renewed a sense of worth for statewide programming.

In the '90s, Extension is being asked to do more with less. Resources and personnel are in short supply. To meet that challenge, New Mexico is forging ahead by using technology, time and energy management techniques, and sheer determination to use what they have to go a long way.

Turning Regulation Into Education

Beginning with the 1993 growing season, farm managers in the U.S. have been required by law to keep detailed records of their use of restricted pesticides. Instead of approaching this as yet another example of government regulation, we viewed the situation as a teachable moment.

We developed a Pesticide Record Keeping and Management Log to use as a "hook" to teach pesticide management and safety and farm management. The log provides farm managers with a section to record specific information required by the new law, and also features a section on pesticide use management data.

The management section of the log helps farm managers to evaluate the cost and effectiveness of their pest management strategies. Information on pesticides used, product costs, organic matter levels, soil types, and tillage methods are recorded and evaluated in this section. In addition to using this information to make management decisions, data of this type would also be useful should legal questions arise regarding the manager's pesticide use.

We began distributing the log to licensed pesticide applicators at pesticide recertification schools in a three-county area during the winter of 1993. During these training sessions, we discussed the new record keeping requirements and stressed the management benefits of record keeping. The point we tried to make was that the physical activity of record keeping was of little value, but that utilizing those records to make management decisions was the real payoff.

To find out how farm managers used the log during the 1993 growing season, we conducted a follow-up "post-card" survey when the growing season ended. Surveys were mailed to 101 farm managers who received the log at a pesticide recertification school or from their Extension office.

A total of 66 farm managers returned completed surveys. All farm managers who responded to the survey indicated that they already had (or were planning to) utilize data in the log to make management decisions regarding their pest management strategies.

We have also encountered situations where we've seen first-hand how managers are utilizing the log. Recently when meeting with a farm manager to diagnose a corn germination problem, completed logs kept by the manager were a key to determining that the problem was not related to pesticide use.

During the past two growing seasons, several hundred of these logs have been distributed to farm managers. By developing the log, we were able to capitalize on a regulatory activity to reinforce the management benefits of record-keeping.

Producer Involvement in Watershed Management

Improved watershed management by farmers is a goal sought throughout the country. As water resources come under closer scrutiny by the public, watershed management has become an important tool in helping farmers improve water quality. Decreased nutrient, sediment, and pesticide levels are keys to improving water quality in our rivers and lakes.

Within Ohio, the Upper Vermilion Watershed ranked ninth out of 285 basins in agricultural phosphorous contributions to Lake Erie, according to the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Phosphorous, a nutrient responsible for increased plant growth, has impaired water quality and aquatic life in Lake Erie in recent years. The establishment of the Upper Vermilion Watershed Project, funded by the United States EPA under provisions of Section 319 of the Clean Water Act, allowed for improved water quality through a decrease in nutrients applied to cropland. Mark Pittman, Associate Extension Agent, coordinated the overall water quality project and was supervised by a joint board of supervisors comprised of agency personnel and area farmers.

The project objectives were to:

1. select farm operations in the watershed which would cooperate with the project by inventorying their nutrient needs and production;

2. develop nutrient management plans for farm operations and review to ascertain the degree of implementation;

3. maintain complete records and submit timely reports of data collected and effort spent on the program;

4. utilize information gathered in the program to educate the public about nutrient management concerns and achievements; and

5. coordinate activities among various county, state, and federal agencies with responsibility for water quality related activities.

Two major efforts were targeted to carry out the project goals and objectives through producer involvement. Three "core farms" were targeted and organized to work closely with all agency personnel to implement Best Management Practices (BMPs) and Manure Nutrient Management Plans (MNM Plans). Producers were individually contacted to become participants and assist in developing MNM plans by pulling soil and manure samples.

In the third year of the project, producer participants were surveyed about the changes they had made on their farms. Using a five point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree), producers indicated they agreed (4.0) that they used the MNM plans to make fertilizer application decisions. Producers also indicated they used the MNM plans to decide how much fertilizer and/or manure to apply (3.85). This project helped producers increase their awareness of water quality concerns and how to improve water quality through improved watershed management. They indicated that they understood, as a result of this project, why phosphorous is a concern for water quality (4.0) and also why sediment can be a concern for water quality (4.0).

BMPs implemented during this project, which included conservation tillage, use of cover crops, animal waste facilities, sod waterways and sediment retention, erosion and water control structures, saved approximately 10,534 tons of soil. This soil savings translated to less sediment and phosphorous in the Vermilion River and Lake Erie which, in turn, translated to improved water quality. MNM plans that were developed directed farmers to utilize manure as crop nutrients, and savings on the use of commercial fertilizers of 437,686 pounds of nitrogen, 203,934 pounds of phosphorous and 347,422 pounds of potash were possible with the 23 plans developed. These savings translated to additional water-quality benefits in the watershed and Lake Erie. The joint board of supervisors will ensure the continuance of this project by advising agency personnel in the watershed; MNM plans will be updated every three years; and BMPs will continue to be promoted as a part of this project in the future.

More information on this project is available through Barry Ward of The Ohio State University Extension, Richland County.

Take the Mystery out of Media

Take the Mystery out of Media: Make Your Publicity Newsworthy. Lorraine B. Kingdon. 1994. Tucson: Communication Skills Institute. 137 pp., $14.95 (soft cover).

A reporter once handed me a business card with this quote on it: "Reporters are like alligators. You don't have to love them. You don't even have to like them, but you do have to feed them." Lorraine Kingdon's new book, "Take the Mystery out of Media: Make Your Publicity Newsworthy," tells how to "feed them" and a lot more.

Designed to help the uninitiated get their stories told in the media without spending a fortune and to help them survive unwanted media attention, the book answers a most basic question first: Why deal with the media at all?

"...you take a high risk ignoring the media. All those customers you want to reach are paying attention to what they read, and hear, and see. Media can give you credibility...or destroy it. Media can endorse your products or services to large numbers of possible customers...or they can label you a fraud."

Just as importantly, the book explains the rules of the media game and dispels some of the popular notions surrounding media. "With rare exception...and believe me, they were rare...journalists worked as hard as they could to make sure their stories were accurate." Kingdon speaks from more than 30 years experience working for and with the media, 27 of those years in the agricultural and home economics communications offices at the University of Delaware, Washington State University, and the University of Arizona.

Kingdon provides practical tips with chapters on how to handle interviews, including how to get your message across; how to handle crisis situations; correcting media mistakes; and, how to set up news conferences. The last chapter ends with sound advice: "Think very hard before you decide to have a conference. Then, think again. All too frequently news conferences are held to promote egos, not news. That's why they fail." The book also contains several useful appendices. One appendix lists sources of media directories, mailing list sources, national production houses, and distribution services. Phone numbers and price estimates are provided in most cases. Formats for print and broadcast releases are offered in another appendix.

Kingdon says she designed the book with three audiences in mind. The principal audience is small business owners who do not have the capital to invest in elaborate public relations efforts. The book is also written for agricultural majors who more and more need to know how to deal with the media. A third audience is college agriculture and home economics administrators.

It's a delightful and very useful book for all three intended audiences, as well as Extension educators who want to get their programs publicly known and recognized. In fact, every county Extension office in Arizona has a copy. It's well worth the investment.

The book can be ordered through the mail by writing Communications Skills Institute, 7049 E. Tanque Verde, Suite 302, Tucson, AZ 85715. The price includes shipping.

Seasonal Price Patterns for Crops

Agricultural commodities have historically exhibited seasonal price movements which are tied to the annual nature of the crop cycle. Crop prices in the cash and futures markets are usually the lowest near harvest and the highest near the end of the marketing year. Seasonal price movements will vary, however, depending on supply and demand fundamentals. In particular, deviations of actual from expected supplies can have a pronounced impact on seasonal price patterns.

"Seasonal Price Patterns for Crops" presents a derivation and application of seasonal patterns for cash and futures prices for a number of commodities with different levels of new crop supplies (Flaskerud & Johnson, 1993). Addressing price patterns in this manner will likely make Extension educators and others working with producers more effective, and make producers more effective marketers.

Using these price patterns as a guide for developing a marketing plan is examined in the first part of the publication. Several steps are involved: supply and demand fundamentals are used to determine an expected seasonal average price. A distribution of prices during the marketing year is forecast with the help of seasonal price indexes. Price objectives are determined, keeping storage costs in mind. Those times of the year when prices are usually the highest for various supply situations are used as time deadlines for selling a percentage of the crop.

Analytical techniques for analyzing price patterns in years with different supply conditions are described in the second part of the publication. Moving averages were used to calculate seasonal indexes for cash prices over the study period 1978-1992. A different method, based on annual averages, was used to calculate seasonal indexes for prices during those years with smaller and larger-than-expected supply deviations and for select futures prices. Calendar years were classified according to whether new crop supplies were actually smaller or larger than expected at the time of planting. One standard deviation of the differences between actual and expected supplies was the guideline used in classifying the years. Situations in closely related markets were incorporated into the classifications.

The seasonal price patterns are presented in part three. The price patterns tended to deviate considerably from the usual pattern during "short" or "large" crop years. Prices tended to peak later than usual during "short" crop years and earlier during "large" crop years.

Applications of the indexes to marketing plans are presented in the fourth part. Results indicated that seasonal price patterns can be used as a guide for developing a marketing plan when they are examined along with supply and demand information and other marketing concepts. Examples are presented illustrating price forecasting and, when it is appropriate to use, the moving average index and the annual average index.

Flaskerud, G., & Johnson, D. (1993, August). Seasonal Price Patterns for Crops (Bulletin 61). Fargo: North Dakota State University Extension Service.

"Sell What You Sow!"

Eric Gibson. "Sell What You Sow! The Grower's Guide to Successful Produce Marketing". 1994. New World Publishing, 3701 Clair Drive, Carmichael, California 95608, phone 916-944-7932. 304 pp., $22.50 + $2.50 shipping.

To compete successfully in today's markets, knowledge is a necessity. A farmer who grows perfect produce may not be able to sell that produce as well as another farmer, who may not have a perfect specimen, but has gone to the trouble of learning the origin, nutritional aspects, recipes, preparation, and a wide spectrum of tips that help customers select and enjoy their purchases. A tomato is not just a tomato anymore. There are heirloom tomatoes, paste tomatoes, stuffing, slicing, and juice tomatoes. The next generation of successful farmers will have to become successful marketers.

Whether you're new to farming or looking for ways to diversify, this is a very informative book on marketing produce. "Sell What you Sow!" takes you from choosing crops, through rules and regulations, pricing, and adding value to the commodity. The resources section is worth the price of the book. It gives addresses for services, suppliers, books, periodicals, associations, conferences, and even databanks. If you have ever spent a day in the library trying to put together a list of names and addresses, you'll truly appreciate this source list.

For the farmer who has been direct marketing in pick-your- own operations and farmers' markets and is ready to move on, this book offers some terrific tips on getting started selling to restaurants and retail markets, mail order, subscription selling, and more.

Be sure to read the section on Produce and Handling. Many farmers who do a great job planting and harvesting really fall down in the area of post harvest technology. This section is a real eye opener. For example, carrots and celery should not be put in long term storage together. Ethylene produced from celery causes bitterness in carrots. This section contains information in easy to read charts on how produce should be stored.

Not all the information is presented in charts. Regarding proper storage for potatoes, Tom Willey encloses the following PID (Public Information Document) in each of his boxes of potatoes: "There's a lot of ugliness in this world that a potato's eyes were never meant to see. So keep these things in the dark, and you'll both rest easier."

In the next edition, it would be more informative to see sections like the Break-Even Analysis appear in a more workbook type form so growers could use their own numbers. This type of approach would work well in the farmers' market section in a market checklist.

In criticism of the book, Bud Kerr's surfer analogy in the introduction was a very poor one. Anyone who has lived with or around surfers knows they live only to follow the next wave; a vagabond type lifestyle. This contrasts with the life of the farmer, who must be grounded to one piece of land, tied to its fertility, its flaws, its seasons of harvest and loss.

As a farm advisor, I know that every farmer is a risk taker and a gambler. A late rain, an early frost, an over abundance of any certain crop can spell disaster for a farmer. I have seen too many farmers suffer loss, not because they were poor farmers, but because the one piece of the puzzle--nature itself--is always the one risk every farmer takes.

This article is online at http://www.joe.org/joe/1994december/ent.html.

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