Volume 32 Number 2
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August 1994 Volume 32 Number 2 |
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Editor's PageWelcome to the second issue of the Journal of Extension in its new electronic format. Our first issue, published in June, took a tremendous amount of effort and coordination, but went off "without a hitch" thanks to our very competent editorial and technical staff. We do hope you are becoming more proficient and comfortable with receiving the Journal electronically. If you have comments, suggestions, or thoughts you would like to share about the electronic Journal, please send them via the Internet to joe-comments@joe.ext.vt.edu. You can also subscribe to joe- comments. Check with your state technical representative for more details and information. The number of manuscripts submitted since moving to our new electronic format has remained about the same compared to the previous hard copy format. We are encouraged by this and take it as one measure of the importance of the Journal as a means for expanding and updating the research and knowledge base for Extension professionals and other adult educators to improve their effectiveness. The quality of the manuscripts continues to remain high, as evidenced by the 16 fine articles in this issue. In our efforts to publish the first electronic issue, we have gotten behind in processing manuscripts. We are catching up, and do pledge to keep our promise of decreasing the turnaround time of manuscript submission to publication to six months or less. Please be patient and bear with us. Finally, we do want to emphasize and encourage submissions to our new Commentary section. In this section, we would like readers to state an opinion, offer a challenge, or present a thought-provoking idea on an issue of concern to Extension. MTL Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors:
James C. Summers, President, Missouri, North Central Directors Editorial Committee:
Emmett Fiske, Washington, Chairperson
Managing Diversity Within Cooperative Extension
D. Merrill Ewert
Jennifer A. King Rice
Department of Education North America has become a very multicultural place. Johnston and Packer's (1987) seminal Workforce 2000 documents the dramatic, demographic changes sweeping through society as a result of immigration, differential fertility, and the movement of women into the work force. Meanwhile, Cooperative Extension's traditional, white, rural clientele is aging and the rapidly growing, ethnically diverse population remains under-represented in its programs (U.S. Department of Agriculture Extension Committee on Organization and Policy, 1990). In response to the discrepancy between shifting demographics and current practice, this research project was designed to help Cooperative Extension address cultural diversity more creatively. This research project addressed two questions:
The Multicultural Organization Roosevelt Thomas (1990) argues that organizations build their multicultural capacities in three ways. Affirmative action creates a diverse staff by recruiting previously excluded individuals into homogeneous organizations. Valuing diversity builds understanding and helps people learn to appreciate this new diversity. Managing diversity attacks institutional racism, reallocates power, and promotes justice in the work place while enhancing the work environment. Findings The review of the literature suggests that as organizations become more culturally diverse, they: (a) are more able to recruit and retain culturally diverse staff, (b) expand their "reach" and increase their ability to attract new clientele, (c) create new work and management styles, (d) develop new patterns of personal relationships, (e) build structures that better meet the needs of diverse staff and clientele. Based on an examination of these literature findings, the focus groups proposed several specific action steps through which Cooperative Extension could increase its multicultural effectiveness. Multicultural effectiveness is usually defined in the literature as the ability to communicate and relate to persons of other cultural backgrounds. Their conclusions are categorized following Thomas' three organizational strategies--affirmative action, valuing diversity, and managing diversity. Affirmative Action
Valuing Diversity
Managing Diversity
Conclusion This study suggested that Cooperative Extension must articulate a vision for multiculturalism and translate this into action through aggressive recruitment and more effective retention of diverse staff and volunteers. Relevant training, culturally appropriate materials, and more inclusive organizational structures could help Extension become a significant leader in multicultural programming. References Johnston, W. B., & Packer, A. H. (1987). Workforce 2000: Work and workers for the twenty-first century. Indianapolis, IN: Hudson Institute. U.S. Department of Agriculture Extension Committee on Organization and Policy. (1990). Addressing diversity in the 1990s and beyond: CES can make a difference. Washington, DC: Author. Thomas, R. R. (1990). Beyond race and gender: Unleashing the power of your total work force by managing diversity. New York: American Management Association. Author Notes The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of USDA-ES which funded this project. The conclusions are those of the authors and not USDA.
Three Keys to a Successful Limited-Resource Families Program
Glennis Couchman
Glenna Williams
Donna Cadwalader Limited-resource families are a growing concern for family educators and present a challenge to Extension home economists to develop new intervention programs to lessen the hardships caused by poverty. To have the opportunity to work with limited- resource families, however, Extension must first reach them. Because limited-resource clientele are not a traditional Extension audience, and given the characteristics of the limited- resource family, traditional programming approaches are not appropriate. Does Cooperative Extension have a role in addressing the specific needs of these families? The experience in Oklahoma has convinced us that the answer is yes. This article reviews three tenets of successful programming outreach to limited-resource families: understanding the audience; expanding education through volunteers; and networking with community agencies. These tenets of community-based adult education may also apply to Extension programming with other nontraditional groups. Understanding the Audience Two primary factors contribute to minimal living standards of limited-resource families. First, limited-resource individuals and families are struggling just to maintain the basic needs of housing, health care, adequate nutrition, and child care. Second, families experiencing limited resources generally have an inadequate education, which is defined as anything less than a high school diploma and functional literacy (Extension Service, 1991). Therefore, limited-resource audiences comprise the working poor, families eligible for or receiving public assistance, single parents, and teenage parents. An educator's attitude and sensitivity to culturally diverse life experiences are key factors in working with limited-resource audiences. Failure to demonstrate acceptance of the realities of life shaped by poverty destroys trust between the educator and the limited-resource audience. Additionally, an educator needs to carefully consider how his/her words and actions are perceived by the families (Kruzich, 1988). Therefore, supplying Extension staff and volunteer educators with the appropriate tools to effectively teach limited-resource audiences is important. But, educational materials that have proved successful for middle- class audiences are not relevant for limited-resource audiences (Anderson & Niemi, 1969; and Fitchen, 1991). As a result, paid and volunteer Extension educators need materials that relate to the everyday world and needs of limited-resource audiences. Although this type of resource management educational material had not been previously available for Oklahoma educators when working with this audience, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension specialists decided this was a priority need. Specialists began by interviewing limited-resource individuals and families to provide a basis for the planning and development of a curriculum. As a result of the interviews, the specialists developed a program, "Keys to Successful Money Management." The curriculum contains 18 lessons in five modules: (a) You and Your Shopping, (b) You and Your Money, (c) You and Your House, (d) You and Your Work, and (e) Your and Your Car. The lessons were written at a third- to fifth- grade reading level with accompanying leader's guides. Empowering Volunteers Volunteers have been known to increase the educational outreach of Extension. Laughlin (1990) maintained that volunteers contact people who might never be served by Extension, thus bringing greater diversity to our clientele base. According to Laughlin (1990), past experience has shown that volunteers target specialized groups. Volunteer educators for the "Keys To Successful Money Management" program were recruited to serve in a teaching role with participating families. They were empowered to teach basic resource management principles to families in their own homes. The program delivery design is a creative adaptation of the home- visitation Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program model. The delivery strategy is important because limited-resource audiences do not typically participate in educational group programming outside of their immediate neighborhood (Fitchen, 1981). Therefore, home-visitation allows volunteer educators to provide one-to-one learning opportunities in a non-threatening atmosphere. Programming targeted to limited-resource families must rely on acceptance of the volunteer. Trust must exist between the volunteer and family members. The time required to develop trust can be frustrating. Building trust often involves a willingness to do unusual activities. For instance, one volunteer helped an immigrant receive a green card. After obtaining the green card, the person became employed. A retired couple, serving as volunteer educators in the "Keys" program, provided motivation and support for three young mothers. The clients decided to return to school for vocational training. The volunteers also indicated that the children were eager for the attention and "hugs" from the male volunteer because many lived in homes with no father present. An impact study of the "Keys to Successful Money Management" pilot program indicated that volunteer educators were effective. Specific outcomes were:
The experience proved equally valuable for volunteers. After working with several culturally diverse families, one volunteer stated, "No one leaves the experience without changed attitudes about the families. They face multiple problems and many of them have fallen through the cracks of the social system." Networking with Other Agencies Today's economic and social problems of limited-resource families are so complex that resolution depends on interagency cooperation, and a well-developed plan of action is critical to forging strong linkages. Thus, selecting network members who will commit themselves to the education process is very important. The network partners must be flexible and open to new ideas. The action plan in Oklahoma involved communication with community agencies to explore options for reaching limited- resource families. The agencies were receptive to cooperative efforts to reach low-income families perhaps because educational programming by Extension filled a need previously identified by the agencies. Collaboration with service agencies increased the outreach of Extension and brought people to our organization that may never have been reached. As a result, the Department of Human Services; Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) Program; Headstart; and, housing authorities were extenders of Extension information. In addition, every network needs facilitators. County Extension Home Economists served as facilitators for this program, setting the stage for the program process and establishing clear communication so that all agencies could contribute and benefit from participation. The participating network partners also assisted with the recruitment of volunteer resource management educators and family referrals. To help clarify responsibilities of the agencies, several agency representatives participated in the in-service education for Extension staff and volunteers. However, the specialists concluded that if the agency members of the network simply identified and recruited families and volunteers for educational programs the networking process would still be worth the effort. Summary Oklahoma's involvement in working with limited-resource audiences has been a positive growth experience for Extension home economists and volunteer educators. They have participated in seminars that provided information on perceiving needs of limited-resource families, understanding differences between themselves and the audience, and applying lay counseling techniques in a home-visitation setting. This knowledge was incorporated into effective learning experiences to improve resource-management skills of family members using the five- module curriculum. Successful work with limited-resource audiences requires Extension educators to change from a traditional educational method of large group meetings held in a central location to small, natural groups within the neighborhood or in a one-to-one situation (Fitchen, 1981). We must realize that what works for middle-class audiences will not work for limited-resource audiences. Paid and volunteer Extension educators need commitment to limited-resource individuals and families, empathy, and perseverance to reach and teach this audience. Oklahoma has found one way to accomplish this goal. The investment in dissemination of the "Keys To Successful Money Management" resulted in a substantial return to both families and society. First, a home environment which nurtures a positive attitude toward resource management is more likely to pass those values to children. The contrary is true as well: a home environment which places little or no value on resource management is a contributing factor to a cycle of poverty. Second, working with agencies eliminates duplication, provides access to the target audience, and uses the expertise of personnel skilled at working with limited-resource families. Many human-service agencies realize the need for resource management education but they are not equipped to teach it. Thus, Extension can enhance both the effectiveness and efficiency of our programs by meeting this need. References Anderson, D. & Niemi, J. A. (1969). Adult education and the disadvantaged adult. Vancouver: University of British Columbia, Department of Adult Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 029 160) Extension Service (1991). Reaching limited resource audiences: Limited resource audiences committee report. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture. Fitchen, J. M. (1981). Poverty in rural America: A case study. Boulder, CO: Westwood. Fitchen, J. M. (1991). Endangered spaces, enduring places: Change, identity, and survival in rural America. Boulder, CO: Westview. Kruzich, J. (1988). Helping families with income problems. In C. Chilman, F. Cox, & E. Nunnally, (Eds.), Employment and economic problems: Families in trouble series (Vol. 1). Newbury Park, CT: Sage. Laughlin, S. (1990). The challenge of working with extenders. Journal of Extension, XXVIII(Fall), 29.
Transition Team - A Tool for Change
Janet A. Krofta Pain is cutting positions. Moving from a paradigm of secure jobs resulting from good work to one of budget-driven downsizing is especially difficult for dedicated staff in the Cooperative Extension system. For those cut, who may have few alternative opportunities to use their professional skills in their current communities, and for their co-workers, there is a sense of devaluing and betrayal. When inflation, hold-the-line government appropriations, and increased benefit costs converged on the Minnesota Extension Service (MES), a 10% cut in staff was needed. It was announced at the annual conference in October that both state and county staffs would sustain a 10% cut at the end of the fiscal year, almost nine months in the future. Employee policies required from two weeks to six months severance notice, depending on job classification and length of service. Several pieces were already in place to help with implementing difficult decisions. Following strategic planning, a comprehensive staffing plan had been prepared to set program-based staffing priorities with alternatives for either increased or reduced resources. Minnesota Extension Service had already moved to organization by clusters of counties, which provided for delivery of programs using agents across county lines. Communication was aided by good working relationships between the agents' associations and Extension administration and by the existence of active faculty and civil service consultative committees. As part of the strategic planning process, the organization had studied transitions with William Bridges. The University of Minnesota already had in place a Career Transition Center for employees whose positions had been cut. Transition Team Appointed A month after the initial announcement, an eight-member Transition Team was appointed including state and county staff, civil service staff, and academic staff. Some geographic dispersion was included, but not all districts were represented so that the committee could be small enough to act quickly. One member was selected for ties to the agents' association, while others worked specifically with grievance and mediation issues and dealing with stress and family resource management. A family life specialist and a member of the personnel staff were also included. Although not selected for this reason, the majority of the committee had themselves, or a close family member, experience the stress of job loss. Team appointments were made before it was known which positions were cut. This assignment did not signal immunity from cuts. These were temporary appointments, expected to end around June 30, the final effective dates of the position cuts. The assignment of the Transition Team was to:
Specifically not part of the Transition Team assignment were:
Work of the Transition Team All meetings of the Transition Team were by conference call, with a designated campus room for persons who were able to attend in person. A closed conference board was established on the Extension electronic network, with members urged to access it at least twice weekly. This provided an on-going mechanism for confidential questions and answers by the team. Ground rules were established from the start:
Concern of the team was for individuals whose positions were cut and their families and for those who would remain with fewer colleagues. Members were expected to listen and provide feedback on what was and was not going well. The aim was to facilitate a healthy "neutral zone" between the endings of the former staffing and new beginnings (Bridges, 1988). It was especially recognized that usual communication channels may not work well during times of transition. Work of the Transition Team was introduced to county agents at district conferences in December. This was also the month in which affected county-based individuals learned that their positions would be cut. It was decided that members of the Team would be assigned to call each person on a personal basis approximately one week after they had received the official notice by letter. The purpose of the call was to provide friendly support, answer questions, listen to needs and concerns, and refer to appropriate resources. Each person whose position was cut full- or part-time also received a separate letter with benefits and resources information. The Team met approximately monthly for a six-month period. Each meeting began with a round of "What are you hearing?" and was followed by a confidential memo of recommendations to the Director. This allowed unfiltered communication by the usual authority channels and a reduced feeling of risk in expressing reactions. Resources Provided Two tools for communication of resources and strategies were developed by the Transition Team: a temporary, weekly newsletter distributed electronically to all Extension staff, and a videotape. The weekly newsletter used materials developed by family life, family resource management and nutrition specialists, the University Career Transition Center, University Counseling Services, college career placement offices, stress research of Dr. Pauline Boss (1988), and transition materials by William Bridges (1990) and Price Pritchett and Ron Pound (1990). This newsletter sought to help colleagues deal sensitively with the situations of persons whose jobs were cut, as well as to provide ideas for coping and moving on by those persons. A 19-minute videotape, "Transition Time: Surviving the Loss of a Job," with Family Life Specialist Ron Pitzer and Dr. Robert Veninga of the University of Minnesota School of Public Health was prepared and distributed without charge to all offices in which there was a cut. This tape was prepared for the internal audience and designed as a basis for discussion. It was also used in educational programs for outside audiences. Other Supportive Activities This retrenchment moved remarkably well. One reason was wide-spread support for doing it as well as possible. Agent groups and associations, staff at all levels, the Epsilon Sigma Phi chapter, retirees, and advisory committees stepped forward to provide personal support and career transition help to persons whose positions were cut. The Transition Team provided one channel for such voluntary support. There was mission-driven basis for cuts made and a feeling of being in it together. County and state level cuts were made equitably. Results The Transition Team provided personal support, information, and referral to resources for both persons whose positions were cut and those remaining in the organization. Additional channels of communication were provided. Healthy acknowledgement of endings was encouraged. By the end of June, much of the acute pain of position cuts was past. Those cut were moving toward new situations. Internal shifts to new vacancies were made where appropriate. Staff at all levels were ready to move forward. The organization was developing a restructuring plan aligned with smaller staff size and earlier strategic planning. Staff at all levels recognized that they will look at their jobs differently because of the experience of the cuts. One agent said, "I will never look at my job the same. Before I thought that if I did my job well, it was secure. Now, I know that is not necessarily so." Setting program priorities and sharing work at the cluster level had become more of a necessary reality. By December, the Minnesota Extension Service had moved forward with the feeling that this significant retrenchment had gone more smoothly than any large cuts in the past. Discussion Several factors contributed to the successful transition of the Minnesota Extension Service when budget constraints forced a 10% cut in staff. Earlier strategic planning had begun setting priorities, and reorganization into clusters of counties allowed for more flexible use of staff. Good communication channels were already in place between Extension administration and staff through the agents' associations and faculty and civil service consultative committees. Nevertheless, appointment of a Transition Team representing all types of employees within the organization provided an additional communication channel during a time of transition when usual communications could be blocked. The Transition Team recognized the human side of the adjustments to the changes, identified needs, made referrals to resources, and provided an additional source of confidential feedback and feedforward. References Bridges, W. (1988). Surviving corporate transitions. New York: Doubleday. Bridges, W. (1990). Transition management handbook. Mill Valley, CA: William Bridges & Associates. Boss, P. (1988). Family stress management. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Pritchett, P., & Pound, R. (1990). The employee handbook for organizational change. Dallas, TX: Pritchett. Author Notes Additional sources for information on transition teams: Minnesota Extension Service. (1990). Comprehensive staffing plan. St. Paul: University of Minnesota. Minnesota Extension Service. (1991). Transition time: Surviving the loss of a job (Videotape, AD-VH-5884). St. Paul: University of Minnesota. Veninga, R. (1985). A gift of hope. Boston: Little, Brown, & Company.
Extension's Role in Developing Community Volunteers
Karen L. Hinton The ability to envision the future, identify and analyze issues, and to utilize a wide array of communication techniques have been identified by many studies as skills critical for community leaders in the 90s. Their roles have become a more difficult challenge in the context of the ever increasing complexity of our society. Leadership roles have become a complex set of functions rather than simply holding a position (Schultz, 1991). Training is often a necessary step to help ensure that individuals can serve in a strong and effective manner. Helping community leaders attain these skills by assessing needs and providing leadership training is an educational opportunity for which Cooperative Extension has both the expertise and experience. Methodology The information contained in this article is based upon a survey conducted in Fall 1992 by the Family Community Leadership (FCL) Project to ascertain training needs of individuals serving in community leadership roles as members of municipal boards, committees, and commissions in Carson City, Nevada. The survey was sent to 92 individuals who sit on the 16 boards, committees, and commissions that operate under the auspices of the Municipality of Carson City. Mailings were accomplished with the assistance of the City Manager's Office and were mailed with a cover letter from the Mayor. Seventy-nine surveys were received, for a return rate of 86%. This was accomplished with one follow- up letter to non-respondents in addition to the original survey. Family Community Leadership team members used a comprehensive process to identify 15 training topics to be included on the survey. The process included group discussion, pretesting of the instrument, and review by subject matter experts. As a follow-up to the original survey, a three-step Delphi technique was utilized to identify and prioritize community resources specific to Carson City. This was conducted with a group of 30 community volunteers attending leadership training. Understanding community resources was one of the 15 training topics listed on the original survey, but the broad scope of this item made it difficult to design training without further definition. Results Survey respondents were asked to identify, from the list of 15, the five most important training areas for individuals who are newly appointed to boards, committees, or commissions. Table 1 lists their responses in order of perceived importance.
A profile of respondents revealed that:
In addition to identifying the top five training topics, respondents were requested to add other topics they felt were of importance. A common theme of the write-in topics was the need for orientation of new members selected for boards, committees, or commissions. These topics differed from the training topics in that they were less skill focused and more related to history, responsibility, and operating procedures of their particular board, committee, or commission. Suggested topics that were written in by survey respondents were:
Poor communication and lack of understanding of the above topics were frequently listed as aspects of an individual's role that they found difficult to deal with or most frustrating. This feeling of frustration was felt to make the decision making process more laborious and their role more difficult. Preferred length and time of a training session was a question asked of respondents. When asked what they felt was the best length for a training session, 50% of the respondents chose four hours. Thirty-nine percent preferred a two-hour training sessions, while the remaining 11% felt that a full day was the best length. Preferred time of training was more evenly distributed, with weekday evening receiving 40% of responses, weekday receiving 34%, and Saturday receiving 26%. No differences between members of various boards, committees, or commissions were noted for the two variables, but individuals in the general and self-employed business category were more likely to prefer a Saturday training than other occupations. Crosstabulation of data by occupation showed the following tendencies:
Summary and Implications The concept of providing training for local government boards, committees, and commissions was supported by the high interest of respondents in attending a training session. The topics of identifying and analyzing issues, understanding community resources, group process (member's role and function), understanding the open meeting law, parliamentary procedure and liability of public officials, and increasing listening skills were identified by respondents as the five most important training areas. The survey method used in this project proved to be a successful method of assessing training needs and providing a blueprint for future training workshops. Additionally, support from the City's administrative offices helped to provide credibility and support to the project. Training efforts tend to become more measurable when they are embraced by the total organization and the top of the organizational structure displays involvement with sponsorship and setting of the program's tone (Whitmire & Nienstedt, 1987). This project serves as a model for utilizing Cooperative Extension volunteers in a needs assessment process. FCL volunteers played an integral part in the survey design, testing, and data collection. These volunteers will be helping to design training workshops in response to the identified needs. Their participation in the assessment process builds a sense of ownership in the project from the inception through program delivery. The training needs on which this survey focused were skills related and of universal applicability to individuals serving on any board, committee, or commission. The survey, however, was able to identify the additional need for orientation training specific to the entity on which a volunteer serves. This need suggests another possible area of educational opportunity for Cooperative Extension in working with volunteer development in the governmental agencies that utilize volunteer boards, committees, or commissions. Often, agency staff members lack background and training in working with volunteers. Effectiveness may be diminished if a volunteer is unsure of his/her basic responsibilities and lack essential skills. Cooperative Extension has expertise to offer in assessing needs, which can strengthen and contribute to the success of educational programming provided by Extension or other agencies. An assessment of this kind provides the flexibility of structuring training to meet the needs of the local community. By identifying issues of concern, sensitivity can be garnered for differences in individuals who serve in leadership roles, as well as an appreciation for the divergent thinking that these differences create. By preparing leaders to function successfully in their roles, they can develop the confidence to envision the future and make decisions that will bring desired outcomes to reality. References Schultz, C. M. (1991, November). Community leadership training programs. Adult Learning, pp. 11-13. Whitmire, M., & Nienstedt, P. (1987). Lead leaders into the '90's. Personnel Journal, 1(5), 80-85.
Marketing Planning for Extension Systems
V. Glenn Chappell Recently, Extension specialists in the state of Washington used direct mail methods to attract young homemakers to conferences on family businesses. Florida Expanded Foods and Nutrition Program (EFNEP) specialists employed the principles of salesmanship to help EFNEP paraprofessionals recruit homemakers for nutrition education. A community leadership program in Georgia used billboards, t-shirts, balloons, and buttons to promote a leadership training program. The 4-H program in North Carolina has used a television advertising campaign to build awareness of its "product line." These are just a few examples of the many Extension programs around the country which have successfully applied marketing ideas (Topor, 1988) during the past few years. As Extension personnel respond to the problems facing America in the 1990s, many will increasingly turn to marketing for help with such issues as attracting leaders, volunteers and clientele, increasing client satisfaction with Extension, designing excellent programs which carry out Extension's mission, and enlisting financial and political support as well as enthusiasm of clients, government officials, and other stakeholder groups. Effective marketing does not just happen, however. There are no magical formulas or secrets to marketing. Nor will Extension professionals be able to adapt business marketing ideas to Extension's programs without some difficulty. Like all managerial activities, marketing must be planned, organized, and controlled. It involves designing Extension programs to meet the needs and desires of target clients and using effective pricing, communication, and distribution to inform, motivate, and service clients. The purpose of this article is to provide Extension professionals with an introduction to marketing planning. The process of marketing planning will help Extension professionals develop and maintain a viable fit between Extension's objectives, resources, and marketing opportunities. A Marketing Orientation Before discussing the role of marketing planning in the management process, it is important to review briefly the philosophy that guides effective and responsible marketing. While many Extension programs are using some marketing tools, they are not necessarily marketing oriented. Instead, many Extension professionals are pre-occupied with their program, with efficiency, or with pushing clients to select Extension's current programs. Extension professionals must recognize that an emphasis on programming, production, and selling is only part of the task of becoming truly marketing-oriented. What distinguishes an Extension program with a marketing orientation? As applied to Extension, a marketing-orientation is based on three major propositions: client orientation, coordination of all client-related activities, and goal direction. Client-Orientation Meeting the wants and needs of constituencies is the key to a marketing orientation. Extension professionals must shift from an internal organizational perspective to the client's viewpoint. Successful marketing of Extension's programs requires a complete understanding of Extension's clients - their needs, attitudes, and buying behavior. For instance, Extension specialists who design programs for the elderly in rural communities must know exactly what the needs of the elderly are and must develop programs which meet these needs. Thus, a marketing orientation holds that the main task of the Cooperative Extension System is to determine the needs and wants of target clientele groups and to satisfy them through the design, communication, pricing, and delivery of appropriate and competitively viable programs and services (Kotler & Fox, 1985). Satisfying targeted clients does not, however, mean that the Extension System ignores its mission and its distinctive competencies to provide whatever programming happens to be "hot" at the moment. Rather, Extension seeks clients who are or could be interested in its offerings and then adapts these offerings to make them as attractive as possible. Coordination The second facet of a marketing orientation is coordination. There must be close cooperation among all components of an Extension organization. All participants in policy and strategy formulation, as well as programming, must take a market-oriented view of Extension's clients and other constituencies. Extension must take steps to become more responsive to its clients, such as conducting studies of client satisfaction and of clients' needs and preferences, as well as developing appropriate ways to respond to complaints and suggestions. Furthermore, marketing needs to be introduced to various groups in an Extension organization. Internal marketing training should first be made available to top Extension administrators and advisory groups because their understanding and support are essential if marketing is to be successfully applied by Extension. Additional training sessions should be directed at Extension specialists, county directors, agents, and support personnel. Finally, new employees should go through a training program that emphasizes the importance of creating client satisfaction. In short, coordination requires that everyone in Extension understand clients' needs and then be willing and able to work together to satisfy these needs. As one management expert put it, the "aim of marketing is to know and understand the client so well that the program or service fits the client and sells itself" (Drucker, 1973). Goal-Orientation The third cornerstone of a marketing-orientation is goal direction. A marketing-orientation stresses that the only way Extension can achieve its own goals is by satisfying the needs of its clients. For example, an Extension program wishing to increase the level of funding provided by the legislature for community resource development must demonstrate to legislators that it is meeting the community resource development needs of the state. This may require the development of special educational programs and activities for local community leaders and public officials. Thus, the main task of Extension is to determine the needs, wants, and interests of its clients and to adapt Extension programs to deliver client satisfactions that preserve or enhance the clients' and society's well being and long term interests. Planning and Marketing Management It has been said that, "If you don't know where you are going, any road will take you there" (Enis & Cox, 1985). The implication is that an Extension organization first needs to decide what it wants to accomplish. Next, it must consider carefully which path, in terms of strategies and programming, it should follow to achieve its desired ends. Thus, strategic marketing planning provides a road map for meeting marketing goals. Marketing planning is the systematic process of developing and coordinating marketing decisions. Because marketing decisions are made at two major levels in Extension--top administration and county operations--the marketing planning process in Extension must operate at two levels. Central administration marketing planning provides overall direction for the Extension program by specifying the programs and services the Extension organization will provide and the clients and constituencies it will pursue, and by establishing the objectives to be achieved by individual programs. County planning specifies the details for implementing Extension's overall marketing plan on a program-by-program basis. Note that the central administration's marketing planning process should provide the basic direction for county programming, and the county planning process should integrate the various specialized marketing decisions made on behalf of each program. In other words, all marketing decisions should be made in the context of marketing plans. Only in this way can a state Extension System coordinate the specialized county management roles and achieve its objectives. Although marketing planning for Extension takes place at both the state and county level, four basic steps are involved at each level:
One further point about marketing planning should be noted. Marketing planning is a process. State Extension systems operate in complex and dynamic environments. Therefore, marketing plans cannot be cast in stone. Each Extension System must look ahead and develop long term strategies to meet the changing conditions it encounters. No one strategy is best. Each Extension System must find the game plan that makes the most sense given its situation, opportunities, objectives, and resources. The difficult task of selecting an overall strategy with sufficient flexibility to insure long-run survival and growth is one of Extension's most important planning functions. Conclusions Developing a marketing orientation serves as the basis for applying marketing management techniques in an Extension system. Without giving effective attention to client needs, marketing and the other management functions will lack the direction needed for success. However, implementing a marketing orientation in an Extension system is not a simple matter. Extension systems are faced with many alternative markets and clients, and a vast array of alternative policies and programs for meeting client needs. Extension cannot pursue all possible clients, and all possible actions cannot be taken, because human and financial resources are limited and do not permit such extravagance. Consequently, this article has suggested the use of a planning approach that guarantees a more client-oriented Extension program. Conducting a situation analysis, setting objectives, and then developing strategies and programs improves the chances for choosing the best marketing policies. In summary, the application of marketing planning techniques by Extension decision-makers will give Extension a strong competitive advantage among its target clientele and constituencies. The use of marketing analysis, planning, implementation, and control will improve Extension's ability to watch and adapt to the many forces in its marketing environment. As a result, Extension will be in a better position to sense, serve, and satisfy all of its target clients. References Drucker, P. (1973). Management: Tasks, responsibilities, practices. New York: Harper & Row. Enis, B., & Cox, K. K. (1985). Marketing classics (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Kotler, P., & Fox K. (1985). Strategic marketing for educational institutions. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Topor, R. S. (1988). Your personal guide to marketing a non- profit organization. Washington, D.C.: Council for Advancement and Support of Education. Author Notes The work for this paper was completed while the author was employed as a visiting associate professor at North Carolina State University. The author thanks Robert C. Wells, John G. Richardson, and Loren A. Ihen for their constructive comments.
Learning Best Through Experience
John G. Richardson Enhancement of Extension's delivery systems and program effectiveness is a priority both within and outside the organization. While adults learn by many different means, two North Carolina Cooperative Extension studies presented in this article show that clientele, as well as new Extension agents, prefer to gain new knowledge and skills through experiential opportunities that reflect the principles or information being taught. Learning preferences of targeted Extension audiences and new agents clearly reflect those theories and principles that have long been espoused by leaders in the field of education. Perhaps the most well known proponent of learning by doing is indeed the person generally recognized as the "father" of Extension--Seaman A. Knapp. He stated that: "What a man hears, he may doubt; what he sees, he may possibly doubt, but what he does, he cannot doubt" (Rasmussen, 1989). The noted learning theorist, John Dewey was a strong proponent of experiential opportunities being provided as a critical component of the education process. He stated that "..all principles, by themselves are abstract. They become concrete only in the consequences which result from their application" (Dewey, 1938). In his thesis on curriculum development, Ralph Tyler saw planned "sequential practice" of what is being learned as a key element of a learning system (Tyler, 1971). More recently, Stephen Brookfield (1983) sought to differentiate experiential learning into two components: one that results from no purposeful desire such as an injury or an accident, and one which reflects a desire to gain knowledge and skills. As Extension educators, our desire is to create experiential educational opportunities for our clientele by planned design rather than experience occurring by accident. Based on theory and educational research over the years, our educational program delivery systems should include delivery methods that provide opportunities for clientele to gain a sensory, exploratory experience with the information being presented. Two recent North Carolina Cooperative Extension studies reinforce and accentuate the need to include clientele experiential opportunities as we conduct our educational programs. Clientele Study A guided interview questionnaire was used for determining the learning preferences of specifically targeted Extension audiences in 11 North Carolina counties. Agents from each of the 11 counties selected an applicable program for their county and developed educational program objectives and a list of clientele targeted to receive the specific information. These educational programs ranged broadly from those focusing on water quality, to community leadership development, to feeder cattle conditioning programs. Seven people who participated in the programs in each of the 11 counties were randomly selected from each county list, and were subsequently interviewed by the Extension agents in those respective counties. Findings The demographic analysis indicated that most respondents were adults from 30 to 65 years old. There was about a one-third split between those with high school education, some college or trade school training, and college graduates. About one-third were full-time farmers, 13% were full-time homemakers, and the remainder indicated their primary occupation as other than farming or homemaking. Over 90% indicated "some" to "very much" dependence on Extension for providing needed information. Learning Preferences To determine the single most preferred way of learning by targeted clientele, they were given the choices of hearing, seeing, touching/feeling, doing, tasting, smelling, and discussing. Among these options, they indicated an overwhelming preference for "doing" as shown in Table 1.
In another question, clientele were asked if there are any combinations of learning methods that helps them learn better. In their responses, the preferences were strongly focused on combinations of methods that allow them to gain an interactive, sensory experience when learning. These findings, shown in Table 2, indicate that 74% preferred some combination that allows them to "do" what they are being taught. Preferences for combinations that include being able to "see" what is being taught were indicated by 64.9% of clientele. Also, 35.1% preferred a combination of delivery methods that allow them to "discuss" the information they are receiving. The other modes received little or no mention as preferred means of learning.
When clientele were asked why they preferred a combination of learning modes, their responses indicated that the learning process was positively enhanced. The reasons they gave clearly reflect the need for selection of program delivery methods that provide numerous modes of learning when implementing Extension programs. In expressing their support for multiple learning modes, the clientele made the following comments:
New Agent Study During new worker orientation training in December, 1992, all participating agents responded to the same questions used in the clientele study. In their response to the single most preferred mode of learning, agents indicated an even stronger preference for doing or performing (80.7%) than clientele (70.1%), as shown in Table 3.
Learning Preferences When asked if there were combinations of learning modes that were most preferred, the new agents' responses were similar to those given by clientele. However, there was an even greater preference for "discussing" to be included in the combination. The agent preferences for learning combinations are shown in Table 4.
Even though "discussing" was strongly preferred as a component of a learning system by a majority of new agents (74.1%), all of the agents preferred a combination of learning methods that include "doing." Most also preferred "seeing" as a part of the combination (96.3%), as shown in Table 5.
Even though the preferred combination percentages of new agents are higher than clientele, there is a parallel among these two different groups of people. These results indicate that these two groups agree on how information should be delivered. The learning experience should include opportunities to "do," "see," and "discuss" the information presented. Summary The results of these two studies indicate that Extension educational programs should include foremost, experiential or "doing" opportunities. The learning process is further enhanced by providing opportunities for the learners to also see and discuss the information. Thus, development and implementation of a comprehensive program delivery system that includes these components will be in the best interest of all who are involved in both delivering and receiving Extension information. References Brookfield, S. (1983). Adult learners, adult education and the community. New York: Teachers College. Dewey, J. (1938). John Dewey experience and education. New York: McMillan. Rasmussen, W. D. (1989). Taking the university to the people: The first seventy-five years. Ames: Iowa State University. Tyler, R. W. (1971). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Developing 4-H Curriculum on an Electronic Database
Jan Scholl Cooperative Extension focuses on reaching people with research-based information in a timely manner. For the past several years, electronic databases have expanded access and increased the speed at which information can be received and sent. Pennsylvania's PENpage system (developed in 1986 by the College of Agricultural Sciences at The Pennsylvania State University to disseminate Extension news and research developments to Extension offices and the public) is now accessible to over 300 institutions around the world. The system contains over 11,500 document abstracts, agendas, articles, fact-sheets, bibliographies, calendars, catalogs, directories, glossaries, indices, minutes, news releases, newsletters, programs, scripts, reports, reviews, and tables of contents (Hunsinger, 1993). Debra Shaffer's (1991) study of the PENpages system in Pennsylvania showed that having access to information faster than by surface mail was beneficial to Extension program development. She also found that the availability of agriculture-related information in one easily accessed location enhanced the use of the system. Could it be possible to harness this new technology in other useful ways, such as to speed the development of 4-H project materials and other curricula? After preliminary discussions with the coordinators of the PENpages system, T. Mincemoyer (personal communication, July 10, 1992) concluded that PENpages would be an appropriate medium to develop and review curriculum documents. It was easily accessed by Extension offices throughout Pennsylvania and the ability to update documents and use access data was already built into the system. In addition, J. Kane (personal communication, July 6, 1992) proposed that with reductions in Extension staff and faculty developing youth-related curriculum across the United States, identifying the means to review and "jury" materials on an electronic system could enhance the curriculum development effort. The purpose of this preliminary study was to determine if it was possible to develop curriculum and supporting 4-H educational materials more quickly and effectively by distributing and reviewing them on the electronic database, PENpages. Methods Current trends in curriculum development and electronic technology were studied and traditional methods of development (draft, duplication, mailing, and review) of 4-H textile science materials during the period of 1989-91 and the electronic development of 4-H textile science materials from 1992-93 on the database were compared. Agents and volunteers who participated in both the traditional and electronic review of materials were surveyed to determine opinions toward traditional and electronic methods and to identify factors that might inhibit and facilitate the curriculum development process. Data were compiled to:
Results and Discussion Using the electronic system, the development time and effort was reduced by one-third for large curriculum projects and substantially more (up to 75%) for smaller support or supplementary materials. This was largely due to the ability of reviewers to locate and print materials quickly and easily, and that little time was spent duplicating, collating, and mailing first and subsequent drafts from a central source. No additional materials had to be reprinted and sent out because of loss or delay. Agents also liked the fact that when leaders or members came into the Extension office "complaining" about an old curriculum, a draft of one or more projects could be put into their hands in just a few minutes. Explanations of the curricula and review forms were also put on the electronic system. An overall menu document was developed to show how the curriculum was organized and another document communicated a "running account" of curriculum development decisions. Individual projects and support materials were also assigned a document number. PENpages provided a means of tracking reviews and reviewers through a document access feature on the system. Twenty-five leaders, 37 members and five agents representing 28 of the 67 counties voluntarily reviewed a total of 110 projects on the electronic database compared with eight (six leaders and two agents) using the traditional method. Most of the accesses took place in the country office, but two of the volunteers accessed materials directly from their home computers. As comments were sent in, changes were continually made to the documents on the electronic system. This allowed later reviewers to benefit from the comments of previous reviews and prevented the developer from having to sift though the same comments over and over again. Making changes continuously also eliminated the confusion of managing a number of different drafts of the same document. Some of the changes were made in CAPITAL LETTERS so those reviewing a document a second and third time could easily pick out the changes and know that their comments had made a difference. New reviewers had the benefit of knowing which sections had already changed. Interactive features on PENpages were inadequate at the time of the study to provide a means of sending comments directly on the system. All replies were sent back by mail or electronic mail. It was found that either the project or the review sheet needed to be printed anyway because it was cumbersome to switch back and forth between reading the document and noting the comments on the review sheet. Most of the reviewers printed both the project materials and the review sheet because they wanted to indicate the exact source of a problem in the text, felt that documents were difficult to read from a monitor, or didn't want to tie-up a computer at the Extension office. On the electronic system, reviewers felt they had more of an opportunity to respond to the types of materials of interest and could adjust the review to their own time schedules. Some reviewers, however, did modify the review sheet to allow more space to write. Without duplication or postage, the costs of development were greatly reduced for the developer, but were increased for the Extension office or reviewer if the materials were printed on their equipment. However, far fewer materials were printed overall than for the traditional review, and of those printed directly from the electronic system, more were reviewed. The greatest disadvantage to the electronic system of review was the inability to send documents with graphics, formatting, and underlining. Some reviewers remarked that without the graphics the documents seem somewhat "dry" and "lifeless." Many found them difficult to "get through," particularly with such a visual subject matter as textiles and clothing. The greatest advantage to using the electronic system was to get first drafts of text, particularly those that would be widely used and/or controversial, into the hands of those who would be using the final product before the bulk of the curriculum investment was expended. In actuality, there was no comparison between the traditional and the electronic methods used in this study because, despite a preliminary needs assessment and several committee meetings of agents, leaders, and youth prior to the traditional review, three years of development were futile because no one would use the final product. Summary Curriculum development is a laborious task often coupled with the difficulty of involving people who will eventually use it the most. To obtain the necessary sanction and approval, reviewing and pilot testing curricula are required, but take time, and it is difficult to obtain an adequate clientele response. The ability to develop curricula more quickly and effectively by making them more accessible to reviewers at various stages in the development process can increase the quality and quantity of educational materials being produced. Electronic delivery is becoming a more viable approach, particularly as more and more 4-H materials become available on the Internet system (Ostergard & Risdon, 1993). This was a preliminary trial comparing two ways of developing and reviewing 4-H curriculum. Replication and further study are necessary to enhance both methods, to encourage the review of materials not only among counties but throughout the United States, and to determine how well other database systems, within Extension, can serve this purpose. References Hunsinger, D. (1993, September). The PENpages report. (PENpages document number 10199198). Ostergard, M., & Risdon, P. (1993, September 20). UCCE posts 4-H youth projects on the internet. Extension Technology Group (electronic transmission). Shaffer, D. (1991). An assessment of Pennsylvania Cooperative Extension agents' attitudes toward the use of PENpages as a computer-based information service. Unpublished master's thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park.
Food Safety Assessment and Programming
Gary D. Gilmore, M.P.H., Ph.D.
Mary Meehan-Strub, M.S.
Douglas Mormann, M.S. Introduction There continues to be increasing attention given to food related issues in our society as the public becomes more aware of the benefits and risks associated with food production, distribution and preservation, preparation, and consumption patterns. Recent announcements in the professional literature and public media regarding foodborne outbreaks demonstrate that food quality protection is but one measure of prevention that must be employed for the health of the public; appropriate food preparation represents yet another key factor in prevention (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1993). National guidelines for prevention and health promotion in our society (e.g., Healthy People: 2000) provide directions and recommendations regarding food related issues, such as the need for "marked improvement in accessibility of nutrition information and education for the general public" (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1991). Within this context, a Food Safety Advisory Committee, which was established five years ago in greater LaCrosse County, Wisconsin, continues to direct its efforts at accurately assessing the food related interests and needs of the general public, and then responding in a timely manner through educational and service channels. This report details the Committee's 1990 and 1993 efforts in conducting county-wide needs assessments to determine the food safety issues deemed important by the public, as well as the best means to convey key information to them. Assessment Process The county-wide assessment was conducted under the auspices of the LaCrosse County Food Safety Advisory Committee, which is comprised of representatives from the University of Wisconsin - LaCrosse, the University of Wisconsin - Extension, the LaCrosse County Health Department, and a national food distributor with headquarters in LaCrosse. The purpose of the assessment was to serve as a follow-up to a 1990 county-wide assessment of priority food safety issues among the general public (Gilmore, Meehan- Strub & Mormann, 1992). In addition, efforts were made to determine the most appropriate educational and informational channels to use for follow-up activity. Useful information was derived from the 1990 survey, particularly regarding the findings of the top three food safety concerns: pesticides used in food; drugs and other chemicals in food; and, manufacturing standards, with radio, television and newspapers as the informational channels of choice (Gilmore et al., 1992). The 1993 survey process served as a follow-up assessment using a completely revised inventory which assessed the public's overall level of food safety concern, concern about specific food safety issues, most likely source of information about food safety issues, and demographics. The survey approach was selected because of its relatively low cost, ability to reach diverse groups of people, and the tendency to elicit more accurate subject responses, in contrast to telephone and face-to-face interview approaches (Gilmore, Campbell & Becker, 1989). Following the development and pilot implementation of a preliminary draft of the survey form, revisions were made for clarity and brevity. Since this inventory was to be distributed at high-traffic locations, the survey was constructed so that it could be completed in an average of five minutes. The final draft of the inventory (see Attachment) was distributed during the early part of 1993 by volunteers from the University of Wisconsin - LaCrosse, the University of Wisconsin - Extension, and the LaCrosse County Health Department to consumers frequenting the major LaCrosse area food chains; participants in the county elderly screening and nutrition sites; attendees at the county Women, Infants, and Children's program; participants at the County childhood immunization sites; area clinic patients; Extension Homemakers; 4-H Leaders; members of the County Board of Supervisors; and, members of community centers and fitness facilities. A total of 1,135 usable surveys were obtained. Survey Results Based on the 1,135 usable 1993 surveys, out of 1,275 distributed, the following top three food safety concerns emerged: foodborne illness, government role in food safety, and pesticides and chemicals in food production. This is somewhat in contrast with the 1990 (N = 1,549) survey responses that showed top concerns to be pesticides, drugs in food, and manufacturing standards (Table 1).
In addition, the 1993 survey assessed the level of concern about the safety of food one consumed, resulting in over 65% indicating a "very" or "extreme" level of concern, and 11% who were "not at all" or "somewhat" concerned. During the period 1988-90, the only food related illnesses reported to the LaCrosse County Health Department were the result of bacterial or viral contamination, not pesticides, drugs, or poor manufacturing standards (LaCrosse County Health Department, 1988, 1989, & 1990). Due to the difference between the perceived concerns from the 1990 survey and the actual sources of food related illness, efforts described below were initiated in 1990 to help the public better understand the major food safety risks. In the 1990 survey, there was not a great deal of variation in the ranked food safety concerns by occupation (Table 2).
In the 1993 survey, the occupational listings were expanded to include individuals who work in factories, construction, agriculture, health services, and government so that group related distinctions in food safety concerns might be more readily detected. Even with these additional listings, the leading concerns by occupation did not vary appreciably from the overall prioritized responses. The only exception was that biotechnology was the number one concern among those involved in agriculture. The authors speculate this is the result of people in agriculture being more aware of the use of growth hormones, organic food production, and other biotechnology issues related to food production than might be the case for the general public and the other cited occupations. When the data were reviewed by age category (Table 3), foodborne illness was ranked high in all age groups except for respondents 19 years of age and under.
Priority concerns of this age group related to drug and chemical use. Because of their usual limited contact with community education resources, this age group would have had the least amount of exposure to the community education efforts about food safety risks provided by the LaCrosse County Food Safety Advisory Committee. Regarding preferred formats for receiving information about food safety, radio, television, and newspapers were ranked highest by the respondents in both 1990 and 1993 (Table 4).
Additionally, the 1993 respondents emphasized to a greater degree, than the 1990 respondents, the importance of electronic media as the preferred informational channel. Educational workshops were identified by 16% of the 1993 respondents as an important way they would like to learn about food safety, while only 5% chose computer access to information; 8%, telephone; and, 13%, self-study. Newsletters and print materials were selected by 35% of the 1993 respondents, and 60% of the 1990 respondents. These data continue to substantiate the Food Safety Advisory Committee emphasis on print and electronic media for community food safety information dissemination. Implications for Educational Outreach In response to the 1990 food safety survey, the LaCrosse Food Safety Advisory Committee coordinated and presented numerous educational activities in an effort to extend food safety information to the general public. Initially, a "media breakfast" was featured as a kickoff event to release the results of the food safety survey. The breakfast was followed by a half-hour "newsmaker" presentation on public radio which included a question and answer session with representatives from local television and radio stations and one weekly newspaper. Additional "newsmaker" programs provided information on pesticides used on foods, food safety issues, and drugs and chemicals in food production. "Newsmaker" programs are aired on two local television stations and three-to-five local radio stations, with the potential to reach over 100,000 people in LaCrosse County and the surrounding area. Public service announcements (PSAs) relating to holiday food safety were prepared and distributed to five local radio stations. A follow-up telephone survey conducted by the LaCrosse County University of Wisconsin - Extension office revealed that the PSAs were aired 175 times between December 17-31, 1990. Two major foodborne illness incidents associated with restaurants in LaCrosse County in early 1991 prompted the Committee to coordinate "Wanted: Safe Food Handlers," a workshop for food handlers from restaurants, hospitals, school food services, delicatessens, and grocery stores. The Extension home economist began a weekly newspaper column entitled "Coulee Consumer" with food safety news and information included on a regular basis. Based on the results of the 1990 and 1993 food safety surveys, the committee determined that preliminary community-based food safety educational efforts need to be offered through various media channels that clientele are most likely to use. For this reason, Extension and other community- service professionals are encouraged to identify local media outlets and explore the opportunities available to extend educational information. Programming opportunities might include:
The financial requirements for this type of programming, particularly long-distance learning opportunities, may call for a reassignment of financial resources or alternative funding sources in order for county-based and statewide faculty to respond to clientele needs and interests in their most useful and preferred modes of learning. Collaborative efforts with other community-based agencies/organizations, both public and private, will need to expand to provide for the personnel and financial resources required to develop successful educational programs. Conclusion The results to date of a four-year collaborative community-based food safety assessment and educational effort involving the University of Wisconsin - Extension, the University of Wisconsin - LaCrosse, the LaCrosse County Health Department, and a national food distributor have been analyzed and incorporated into programmatic activity. It is quite clear that distinct target populations in the greater LaCrosse County region have unique food safety needs and interests, as well as preferred modes of learning more about them. Actual and proposed responses to these data by the community service agencies include public service announcements, press conferences, on-going informational updates through print and electronic media, and printed material dissemination through public sites. This type of collaborative effort can result in enhanced educational opportunities impacting positively on the health of the public. References Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (1993). Preliminary report: Foodborne outbreak of escherichia coli 0157:H7 infections from hamburgers-Western United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 42(4), 85-86. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP). (1991). Healthy people: 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Gilmore, G. D., Meehan-Strub, M., & Mormann, D. (1992). Community-based food safety survey. Journal of Extension, 30, 37-38. Gilmore, G. D., Campbell, M. D., & Becker, B. L. (1989). Needs assessment strategies for health education and health promotion. Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark. LaCrosse County Health Department. (1988). LaCrosse county health department annual reports. LaCrosse, WI: Author. LaCrosse County Health Department. (1989). LaCrosse county health department annual reports. LaCrosse, WI: Author. LaCrosse County Health Department. (1990). LaCrosse county health department annual reports. LaCrosse, WI: Author. Attachment
Are You Concerned About the Safety of Food?
The LaCrosse County Food Safety Advisory Committee, comprised of
representatives from the University of Wisconsin-Extension, the
University of Wisconsin - LaCrosse, LaCrosse County Health
Department, and Reinhart Foods, would appreciate your responses
to the following requests for information. Your responses will
assist in guiding the development of appropriate educational and
informational efforts. This should take only five minutes to
complete.
1) How concerned are you about the safety of the food you eat?
(please circle the response that most agrees with your choice)
0=Not at all 1=Somewhat 2=Moderately 3=Very 4=Extremely
2) Please circle your level of concern about each one of the
following items.
0=Not at all 1=Somewhat 2=Moderately 3=Very 4=Extremely
*Organically-grown Foods 0 1 2 3 4
*Foodborne Illness (e.g.,
food poisoning) 0 1 2 3 4
*Food Safety at Home 0 1 2 3 4
*Biotechnology (e.g., BST/
BGH, cloning) 0 1 2 3 4
*Pesticides & Chemicals in
Food Production 0 1 2 3 4
*Food Additives (e.g.,
preservatives, food
colorings) 0 1 2 3 4
*Genetically Modified Foods
(e.g., gene-transfer to
improve shelf life and/or
composition of foods) 0 1 2 3 4
*Environmental Impact/
Ecologic Issues (e.g., pack-
aging waste) 0 1 2 3 4
*Irradiation of Food 0 1 2 3 4
*Government Role in Food
Safety (e.g., inspection,
testing, regulations) 0 1 2 3 4
*Interpreting Food Labels
for Safety 0 1 2 3 4
*Home Food Preservation
(e.g., canning) 0 1 2 3 4
*Drug Residues 0 1 2 3 4
*Other (please specify) 0 1 2 3 4
3) Please indicate which of the following resources you would be
most likely to use to learn more about the issues in number 2.
(check all that apply)
_____Radio/TV
_____Newspaper
_____Educational Workshops/Conference
_____Newsletter
_____Self-Study (e.g., videotape, audio)
_____Telephone Dial Access
_____Print Material (e.g., book, pamphlet)
_____Computer-accessed information
_____Other (please specify)__________________________________
4) Please tell us something about yourself:
County of Residence: _____________ Age: _____ Gender: M F
Occupation (check only one):
_____Factory _____Agriculture _____Government
_____Business _____Health Services _____Student
_____Construction _____Education _____Homemaker
_____Retired _____Other (please specify) _______________
5) OPTIONAL -- If you are interested and willing to assist us in
a follow-up to this survey and educational program efforts,
please provide your name and telephone number.
Name: (please print)_________________________ Telephone #: ______
Thank you for assisting us.
Extension Programming to Educate the Elderly about Nutrition
Georgia C. Lauritzen, Ph.D., R.D.
Carol T. Windham, Ph.D.
Department of Nutrition & Food Sciences An important issue for the Cooperative Extension System is to assist families with responsibility for dependent elderly by promoting use of community-based programs and resources. This study compared self-perceived problems of life quality and diets of participants in Title III congregate and home-delivered meal programs. The purpose was to generate ideas for collaborative education efforts between Extension and government-sponsored elderly nutrition programs using self-assessed nutrition and life quality issues of the clientele. Methodology Thirty-one self-selected volunteers from the Meals-On-Wheels and congregate meal programs in Logan, Cache County, Utah completed three-day food records and a validated quality of life questionnaire (McKenzie & Jacobsen, 1988) designed for self-evaluation of physical, psychological, and food consumption problems. Average daily intakes of calories, protein, fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals were computed and compared to national recommendations (Chernoff, 1991). Forty-eight percent of the subjects were congregate meal participants; 52% utilized Meals-On-Wheels; and 65% were female. Ages ranged from 59-91 years, with a sample mean of 76 years, 72 years for males, and 77 years for females. Life Quality and Dietary Results Meals-On-Wheels participants reported a greater number and severity of physical problems than congregate meal participants. The two groups were not different in self-perceived psychological or consumption problems or overall quality of life. Males reported fewer psychological problems and a higher overall quality of life than females. Mean nutrient intakes did not differ between the home-delivered and congregate meal groups, but overall sample averages of some nutrients were low (Table 1). Caloric intake was 92% of recommended levels. Intakes decreased with increasing age and declining life quality scores. Energy requirement may decline naturally with age and increased longevity may be related to lower body weight. Even so, it is difficult to consume adequate essential nutrients when caloric intake is limited. The sample average protein intake was 138% of standard and decreased with age even though requirement does not. Optimal dietary protein and appropriate exercise minimize age-related loss of muscle mass and strength. Dietary fiber was less than the recommended 25 grams per day. Low fiber intakes may contribute to constipation, diverticular disease, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia.
Sample mean intakes were low for vitamin B-6, folacin, and zinc. Vitamin B-6 requirement may increase with age. Diets of the very old and sick may be especially deficient, and estrogens used to treat osteoporosis may increase the need for vitamin B-6. Older people tend to maintain adequate folate status despite low intakes, but alcohol and prescription drug use can compromise their folate status. Some zinc deficiency symptoms resemble common problems of the elderly, such as declines in taste acuity, wound healing, and immune response. But, prolonged therapeutic doses to correct low zinc status can lead to copper deficiency and impaired immune function. Implications Disease prevention and health promotion efforts for the elderly must consider the special needs and risk factors of this clientele. Physical problems of the home-bound elderly do not necessarily influence their psychological outlook or dietary status. Congregate meal participants readily accept nutrition education that is interactive, immediately applicable, and appropriate to their knowledge level. Home-bound elders receiving Meals-On-Wheels may be equally receptive to nutrition education efforts. Many older people rely entirely on their physicians for nutrition and health advice, but others may not consult health professionals due to limited finances, mobility, and geographic isolation. The higher incidence of psychological problems and lower life quality reported by women in this study may be due to longer life spans and solitary living which are important risk factors for disease and disability. Extension agents may be the best resource to evaluate self-perceived problems of the elderly and to coordinate community agencies and organizations, educational and research institutions, health-care systems, and public policy-makers. The synergistic effect of these activities can lead to improved nutritional health and life quality while reducing long-term, health-related costs of older people in our communities. References Chernoff, R. (Ed.). (1991). Macronutrient requirements for elderly persons in geriatric nutrition: The health professional's handbook. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen. McKenzie, P. F., & Jacobsen, H. N. (1988). The University of North Carolina Institute of Nutrition quality of life scale for the elderly. Currents, IV(1), 22-29.
Leadership Effectiveness of County Extension Directors
Rama Radhakrishna
Edgar P. Yoder
Connie D. Baggett
Department of Agricultural and Extension Education The role of County Extension Directors (CEDs) has expanded from one primarily focusing on custodial maintenance of the county Extension office and supervision of secretarial staff to one with responsibility for the entire Extension program at the county level (Brown, 1991). The CED serves as an administrative leader and coordinator for formulating, developing, implementing, and evaluating county Extension programs and coordinating personnel functions. In addition, the CED is a vital link between field staff and upper levels of administration. Thus, the leadership role of CEDs has become an increasingly critical element in the successful implementation of county Extension programs. Leadership is an observable and learnable set of practices. Individuals who possess the desire and persistence to lead, may enhance their skills and abilities required for the leadership role (Kouzes & Posner, 1988). Identifying leadership styles, behaviors, and practices is valuable and important for contributing to the professional growth and development of individual CEDs and attainment of organizational goals. This was the impetus for a study which examined the leadership styles, behaviors, and practices of CEDs in the Pennsylvania Extension System. The population for the study was a census consisting of all 62 CEDs in Pennsylvania. The 18-item, Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale (LPC), which identifies leadership style on a continuum ranging from 1 to 8, was used (Fiedler, Chemers & Mahar, 1976). Scores on the scale range from a low of 18 to a high of 144. A score of 64 or more is considered as a high score and is associated with the relation-oriented leadership style. A score of 57 or less is considered as reflecting a task-oriented leadership style. A questionnaire with four sections (LPC scale, leadership behaviors and practices, team concept, and background characteristics) was mailed to the population. The questionnaire was reviewed by a panel of experts (faculty and specialists) to establish face and content validity. All 62 CEDs responded (100%), with 61 of the 62 responses being usable (98.3%). Using the data collected, the reliability analysis indicated that the questionnaire had acceptable reliability [Cronbach's alphas were: leadership style = .95, and leadership behavior and practices = .55 (representation) to .78 (superior orientation) for the 12 subscales]. Seventy-two percent of the CEDs identified themselves as having a relation-oriented leadership style, with 15% having a task-oriented style and 13% having neither a relation-oriented or task-oriented leadership style. CEDs were primarily motivated by interpersonal relations and group support to accomplish personal and organizational goals. For leadership behaviors and practices, CEDs perceived that they "often" exhibited behaviors in the areas of tolerance of freedom (4.26), consideration (4.04), production emphasis (3.98), representation (3.95), integration (3.89), initiating structure (3.82), superior orientation (3.75), and predictive accuracy (3.73). CEDs exhibited behaviors "occasionally" in the areas of demand reconci | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
