Volume 28 Number 3
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Fall 1990 Volume 28 Number 3 |
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Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors Gail M. Skinner, president, Minnesota, Site Institution Editorial Committee Kirk Astroth, chairperson, Bozeman, Montana Research in Brief Editors S. Kay Rockwell, University of Nebraska, communications and delivery systems Tools of the Trade Editors Martha Bullock Lamberts, Puyallup, Washington Futures Editor J. David Deshler, Cornell University
Editor's PageWorking With and Through Others It's hard. It really is. Working with others can be a real pain. All kinds of very good reasons exist to avoid having to work with others. Indeed, I've become convinced that there's only one reason to ever work with and through others - it's ultimately more effective. As long as you're not interested in effectiveness, you really don't have to bother with other people. My job as editor would be a lot easier if every article didn't have to go through the peer review process. I could just pick and choose what I like. But the Journal would suffer significantly without the improvements that come from the reactions and insights of the Editorial Committee and assistant editor. These reflections are stimulated by a major theme of this issue of the Journal: increasing effectiveness by working with and through others. In the last year, we've received more articles on this theme than any other single topic. This issue features a number of those articles. Extending Extension's Effectiveness Edgar Boone from North Carolina opens this issue with a To the Point article on "Crossing Lines." He believes the major challenge to effective issues-based programming is interdisciplinary, cross-program, and university-wide teamwork. He also advocates joint efforts with other agencies and organizations. But crossing lines isn't easy and will require, he believes, a major new staff development effort. Violet Malone and Judy Yates provide responses to Boone's ideas. The first special feature section is on educating caregivers for the elderly. These four articles provide different perspectives on Extension's role in educating caregivers as a way of meeting the needs of the elderly. These caregivers then extend to the elderly what they've learned. Extension works with and through caregivers to meet the needs of the elderly, whether in homes or in institutions. There's also a special feature section on working with volunteers. These six articles on using volunteers illustrate a variety of strategies, types of volunteers, and how to avoid classic volunteerism problems. The Forum by Susan Laughlin from California addresses "The Challenge of Working with Extenders." She examines the strengths and weaknesses of using extenders and concludes they're now more important than ever because of: "Growing populations, dwindling staff resources, new client demands, and political pressures to deliver solutions to imposing social problems...." Extenders as Disciples Spreading Knowledge I was once in the office of a department head known for his autocratic style and intolerance of others' opinions. He hated involving others in decisions or departmental processes. On his wall was a plaque that read: For God so loved the world that he didn't send a committee to save us. He sent only one man. As the department head continued to resist any notion of shared decision making and involvement of others on the project we were discussing, I pointed to the witticism on the wall and asked: "Are you the one man God sent to the save world?" Before he could reply, I continued: "Correct me if I'm wrong, but haven't you forgotten the rest of the story. It may be true that God so loved the world that He didn't send a committee. But as I remember the story, the first thing Jesus did in His ministry was organize a group to help him with His work and to carry on after He was gone." If you know an autocratic or go-it-alone type, you might want to give that person a blessing. Mark a few passages from this issue of the Journal and extend our knowledge base about working with and through others - after, of course, you've read this issue yourself. MQP
Crossing LinesEdgar J. Boone
The Extension System faces a challenge as we move into the last decade of the 20th century. In my opinion, this challenge will continue to confront our system, as a publicly supported educational organization, for many years to come. That challenge involves crossing lines. Lines within Extension provide for division of responsibilities, structure, and orderliness. However, these same lines can become barriers in a world of change. Critical issues, such as improving water quality, revitalizing rural America, sustaining the competitiveness and profitability of American agriculture, improving nutrition, and protecting youth at risk, will require Extension workers in traditional program areas, disciplines, and administration to cross lines and function as teams. Geographic lines will have to be crossed. Lines between Extension and significant other organizations may need to be crossed to create networks and temporary coalitions, a practice that should be encouraged! We must become more involved in interacting and crossing lines both within Extension and within the larger land-grant university community. In this way, we can bring to bear our total resources, regardless of discipline or program area, in achieving maximum impact on targeted public issues. Elected officials who manage public funds expect public, tax-supported organizations - including Extension - to find ways to eliminate duplication of programs by cooperating and collaborating. In many instances, people must function as teams in planning and implementing jointly conceived, cost-effective programs that will achieve maximum impact in resolving major public issues. Staff Development Success in crossing lines will require Extension to institute a strong, responsive, and sustained staff development program. Extension personnel at all levels need staff development to acquire basic concepts and skills critical to functioning as teams in leading and facilitating change through issues programming. The idea that staff development is crucial to meeting the challenge of crossing lines is based on five observations:
Power of Teamwork Our staff is the most potent weapon we have in our arsenal! I feel strongly that staff development is one of Extension's most powerful and effective management functions. It can make a difference in Extension's capacity, motivation, and leadership in resolving issues through teamwork that beset our troubled society. Make no mistake. I'm stating that now - and into the 21st century - our continued recognition among the American populace as the most respected and valued force for people-oriented change will depend on our ability to function in teams with significant others. That means to cross lines. The continued segmentation of our faculty's programming efforts and their compartmentalized concepts of programs that deal with only one aspect of an issue or problem no longer works. Issues can be dealt with only through practicing teamwork. By this, we mean making it possible for staff members who represent different disciplines and traditional program areas to learn how to become deeply immersed in a team effort to understand an issue from a holistic perspective. Only through observing and experiencing how their expertise blends with others' expertise in putting into place and implementing issue programs can our faculty fully appreciate and accept the concept of teamwork or crossing lines. To achieve this goal of effectively crossing lines, we must make better use of staff development in socializing new workers into the Extension culture and system. This is especially critical for new personnel whose major orientation is research. Further, we must use staff development to "rekindle the flame," the enthusiasm, and the dedication of our veteran Extension faculty to Extension's mission and the need for them to adapt to a changed and changing environment. This can be done only if the new Extensionist and the seasoned Extension veteran, together, can be helped to experience the positive results of their efforts. What All Extensionists Should Know The major target of the Extension worker's change efforts is the human system - a system in which individual behavior and motives in real situations are difficult to understand, control, and treat. In real human systems, it's impossible to predict absolute outcomes. The variables that affect the behavior of the human system are many and complex. Given this complexity, all Extensionists must continue throughout their professional careers to be self-directed learners in seeking a better understanding of the practice of Extension. Toward this end, I propose a set of general competencies for all Extensionists that staff development should support:
Realizing Extension's Mission Extension's missionary zeal and commitment to developing and empowering human systems through education is unparalleled throughout the globe. My plea is that we continue to expend every effort to understand our changing environment; develop our staff resources to their maximum; cross lines; function as teams, as needed; and keep uppermost in our philosophy and minds that our work is concerned with developing human beings and human systems to their maximum capacity.
Dropping LinesViolet Malone
Expecting that Boone could present a definitive view on staff development in Extension, I was delighted to prepare this To the Point response. When I received the paper, I became so excited that my sweaty palms could hardly turn the page. I knew he'd lay out a path to "Glory" and, as a staff development leader, I could take each line as an "Epistle," if not a "Gospel," for my future work until I reach mandatory retirement. Well, he does a fine job presenting the case for "crossing lines," but his response left me wanting something different. Beyond Just Crossing Lines From the beginning of Extension, we've been expected to "cross lines" and pool resources to help people solve significant problems. What happened? Have we really crossed lines to do "issues programming"? I don't think so. In contrast to Boone's emphasis on "crossing lines," I believe we should be dropping the lines. As long as the permanent, inflexible organizational structures of CES remain in place, staff will need to surmount such organizational barriers as program areas, issue boundaries, and departments. Dropping the lines means staff wouldn't have to waste energy fighting barriers and crossing territorial lines. "Dropping the lines" will require restructuring CES to a point where it would be quite a different "Extension System." The concept of Extension education is well-known, but organizational structure makes it difficult for staff to operationalize the concept. The real challenge is to create a workable system that removes barriers rather than just helping staff understand or cross barriers. Beyond Understandings to Vision and Action For staff development practices, Boone presents 15 points of UNDERSTANDINGS needed by staff. They're the same ones we give to all staff about good program development in Extension. But that's not good enough. Where are words like visionary, initiative, creativity, leadership, decisiveness, responsibility, credibility, tenacity, ethics, cultural diversity, and stewardship? Developing staff to operationalize these words might be valuable in translating Extension into a more viable, effective organization. By the way, most of these words are in the The Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun, a book by Wes Roberts. I like this list because I think tough times call for tough approaches. I suppose I'll just have to wait a little longer for the "Word." However, for those who feel that "crossing lines" is enough to move us into the year 2000, then Boone's article is right on target. For the rest of us, the greater challenge is dropping lines and removing barriers - especially barriers to equity and diversity. Equity and Diversity In thinking about dropping lines, I'm reminded of Leland Bradford's leadership phrase: "Nothing is so unequal as equal treatment of unequals." In staff development and Extension programming, we do a lot of developing the same thing for everybody, often in the name of equity. We don't need more of the kind of equity that treats everyone the same regardless of individual needs. We need to create equal access to a variety of opportunities that will genuinely meet diverse individual needs. The barriers to equity within CES mirror societal barriers to equity, so it won't be easy for Extension to drop lines that are deeply entrenched in the larger society. But, if we're to create a better quality of life for all, we must drop lines that create barriers to realization of that better quality of life.
Meeting This Decade's Team ChallengesJudy Yates
Extension originated and has existed for more than 75 years by meeting needs of local clientele. Lines and barriers have served Extension well, in the past. Were we just lucky, or have times changed? Some needs can be addressed with a specialized single expertise, but most are growing more complex every day. I'm most impressed with Boone's "crossing lines" ideas as a forward-thinking approach to the challenges of the new decade. Competing and complementing organizations no longer accept or recognize our boundaries, and that's not necessarily bad. Barriers and lines lock people in or out; they take away flexibility. Without flexibility, it's hard to change, be creative, or responsive to new issues. Problems and needs don't normally fit within nice, neat lines. They have fuzzy edges, often so unclear we don't know how far they reach until we explore their limits. If we, as Extensionists, decide to work only within traditional boundaries where we feel safe and capable, then two unfortunate things are likely to follow:
Teamwork Issues can be most effectively addressed through programming that crosses lines. This will require teamwork. Environmental issues (water quality and quantity, solid waste reduction, and pesticide contamination) and the economic and social needs of individuals and families can't be reduced to compartmentalized disciplines. Teamwork can be encouraged by recognizing the training and motivational needs of staff. Boone's ideas for developing Extension competencies are well-conceptualized and, in general, on target. It will take training in new methods and disciplines. New thoughts on performance appraisal systems will be required. Still, the ultimate end must be new attitudes. I agree that we need to redefine our roles, job groups, and relationships through cooperation and collaboration. We're not alone in trying to solve clientele's problems, nor are we alone in the search for the funds to do this. Using networks and cooperators, we can increase our strength, efficiency, effectiveness, and, hopefully, funding. It might seem contradictory, but this can actually decrease demands on individual professionals. Another way of encouraging the crossing of barriers can be to search out different competencies, characteristics, and experiences when hiring new employees. Along with changing old habits, we must start with good established ones. Then we can develop and promote these professionals through the ranks, getting innovative team players to the top levels of administration where they, in turn, set examples and provide leadership to new, emerging Extensionists.
Education for Elderly CaregivingBernice A. Epstein
Viola Koenig
Extension has an important role to play in improving the quality of care for the frail, rural elderly. While care of these elderly in America requires the cooperation of many individuals and groups, family and friends are most often the primary caregivers or helpers. Research shows that families provide 80%-90% of medically oriented personal care and related services for their frail elderly members.1 This article is about Extension's role in teaching informal caregiving skills for frail elderly in a rural setting. Determining Needs To determine what services were uniquely needed for the elderly in Arizona's rural communities, the University of Arizona Gerontology Center and the Cooperative Extension faculty in Yavapai County conducted a joint study in 1981.2 The survey showed a need for family members or friends of the frail elderly to learn home care skills that would strengthen and enhance their capabilities as informal caregivers. A series of training modules was developed by the Gerontology Center, pilot tested, and modified.3 The Extension home economist in Yavapai County used an expanded version of the curriculum, with support from some of the Extension state specialists. The findings reported here on the 25-hour course are based on experiences in five rural communities teaching 43 women and five men aged 55 to 86. The course objectives are to enhance the caregiver's knowledge of normal and abnormal aging, improve their basic home nursing skills, and reduce caregiver stress and burnout. The Curriculum The course has three major modules. The first begins with some of the major research on theories about aging to give a perspective on the aging process. It then depicts the major organ or system changes that normally occur with aging and their effects on the body. Considerable time is spent on the emotional responses triggered by these changes, not only in the aging individual, but in those who care for that person. One of the experiential activities used at this time sensitizes class participants to the visual and auditory impairments that often accompany the aging process. Participants' eyeglasses are covered with several layers of cellophane to blur their vision. Then they're given a series of tasks to perform, such as threading a needle with a small eye and finding a name in a telephone book.4 In another simulation, participants listen to a tape5 and write down the words they hear in a series of readings. The words are carefully chosen to sound like other words, but the high frequency tones are filtered out. The words are then repeated with the high frequency tones emphasized as it is in hearing aids. Finally, the words are read with full frequency tones - only more softly. Since high frequency and volume are common hearing losses among the elderly, the tape mimics the ways people experience hearing loss as they age. The lively discussion that follows these activities usually elicits feelings of frustration, anger, and helplessness. Typically, participant reactions are: "I had no idea how distorted the senses can get." "Now that I know how it feels, I'll be more understanding and patient." The second module in the course focuses on home nursing skills and the advantages and problems of home care. Research on the positive economic impact of home care versus institutional or formal care by health professionals is shared.6 Primary home care skills are demonstrated by the trainers or other resource people and practiced by the participants in a hands-on situation. As a supplement, parts of a videotape series on home nursing skills and adapting the home to facilitate home care are shown.7 Two sections are especially important additions to skill building. One stresses the importance of social support, respite, and ways to cope with personal loss and grief. The main thesis of the other section is "you are what you do" - that even with limitations, home-bound patients can maintain some of their independence by learning to use helping tools and by participating in meaningful activities and exercises. The last module of the course includes information on nutrition, finding community resources and support networks, communicating effectively, assertiveness training, identifying personal stress, and practicing techniques for stress reduction. Evaluation Pre- and post-tests for each module showed an average knowledge gain of 10.5%. Some of the participants were retired health professionals who said the course was an excellent review and update. With rare exceptions, the curriculum evaluations rated the course as beneficial. The most valued topics were those devoted to giving physical care to a bed-bound patient. Also cited were the frank discussions on the normal changes of aging which most, but not all, viewed as a positive experience. Suggestions were made that the course also be given to younger people, and that more training was needed on care for the depressed or mentally disabled older person. To measure the impact of the course, a 14-item questionnaire was sent to each of the 48 participants six months after the course was completed. Twenty-four of them were returned for a response rate of 50%. Most questions were open-ended to assess recall, changed attitudes, and ways the information was used. Not all respondents answered every question and up to half responded that they hadn't yet had the need to use some of their new skills. There was ample evidence from many responses that the new knowledge and skills were used in participants' personal lives as well as with the person for whom they were the caregiver. Some representative answers on how the information about common chronic illness was used included:
In describing ways they helped cope with the emotional aspects of chronic illness, many of the responses included listening with greater patience, more sharing of feelings, encouraging discussion of problems, and lowered expectations. One poignant comment was, "Previously, I couldn't face or communicate with my neighbor who lost a spouse. Now I feel assured of what I should say." In responding to how information on planning for home care and nursing was used, most replied that their awareness of what to do and how to do it was greatly enhanced. Many examples cited the helpfulness of the techniques learned in moving, lifting, and transferring patients. Of those with experience, one wrote, "I was surprised to learn it was so easy." Others said: "I learned to use my legs instead of my back." "I didn't realize how using a belt (around the patient's waist) made the job (of lifting) so much easier." Improvisations listed were making back rests, "potty" chairs, and raising the bed on blocks. One woman wrote: "My neighbor told me her bed-bound mother couldn't go to the beauty shop. I suggested a bed hair wash and showed her how to do it. She was thrilled." Almost all respondents noted ways they applied the information about using medicine. Frequently mentioned behaviors were: "looked at expiration dates," "asked about side-effects," "no longer save old prescriptions," "got physician's advice," "kept better records," and "stuck to the directions." One wisely cautioned that "you have to watch and make sure the medicine is swallowed." Another wrote she now could prove to her mother that "more is not necessarily better." Many of the comments about use of the communication skill training were stated as what not to do: don't threaten, judge, lecture, advise, argue, or ridicule. Other comments were: "I let 'em talk." "I look at the person more." "Saying nothing beats putting your foot in your mouth." Several noted that the training also helped them deal with their husbands, mothers, siblings, and church friends. One wrote: "I practice them every day." Examples cited of ways stress was managed included respite care, support, more exercise, and time for myself - without feeling guilty. In the "comments" section of the evaluation and in an occasional attached letter, the most commonly noted benefits of the course were increased self-confidence and tolerance for the needs of disabled people. Implications for Extension Extension is being challenged to direct its energies to help people solve problems of national importance. One such problem families face is how to meet the health care needs of aging family members. National demographic data show that the older population isn't only growing in size, but in how long they live.8 High costs for professional health care services and geographical isolation from medical services and providers add impetus for family members to learn informal home-based caregiving competencies. Historically, skill building has been an integral part of Extension's mandate. With new curricula, Extension home economics can bring its teaching expertise to address this new need. Footnotes 1. Elaine M. Brody, "Parent Care as a Normative Family Stress," The Gerontologist, XXV (February 1985), 19-29 and U.S., House of Representatives, Select Committee on Aging, Exploding the Myths: Caregiving in America, Publication No. 100-665 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), p. 34. 2. Christine Bursac, "A Profile of Rural Retirement Community Residents: Implications for Planning and Service Delivery" (Tucson: Arizona Long Term Care Gerontology Center, 1984). 3. A Series of Training Modules for Informal Caregivers (Tucson: Arizona Long Term Care Gerontology Center, 1987). 4. Share D. Bane and Burton P. Halpert, Instructors Manual: Information for Care Givers of the Elderly (Kansas City: University of Missouri-Kansas City, Center on Aging Studies, 1986), p. 12. 5. "An Unfair Hearing Test: Getting Through" (Chicago, Illinois: Zenith Radio Corporation,1975). 6. Gail L. Cafferata, "Marital Status, Living Arrangements and the Use of Health Services by Elderly Persons," Journal of Gerontology, XLII (No. 6, 1987), 613-18. 7. "At Home with Home Care," videotapes (Wycoff, New Jersey: Billy Budd Films, Inc., 1986). 8. A Profile of Older Americans: 1988 (Washington, D.C.: U.S., Department of Health and Human Services, 1988).
Education for Support of Nursing Home ResidentsAnne-Michelle Marsden
While Extension doesn't provide direct services to elderly nursing home residents, Extension can play a significant role in educating family members and facility caregivers about how to support and interact with those they care for. Each year a growing segment of the elderly population is faced with chronic physical and mental impairments that leave them unable to care for themselves. Over one million individuals currently reside in long-term care facilities. Estimates project an increase to two million by the year 2000.1 Family members of these individuals, many of whom once aided the elderly in maintaining their independence in the community, have now turned to nursing home care as a necessary alternative. The severity of the elderly's condition and/or the depletion of the caregiver's physical, emotional, or financial resources can make home-based care very stressful and burdensome.2 When family members are no longer able to care for frail elderly at home, their desire to remain part of the elderly person's life continues. Family members want to know what services facilities provide, how they can relate to these services, and ways to continue a relationship with their loved one in an institutional setting.3 Extension can provide education on these issues. Improving Quality of Care A primary goal for long-term care facilities in recent years has been to improve the quality of care by integrating attention to the residents' physical health and safety with a psychosocial focus on quality of life.4 While National Initiatives such as the Nursing Home Reform Act, part of the 1988 Omnibus Act (OBRA), try to strengthen care facilities' ability to provide quality health care, a need exists for comprehensive training of staff and family members in other areas that could lead to improving the resident's quality of life. Such training should aim to increase residents' personal satisfaction, enhance self-concept, and maintain positive interaction with others. It's the facility staff's attitude when interacting with the elderly that can make a difference and is the aspect of care that residents value most.5 Family and facility caregivers can work together to improve the elderly resident's quality of life in the nursing home setting. Both caregiver groups need a greater understanding of the elderly and more effective interaction skills to use with this group. Education for understanding and skills development is being provided by Extension home economics in Atlantic County, New Jersey. Resource Development The initial step in developing a program for the two caregiver groups was the establishment of an ad hoc advisory council. Representatives from area long-term care facilities as well as county and state agencies constituted the seven-member council. Through council support, the target audiences' educational needs and program delivery methods were established. Group interaction, together with a review of the literature, resulted in the development of the "Understanding and Interacting with the Elderly in a Long-Term Care Facility" program objectives:
Objectives particular to the family caregiver included:
Grants were essential in the development of the project's instructional tools. Funds for this project were provided through the Home Economics Department, Rutgers Cooperative Extension, and a Rutgers Cooperative Extension Junior Faculty Grant. To meet objectives for the two target audiences, a set of five publications, a 47-minute videotape, and a curriculum manual were developed as program components. Five publications, each two to four pages long, addressed such issues as the needs and changes of the elderly, care facility services and responsibilities, the relocation adjustment period, communication, and activities. The video, which was designed to be used in a classroom setting or viewed individually, explores these topics in greater detail. The curriculum manual includes a section on program use and provides seven discussion guides and corresponding evaluations.6 Reaching the Caregivers Eight of the 11 area long-term care facility administrators answered letters about the program. Two of these facilities were asked to host a variety of program pilot tests. At each of the eight facilities, a group meeting was arranged with the social services director, nursing director, and facility administrator. At the meetings, facility directors offered input concerning program delivery methods that would best meet their needs. Delivery methods included: inservice for staff and volunteers, distribution of publications to family caregivers, and development of family support groups. Staff inservice has been offered in various forms. The most prevalent has been four one-hour classes on consecutive weeks. Other facilities have elected to offer certain sections of the four-part series on a monthly basis. The video, discussion guides, and three of the five publications were used as teaching tools in this instance. Publications have been distributed during resident intake or family orientation procedure by social work staff. Several facilities have elected to mail the publications' advertisement to their clientele's family members. Each nursing home received a copy of the videotape and has been encouraged to make the presentation available to family caregivers. In addition to distributing the publications through nursing homes, the Medicaid section of the Atlantic County Division of Welfare also distributed the publications' advertisement to all individuals applying for nursing home related Medicare benefits. The development of a family support group has been the most satisfying program outreach experience. Support groups are designed so education, training, and support are all components of group meetings. Meetings every other month focus on one of the program's topics. Through extensive interaction with care facilities, the following points have been crucial to the success of the project:
Program Evaluation The program has been evaluated considering three factors: knowledge gain, attitude change, and behavior change. Of the 331 who either attended inservice, received written material, or attended support group meetings, 242 returned the post evaluation. Individual distribution of evaluations at facilities and follow-up cards to those obtaining information through the mail were methods used to increase the response rate. Participants were asked to indicate, on a Likert-type scale, the extent to which new information was gained. On a four-section scale of "very much," "some," "a little," and "none," 76% indicated they'd learned "very much," while 24% indicated they'd learned "some." Behavior changes were recorded by 94% of respondents in one or more of the following areas: improved sensitivity to needs and changes of institutionalized elderly, improved quality of visits, promotion of interaction with the elderly, and planned creative activities. A brief summary of program results indicated that participants helped the elderly compensate for visual impairment (42%), engaged in a planned activity with a resident (66%), and encouraged elderly to interact with others (53%). Sixty-five percent of those responding to the evaluation felt more confident when interacting with residents. Communication was promoted by using the active listening technique (66%) and speaking in a lower pitched voice (63%). Attitudes of both target audiences changed as a result of the program. Fifty-five percent of the participants felt more confident about providing high quality interaction. Over 80% of facility staff indicated that their attitude toward the institutionalized elderly was more positive and 57% felt their attitude toward family members had changed. Extension can have a critical and significant role in educating family and facility caregivers. Although Extension provides limited direct services to elderly nursing home residents, skills used and attitudes changed as a result of caregiver education benefit all those involved in institutional life, including the elderly resident. Footnotes 1. U.S., Senate Special Committee on Aging, Aging America (Washington, D.C.: U.S., Department of Health and Human Services, 1988), pp. 118-20. 2. R. A. Pearlman and M. Ryan-Dykes, "The Vulnerable Elderly," Journal of Gerontological Nursing, XXII (No. 9, 1986), 14-18; F. Beland, "The Decision of Elderly Persons to Leave Their Homes," The Gerontologist, XXIV (Spring 1984), 179-85; R. Morycz, "Caregiving Strain and the Desire to Institutionalize Family Members with Alzheimer's Disease," Research on Aging, VII (Fall 1985), 329-61; and Clara Pratt and others, "The Forgotten Client," in Aging, Health, and Family: Long-Term Care, Timothy H. Brubaker, ed. (Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications, 1987), pp. 197-213. 3. Sandra P. Hirst and Barbara J. Metcalf, "Learning the Needs of Caregivers," Journal of Gerontological Nursing, XXII (No. 4, 1986), 24-28; Kristen F. Smith and Vern L. Bengton, "Positive Consequences of Institutionalization: Solidarity Between Elderly Parents and Their Middle-Aged Children," The Gerontologist, XIX (No. 5, 1979), 438-47; and Jonathan L. York and Robert J. Calsyn, "Family Involvement in Nursing Homes," The Gerontologist, XVII (No. 6, 1977), 500-505. 4. Anne P. Gallagher, "A Model for Change in Long-Term Care," Journal of Gerontological Nursing, XII (No. 5, 1986), 19-23. 5. National Citizen's Coalition for Nursing Home Reform, A Consumer Perspective on Quality Care: The Residents Point of View (Washington, D.C.: National Citizens Coalition for Nursing Home Reform, 1985). 6. To obtain information about the "Understanding and Interacting with the Elderly in a Long-Term Care Facility" program packet, contact Anne-Michelle Marsden, Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Atlantic County, 1200 West Harding Highway, Mays Landing, New Jersey 08330.
Helping Low-Income Elderly with Money ManagementJoan C. Koonce
Why should Extension personnel and other adult educators be concerned about reaching low-income senior citizens with money management information? Is the size of the elderly population large enough to warrant this concern? Do low-income elderly persons need money management information? The elderly population is steadily growing and spending as much or more than younger people on many products and services.1 Thus, money management information that enables this group to make rational, informed financial choices is necessary. Elderly's Money Management Needs A qualitative study conducted at Ohio State University suggests that reaching low-income senior citizens with money management information using "traditional" Extension programs such as radio and TV, community workshops or seminars, home study courses, and other printed materials may not be successful. This study was done in late Summer and early Fall 1986 and 1987, with a convenience sample of 99 low-income senior citizens age 65 years old and over. They were interviewed to gain insights into their financial management attitudes and behaviors, and specifically, their receptiveness and/or use of financial management information. Of the 51.5% of the sample who said they searched for and used financial management information, nearly one-half cited personal sources such as relatives, friends, senior citizens' center personnel, and ministers, rather than non-personal sources. None listed what consumer educators would consider nonbiased sources of information such as money management literature distributed by sources other than the sellers of financial products. A small percentage of the sample indicated they read money management literature (30.3%) and listened to TV or radio programs (39.4%) to learn more about managing money. However, the TV and radio programs mentioned by respondents weren't really money management programs. For example, the newspaper, soap operas, news, and grocery store advertisements were among the answers listed. Several reasons were given by those respondents who indicated they didn't search for or use financial management information, including physical limitations such as bad eyesight, lack of understanding, reliance on religious beliefs, and disinterest. Some respondents felt they didn't have enough money to manage to warrant using financial management information. Implications for Extension It's Extension educators' responsibility to find effective methods of delivering information to low-income senior citizens. In fact, because obtaining information from other sources may be limited for this group of consumers, Extension may be their best alternative. Low-income senior citizens can probably benefit from many types of information, including money management information. However, effective methods of delivering this information to them are necessary to make a difference. Tailoring programs to meet the needs of consumers is a difficult task since there are so many diverse groups of individuals. Many of the "traditional" Extension programs helpful to general audiences may not be effective in educating low-income senior citizens. When developing programs for this audience, their needs and characteristics should be considered. Based on the results of this study, low-income senior citizens would be better reached through one-on-one personal contact. Respondents in the study weren't receptive to financial management publications such as Consumer Reports and Money magazine, or financial management programs on TV or radio. But, they were interested in talking to a friend, relative, minister, or director at the Senior Citizens' Center about financial matters. Time often doesn't permit Extension personnel to give these people the personal attention they need. However, agents/specialists could focus on intermediate providers. Training people low-income senior citizens trust and turn to for advice is one solution; training volunteers to work with low-income senior citizens is another. When using volunteers, someone the clientele knows and trusts should approach them first. Note that some of the respondents in the survey didn't care about money management in general. Some were clearly not interested, and others just felt they didn't have enough money to worry about managing it. Extension personnel and other adult educators may not be able to help low-income senior citizens with these attitudes. But, hope exists for those who want to help themselves. Extension and other adult educators need to seriously analyze the delivery methods used with low-income senior citizens and evaluate whether the methods are effective. Information can't benefit the people for which it's intended unless it's being received and used. Footnote 1. W. Lazer and E. H. Shaw, "How Older Americans Spend Their Money," American Demographics, IX (September 1987), 36-41.
Energy Education for the ElderlyCarla C. Earhart
Margaret J. Weber
Sue E. Williams
When targeting elderly clientele, Extension can't assume that what has worked for other groups will work for the elderly. These essential questions need to be answered before designing educational programs for the elderly: Are elderly clientele open to education as a tool to solve problems? What do they already know, and what effect will increased knowledge have? Is Cooperative Extension the best agency to deliver needed information to the elderly? Our study of elderly homeowners in Oklahoma examined the energy information needs of the elderly. The results suggest that Extension will need to network with energy-related businesses to provide needed information. Current Situation The elderly population continues to be affected by energy costs.1 They often live in large, older homes built when energy was cheap and plentiful. Some research suggests that older persons are more sensitive to temperature extremes. Also, those on low, fixed incomes have additional burdens coping with energy costs. Research by Stobaugh and Yergin2 indicates that households can reduce their energy usage in three ways: (1) improve energy conservation behaviors, (2) make structural modifications to existing homes, and/or (3) take advantage of the innovative designs offered by passive solar, active solar, or earth-sheltered housing. Several other means have been suggested specifically to help the elderly with their energy situation.3 These include plans for increasing overall financial aid, tax breaks for structural modifications, protection against utility service cutoffs, and direct payments for utility bills. However, these efforts may be costly to taxpayers. Education is often overlooked as an inexpensive way to reduce the energy burden on the elderly. The Study The population for this study was elderly head-of-household homeowners who were selected using birthdates on voter registration cards. Personal letters followed by telephone calls resulted in 30 individuals agreeing to participate in the project. Interviews were conducted in the participants' homes. In addition to demographic information, questions related to preferences for national energy conservation strategies; personal energy conservation efforts, attitudes, and knowledge; and sources used for energy information. The Results From the list of conservation strategies, education was most favored by the respondents. None of the respondents scored all parts of the energy knowledge quiz correctly. A substantial number indicated they knew so little about energy conservation that they didn't know the advantages and disadvantages of the options discussed. Correlation analysis indicated that those who are better informed about energy conservation are more likely to use conservation strategies. Respondents most frequently listed newspapers, TV, and utility companies as their sources of energy conservation information. Extension was listed by less than one-fourth of the respondents. The highest reliability was placed on information from utility companies and friends and relatives. Extension was thought to have reliable energy information by fewer than 10%. Working with Others Extension has the resources to provide research-based energy education programs. However, it wasn't listed as a popular or reliable source of such information. For this reason, we suggest Extension combine educational efforts with those provided by utility companies. Footnotes 1. H. Brotman and C. Allan, Chartbook on Aging (Washington, D.C.: White House Conference on Aging, 1981). 2. R. Stobaugh and D. Yergin, Energy Future (New York: Random House, 1979). 3. J. Pace, "The Poor, the Elderly, and the Rising Cost of Energy," Public Utilities Fortnightly, XCV (June 5, 1975), 26-30 and U.S., Senate, "The Impact of Rising Energy Costs on Older Americans" (Washington, D.C.: 95th Congress Hearings Before the Special Committee on Aging, April 7, 1977).
Pooling Resources for Small-Producer ProfitsTim L. Cross
Randy R. Mills
Carl O'Connor
Profitability in agriculture is a major Extension concern and National Initiative. Small producers are especially hard-pressed to maintain their profitability, given the structural changes that have occurred in agriculture. Economies of scale in production and marketing often work against profitability for small and newly established producers. This article reviews how Extension can contribute to increased profitability of small producers through a combination of technological and organizational innovation. Sheep producers selling less than 200 lambs a year were the focus of our Extension program. Problem of Scale: Lamb Marketing Example Sheep buyers prefer to deal with larger volumes of animals in an effort to spread their fixed costs per unit, and they show little interest in small lots of lambs. Forward cash contracting is another common alternative only available to producers with a larger number of lambs. At local Northwest auctions, small lots of lambs typically sell at discounted prices, partly because of the lack of buyer competition, but also because of the cost of assembling the small lots into a commercial size. Small producers faced with these problems have often banded together, forming cooperative marketing organizations in an effort to improve their competitiveness. Cooperative marketing associations are familiar throughout American agriculture. Historically, 20% to 30% of cash farm market receipts in U.S. agriculture have been generated through cooperative commodity sales by large, powerful organizations such as Land O'Lakes or Sunkist. These cooperatives are owned by the producers who market their products through the organizations. The not-for-profit cooperative tries to increase profits of its owners by pooling products and securing higher prices by improving their competitive position in the marketplace. We took this same idea and applied it on a smaller scale to the Oregon sheep industry, which is characterized by a large number of small volume producers. A lamb marketing pool was established through the Cooperative Extension Service in 1978. Members of the pool set four to six sale dates throughout the Spring and Summer. On each sale day, producers deliver the lambs they wish to sell to a central shipping point, where they are weighed and sorted. Weights are recorded for each producer, and used as the basis for distributing the proceeds of the sale. Buyers are invited to bid on the pooled lambs, and the highest bidder purchases the lambs. The lamb pool started with 20 producers. Since then, membership has grown to over 150 producers selling over 3,000 lambs per year. For those administering the pool, this growth meant an enormous increase in responsibility. In fact, the administrative tasks grew to the point where members became reluctant to assume this burdensome responsibility, thus threatening the continued existence of the marketing pool. For example, in 1989, 3,428 lambs were sold in five sales. A total of 150 checks were written for the $235,404 in sales (see Table 1). The time involved in administering the sales and proceeds increased sharply, and members considered hiring management to improve the efficiency of handling these transactions. Computerized Solution Extension, in cooperation with the lamb pool leadership, felt a better solution was to computerize the record keeping tasks and retain producer management of the pool. A computerized system could produce reports quickly and accurately. However, no existing software fit the lamb pool quite right. A small grant provided by the state Extension administration was used to hire a part-time computer programmer. A program was initially developed using dBASE III Plus as a programming language. Pool members specified the inputs and output they desired, and an initial version of LAMBPOOL was developed. The dBASE III Plus program was compiled using Clipper to create an executable program. LAMBPOOL was designed assuming users had no prior computer experience, and that users would change fairly often. It had to be easy-to-use, foolproof, and accurate for the lamb pool to adopt it. We tested it with pool administrators and identified several problems with the early test versions. These problems were corrected, and LAMPBOOL was used with the first sale in June of 1986. Hand records were also maintained to ensure that members were treated fairly. The backup hand system also provided users with a measure of confidence that LAMBPOOL could actually manage the pool's record keeping. This helped to overcome the initial skepticism that some producers expressed concerning the ability of a computer to handle their money. The database software manages a variety of tasks for the pool. All members' names, addresses, and phone numbers are maintained, and member mailing labels can be printed. Up to six sales per year can be conducted. Several types and qualities of sheep sales are supported: shorn and unshorn fat lambs, shorn and unshorn feeder lambs, and cull ewes. The program allows pool operators to specify a buyer, price information, sheep commission withholdings, pool membership dues, and other charges for each sale. Reports are generated showing each producer's gross revenue, discounts, and withholdings. These reports provide all the information necessary for producers to obtain unshorn lamb incentive payments through their local ASCS office. A pool summary for each sale is also produced which provides the pool and the buyer with a summary of total sheep sales, withholdings, discounts, and net sale value. Pool summaries may be produced before a sale date, based on producer's expected sales, to give buyers an estimate of the number and classification of sheep expected to be available for sale. After printing reports for each producer, checks are printed by LAMBPOOL. These checks, printed on tractor-feed forms, include a stub for the pool to use as proof of payment. A producer's name and address is printed directly on the check, then placed in a clear-window envelope for mailing. This process greatly increases the speed at which checks can be provided to members. Table 1. Lamb pool sales in north central Oregon, 1985-1989.
Does it Work? The lamb pool is enjoying great support from members. Sales volume and value for the pool are shown in Table 1, which indicates that the pool is meeting a real need in north central Oregon. A few larger producers (now marketing over 200 lambs per year) initially used the lamb pool to enhance their marketing skills. Several of these producers are now marketing directly to packers. However, the number of small producers consigning to the pool has continued to increase during this period. Extension was the catalyst for organizing the pool in 1978, and Extension continues to promote its existence. Membership is discussed at producer meetings and in Extension newsletters. Also, direct mailings to members are coordinated by the local Extension office and questions about the pool's operation are fielded by Extension staff. However, the pool has no formal ties to the Extension Service. Responsibility and liability for the pool belongs to its members. Success in marketing agricultural products is achieved by offering a consistently high quality product to buyers year after year. This means it's necessary to grade each lamb. Extension agents performed this task in the early years, but now it's the pool members' responsibility. Each year, two or three graders are hired by the pool to grade each producer's lambs before shipment on the sale dates. A critical success factor for cooperatives is administration. Producers must feel they're treated fairly, both in the handling of their products and funds, and in the marketing of the product. Administrators must keep accurate records of lambs delivered for sale and payments due each member. The real key to the lamb pool is people. Members must agree they share a common problem, and work cooperatively to address it. Graders must be perceived as fair and impartial. Lamb pool administrators need the confidence of members in their negotiation and management abilities. Finally, the LAMBPOOL software must be easy to use and provide accurate, timely information for members and administrators. The lamb pool project has also been a success for Extension. A problem was identified and an educational program was developed and implemented to address the problem. This educational program focused on, and involved, the producers and their felt need. Today, daily management of the lamb pool remains with the members, but Extension is available to help if needed. One of the lessons we learned from this project is that organizations fostered by Extension are always changing and have dynamic needs. The lamb marketing pool has provided several educational opportunities not envisioned at its inception. The lamb pool was initially formed to provide a service to producers. Pooling large numbers of lambs attracts more buyers, encouraging competition and thus higher prices. As time passed, early members outgrew the pool and established their own market outlets. Extension continues to work with these producers in evaluating their alternative marketing strategies. Lamb pool managers are provided educational opportunities for growth as leaders and decision makers through their management roles in the lamb pool. Improving leadership skills wasn't among our initial objectives, but it certainly contributes to sustaining profitability in agriculture through enhanced human resources in the agricultural system.
Helping Participants Complete What They StartDiane H. Scott
Virginia L. Clark
Shirley Reagan
It seems to be easier for people to start things than complete them. Farmers only partially adopt many innovations. Families begin nutritional changes, but have trouble seeing them through. Communities begin a development process, but many lose energy and interest along the way and the process languishes. The habit of seeing things through to the end most likely begins in childhood, so it's particularly important to understand factors that affect completion of 4-H projects. Many youth complete none of the projects they select, while other youth may complete one or more. An analysis of reasons for project completion in one project can provide useful information for leaders and agents in other project and program areas. This study was designed to identify factors that influenced 4-H clothing project completion. Literature was reviewed and discussions were held with 4-H agents and members not involved in the study to identify potential influencing factors. Factors selected for study were socioeconomic factors, parental encouragement, role models, leadership, learning style, awareness, personal characteristics, and incentives. Information from this study may prove helpful to agents and leaders in promoting project completion for a variety of Extension efforts. Study of 4-H Members Data were obtained through the use of a researcher-developed questionnaire administered during October 4-H Club meetings. 4-H members enrolled in the clothing project during the previous year participated in the study. Ages of these 4-Hers ranged from 9 to19 years. Eighty-five questionnaires were collected. Most of the respondents were female (96%). The analysis was based on 83 usable questionnaires.1 Respondents answered three questions that indicated the degree to which they'd completed the clothing project. Although 55% (46) of the total respondents had made at least one garment, only 39% (32) had entered a garment in a contest, and 22% (18) had completed a record book. A Spearman's correlation was used to determine the effect of the selected factors on project completion. Socioeconomic factors, learning style, and personal characteristics didn't prove to be significant influences in clothing project completion. Parental Encouragement and Role Models Parental encouragement (p<0.01) and role models (p<0.01) were both highly significant factors affecting project completion. Of the 83 youth studied, 48% were encouraged to complete a project by parents, and 69% had been praised by parents for doing a good job. The study showed a positive relationship to Weber and McCullers' findings that parental involvement is critical for programming success.2 However, only 10% of the respondents indicated a parent was a leader of a youth organization. Role models tend to be a strong influence on youth. Respondents indicated that 58% had friends who sewed, 63% had mothers who sewed, and 71% had grandmothers who sewed. A study by Koontz3 indicated that the largest number of adolescents first learned to sew from their mothers or the public school. Those who learned from their mothers were more likely to continue sewing. Leadership Leadership also proved to be highly significant in clothing project completion (p<0.01). Local leaders were reported helpful to project completion by 47% of the youth. A higher percentage (69%) reported that the 4-H agent was helpful in project completion. Because agents and leaders work with large numbers of youth, they can't always know when a member needs help with a project. Flood stated that a leader's lack of followers is due to lack of leadership; therefore, a concentrated effort should be made to encourage youth to contact the local leader or 4-H agent when they need help with projects.4 Awareness and Incentives Youth who were more aware of 4-H clothing opportunities were more likely to meet one of the three completion criteria (p<0.01). A variety of mechanisms were used to inform participants, but not all reported knowing about opportunities. Incentives proved to be significantly correlated with project completion (p<0.04). Rewards ranging from praise to ribbons to scholarships are used in 4-H to motivate young people to reach their full potential. An incentive for 83% of the respondents was being able to sew like other people they knew. Another incentive for 69% was receiving praise from parents for a job well done. Supporting Research Youth research supports the findings of this study. Jenson found that parental encouragement seemed to be the most potent reason for joining 4-H.5 A companion study by Weber and McCullers found that 4-H professionals selected parental involvement as the item needing most emphasis in 4-H programming.6 Whether parents or other adults serve as leaders, the need exists for more leader training and active involvement with club members. Stephens found that the three major reasons for failure of youth groups were absence of a leader, lack of commitment, and need for leader support.7 Studies by Coward8 and Culbert9 showed that publicity and awareness can also affect participation. Both studies showed that members were unaware of the opportunities available. Once members decide to participate in an activity, leaders and agents must understand the recognition members are seeking through participation. Adults need competence in effectively using incentives and recognition when working with youth.10 Conclusions Since specific factors influence project completion among 4-H youth, intervention by Extension agents and parents can increase the success of 4-H projects. Educating parents about their influence on the level of achievement reached by their children in 4-H projects can lead to more youth participation and completion of projects. Involvement of parents as leaders is an ideal way to increase awareness of the 4-H program. The study pointed out that a higher percentage of youth depended on their 4-H agent for help in project completion rather than their local leader. Ideally, local leaders help youth to complete projects so that agents have more time to train leaders, thereby creating more leaders to help with project completion. Therefore, special efforts must be made to find people genuinely concerned with leading the 4-H youth in projects and helping youth understand the leader's purpose is to help with projects. Ample evidence exists that members sign up for the clothing project to develop their sewing skills. They view learning to sew and receiving praise from their parents as incentives. However, they discover the project also includes competition and record keeping that may not be strong incentives for project completion. Perhaps projects could be modified to emphasize doing rather than evaluating and competing. In any case, all goals should be identified in the presentation of projects to potential 4-H members. For Extension in general, this study indicates the continuing importance of attention to factors that encourage and support clientele in completing and following through on what they start. What young people learn about seeing things through to the end will affect what they do as adults. Footnotes 1. The statement: "When I enrolled in 4-H, I did not intend to complete a project. I only wanted to get out of class" was checked by two respondents. All other responses checked by those respondents would have made the study unreliable; therefore, their questionnaires were eliminated from the study, leaving 83 respondents in the study. 2. J. A. Weber and J. C. McCullers, "The Blue Ribbon: An American Way of Life," Journal of Extension, XXIV (Fall 1986), 20 -22. 3. P. Koontz, "Public School Sewing Instruction Turns Students Off," Illinois Teacher, XXVIII (May/June 1985), 208-09. 4. D. E. Flood, "I Am a Leader! The Idiots Won't Follow!" (Paper presented to the National Association of Elementary School Principals, Denver, 1985). 5. G. Jenson and others, "4-H Winners: What Do We Know About Them!" Journal of Extension, XX (January/February 1982), 13-17. 6. Weber and McCullers, "The Blue Ribbon." 7. W. Stephens, "Explanations for Failures of Youth Organizations" (Nova Scotia, Canada: Research Report, 1983). 8. R. Coward, "Greater Awareness-Extension's Key to Program Success," Journal of Extension, XVI (September/October 1978), 11- 17. 9. D. Culbert, Factors Contributing to Nonreenrollment of 4-H Club Members in Southeastern Florida (Master's thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, 1983). 10. K. Treat and others, "Competencies Needed by 4-H" (Raleigh: North Carolina State University, 1975).
Analyzing Program "Failure"Daniel J. Decker
Program failure is seldom discussed in Extension. But when an Extension program fails to meet the educational objectives established for it, we should find out why so we can avoid future failure. This article presents some ideas about the causes of program failure. It also makes a case for comprehensive evaluation as an element of program development to help Extension educators avoid, as well as identify, causes of failure. Potential Causes of Failure Program failure can result from inappropriate content, inadequate implementation, or low achievement on outcomes. Given the emphasis Extension has placed on documenting program impacts in recent years, Extension educators sometimes want to focus their evaluative activities exclusively on impacts. However, assessing impacts without examining content and implementation is an incomplete approach. Here's why. Let's assume that a program impact evaluation indicates different or less-than-expected results for your program. For example, in a woodland management program you may have found that half as many people as expected made informed decisions about management of their woodlands. As an educator, what decisions can you make about modifying or continuing the program based on this information? None, because you have insufficient information. With only impact information in hand, some fundamental questions are left answered. If program accomplishments fall short of expectations, we should ask four questions:
Answers to these questions are needed before we can judge that the "program" was unsuccessful and subsequently make management decisions about its future. Here are considerations pertinent to each question. Program Model Although we seldom think about it, every program we develop is based on some "model." Typically, these models are sets of assumptions, concepts, and hypothesized relationships that exist in the minds of programmers. If our models are flawed, our programs may flounder. For example, I might assume that a primary incentive for woodland management will be financial returns for effort expended when actually esthetic considerations are more important to woodland owners. A program established on the original assumption to help increase income from woodlands may not capture the interest of many owners. Unfortunately, we seldom describe our models explicitly in writing so they can be studied by us or others. Overall, Extension educators need to be more conscientious and precise as we articulate our program models and more willing to hold these up for scrutiny by our peers. An examination of the underlying model for a program ideally occurs during the planning stage of program development. If such an examination wasn't done before program implementation, you can try to articulate the program model afterward and assess its validity in light of the program implementation experience. Just be careful when a program doesn't meet your expectations not to jump immediately to the conclusion that your program model is faulty. It's possible that the model is basically excellent, yet the program wasn't implemented as planned or your expectations of impact were unrealistically high. Program Implementation Possibly the most frequent reasons for under-accomplishment among programs designed by experienced programmers are inadequacies or deviations occurring during program implementation. Even the most sound program model may result in unsatisfactory impacts if coupled with inadequate or inappropriate implementation. For example, I might plan on having woodland owners attend an introductory workshop then follow-up with an indepth home study course, but find that none of the woodland owners take the course because it required too much time or was offered in mid-winter when no one wants to go outdoors to conduct the field exercises. To determine whether implementation strategies and actual activities are appropriate to meet program objectives, we need to undertake process evaluation. It's best to engage in process evaluation while the program is being implemented. In so doing, you can monitor program progress, identify problems as they develop, and take corrective action to put the program back on track. From a managerial perspective, this is the best kind of evaluation - one that helps make a program successful rather than merely determines level of success after the program is over. Realistic Expectations One possible reason for not achieving the level of accomplishment expected at the inception of a program is that expectations aren't realistic - they just aren't reasonably achievable given the nature of the educational need, program resources, and time frame of the program. Some well-conceived, well-implemented programs don't have the results envisioned simply because expectations weren't realistic in light of the context of the program. When this is the case, it should be recognized. It would be a shame to misjudge the merits of a program because the simple comparison of anticipated to actual impacts indicated a deficiency. Evaluation Methods Chosen As in any form of inquiry - from program evaluations to field studies to lab experiments - the possibility exists for inadequate or inappropriate methods to be used. When a program evaluation indicates that a program didn't have the impacts expected, you might want to ask several questions about the evaluation method chosen. Were the right people asked for input? Were enough of them asked? Were they asked the right things in the right ways (validity and reliability concerns)? Were data analyzed and interpreted carefully? For example, a telephone interview methodology could be used to obtain data in an evaluation of a woodland management program. The evaluation finds that among the sample of 20% of program participants contacted, only one-fourth actually conducted management practices, rather than three-fours as expected. On careful examination of the methodology, however, one finds that all telephone interviews were done on weekdays between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. Further examination finds that 90% of those contacted were over 65 and retirees (they were likely to be home to answer the telephone during the hours when the calls were made). Program registration data indicate that 80% of participants were 35 to 55 years of age and employed. Thus, the methodology used missed getting a representative sample of program participants and possibly ended up contacting a segment least likely to change field practices. Methodological problems can be alleviated primarily by working with an evaluation specialist to design your evaluation. Ask lots of questions. The evaluation specialist should ask you lots of questions, too. (If not, find someone else!) Get your colleagues to help you review your ideas about the evaluation. Ask them to review any data collection instruments you develop. Discuss your plans for data analysis. Ask them to be critical. It's better to get the difficult questions raised beforehand rather than after the time and effort to conduct an evaluation have been expended. Eventually, ask for comments on your interpretation of data, too. Conclusion A comprehensive approach to program evaluation is a key to interpreting the reasons why a program doesn't meet expectations. It's necessary to plan the evaluation before solidifying the program design and carrying out some evaluative activities before initiating the program. This isn't the approach taken by many people. Often Extension educators wait until the program is well underway, possibly near completion, before considering their evaluation needs. This approach makes it impossible for the programmer to use evaluative information to adjust and fine-tune the program during implementation. Unfortunately, valuable and possibly irretrievable program resources may be expended with less impact than might have resulted if evaluation had been ongoing and the program monitored during implementation. In summary, an analysis of an apparent program failure should discern whether the fault lies with the program model, implementation strategy, expectations, or evaluation methods. This determination will provide information useful in planning your next program and may help avoid failure in the future.
Volunteer TimeVirginia Rowland
Extension has long relied on volunteers for leadership and communications, but volunteering takes time. With the steady increase of women entering the workplace, fewer volunteers may be able to give time to Extension programs. In today's busy world, how do some people find time to volunteer. My research suggests that part of the answer lies in the way volunteers look at their personal time resources. Those who volunteer perceive they have more time for helping others than those who don't. Previous Research Research says of American volunteers that married women with children and retired people are most likely to be volunteers.1 Conversely, women employed outside the home and with children aged 16 to 18 are more likely to drop out of volunteer work than those with younger teens or those not employed.2 Volunteers are likely to have education beyond high school. Men are less likely to be involved in volunteer work than are women. Well over half the volunteers report annual family incomes of over $25,000. People who live in the South and those who attend church regularly are more likely to be volunteers.3 The Study Sample This study examined perceived time availability of a group of 43 people who were volunteering substantial time for one agency compared to 192 non-volunteers from varied neighborhoods, occupations, church groups, and organizations. Members of the volunteer group were spending a minimum of about 15 hours each month on the telephone providing counseling and information to callers. Many were also volunteers for church, youth groups, and other programs. Members of the two groups ranged from 21 to 61 years of age. The volunteers were somewhat older than the other group. Members of the volunteer group were more likely to be divorced than were the other group, but about one-fourth of both groups hadn't married. About two-thirds of both groups were women. Of each group, about half had college degrees, over three-fourths were employed, over half had no children, and over two-thirds were homeowners. For this study, I used the time resource subscale of the Perceived Adequacy of Resources Scale.4 Four items measured the adequacy of respondent time: (1) to do the things they wanted to do, (2) for leisure, (3) for household work, and (4) to help others. The four items, their means, and results of t-tests are presented in Table 1. Responses were on a Likert-type scale, ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree; higher numerals (toward 7) indicated that the group of respondents perceived their time resources to be more adequate. Table 1. Perceived adequacy of time resources.
Results The volunteers consistently rated their time resources more adequate than did the other group. For all four items, as well as the mean of the items, the average responses of volunteers were above the midpoint (4.0) of the scale. In contrast, the average responses of the other group were lower on all items; the average on the items about time to help others had the greatest difference of all. Responses of the two groups were significantly different on the means of three of the items as well as the mean for the combined responses on all four items. For both groups, the lowest mean response was on the general item, "I have enough time to do the things that I want to do." However, the remaining three items measured specific kinds of time, and the responses of both groups were higher, indicating that for these people, time for specific kinds of activities seemed to be more plentiful than general time. Perception of time adequacy for specific kinds of activities is apparently different from that of general time. When we say we are "short of time," we usually mean general time and may indicate, as members of these two groups did, that "time" is limited. However, time for specific activities seemed to be more adequate - probably because smaller amounts of time were being considered. For both groups, the item "I have enough time to help others" had the highest mean of the four items, indicating members of both groups perceived this type of time to be most adequate. However, based on their responses, the women and men in the volunteer group perceived they had significantly more time to help others than did the other group. Time to help others may be a relatively small proportion of our total time; however, our culture, and even governmental policy, emphasizes sharing resources, including time, with others. Most of us would probably like to spend more time helping others, but our many roles and responsibilities take most of our time. It's interesting that volunteers in Extension programs most frequently cite "helping others" as a primary benefit of volunteer activities.5 Implications for Extension This research has implications for Extension programming. First, the idea, "if you want a job done, give it to a busy person," is supported by this study. The two groups were similar in employment, hours worked, and number of children, but the volunteers were devoting a minimum of about 20 hours of time each month to one volunteer agency. Nevertheless, compared to the other group, these volunteers perceived they had more general time, leisure time, time for household work, and time to help others. Secondly, Extension staff seeking volunteers should address volunteers' perceptions of time commitments, and likely benefits from volunteering. Perceptions are subject to change. It's critical to understand that time availability is partly a matter of perception, not just actual hours available. A majority of Extension volunteers reported volunteering over 10 hours per month and about 20% reported spending over 40 hours each month when activities are at their peak.6 While over half of the volunteers reported no problems with volunteering, some mentioned that too much time is required. Seeking input from Extension volunteers on time commitments, activities, and needed changes can foster communication between Extension agents and volunteers and reduce potential problems. Extension benefits immensely from volunteers' work. It's estimated it would cost more than $4.5 billion if communities paid for the services provided by Extension volunteers.7 As we plan for volunteer involvement, we need to consider whether there are benefits for volunteers that make volunteering compare favorably with other potential uses of time. Volunteers, like everyone else, are busy people, but the image of the "overworked volunteer" may be misleading because the volunteers in this study believed they had more time to help others. Footnotes 1. L. E. Enders and A. M. Fanslow, "Volunteer Service of Professional Home Economists," Home Economics Research Journal, X (No. 2, 1981), 120-26. 2. M. A. Snider and G. I. Olson, "Managerial Strategies and Role Adaptation of Wife/Mother Political Volunteers," inThinking Globally, Acting Locally: The Balancing Act, S. Nickols, ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Home Economics Association, 1985), pp. 149-60. 3. G. H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1981 (Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, Inc., 1982); Partners in Action: Phase I-Agents' Views: Findings, Conclusions and Implications (Madison: University of Wisconsin, Department of Continuing and Vocational Education, 1985); and Partners in Action: Phase II-Volunteers' Views: Findings, Conclusions and Implications (Madison: University of Wisconsin, Department of Continuing and Vocational Education, 1986). 4. V. T. Rowland, R. A. Dodder, and S. Y. Nickols, "Perceived Adequacy of Resources: Development of a Scale," Home Economics Research Journal, XIV (No. 2, 1985), 218-25. 5. Partners in Action-Phase I and II. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid.
Volunteers as Master TeachersBetty Feather
Extension offerings can be increased by using volunteers to teach basic courses continually in demand. This "frees" Extension faculty to teach advanced courses. Volunteers are selected for their knowledge and experiences, but they frequently lack teaching skills. Selecting and preparing volunteers is important because we want them to succeed by developing new skills and confidence, and we want Extension well-represented. The volunteer selection process should therefore be carefully planned and implemented so we invest our efforts with those who have success potential. Volunteers should be informed of our expectations before they make a commitment. The Missouri Master Teacher Program (MMTP) addresses this situation by developing two program guides: one for county agents and the second for volunteers to use as their lesson plans. County agents are given a MMTP guide that includes course content and selection procedures, which includes media releases, sample brochures, application forms, suggested interview outlines, and an orientation meeting agenda. Inservice training prepares county agents for their roles in support, supervision, and evaluation of volunteer teachers. Volunteers learn essential teaching skills in a five-lesson sequence that provides the opportunity to learn subject matter as well as the adult's learning processes. For example, clothing specialists work with volunteers who demonstrate their clothing construction competence by developing samples that can be used as resource materials during teaching. These samples provide the basis for evaluation of volunteers' standards and skills. In four of the five lessons, volunteers are given opportunities to practice teaching techniques they've learned by giving brief demonstrations and presentations. The Missouri Master Teacher Program is ongoing. We find the selection and training efforts have provided good dividends. Volunteers report that the resource materials, practice demonstrations, and the subject-matter guide are essential for a quality program. County agents have confidence in volunteers, knowing they're competent to teach and are teaching a prescribed curriculum. To express appreciation to Master Teachers, county agents invite them to be guests at workshops and programs where they're introduced as Master Teachers. Recognition is important to Master Teachers and the program - it acknowledges the individual's contribution to the community and creates interest in the program. The MMTP has been used extensively in Missouri and throughout the United States. More than 120 Master Teachers have been trained in Missouri; most have taught a scheduled series of classes. Master Teachers also demonstrate clothing construction techniques at stores, fairs, and special events, as well as judge at fairs and 4-H events. Some are even venturing into retail and home-based businesses. Twenty-five states purchased the MMTP and, in a follow-up survey, 11 of 21 respondents indicated they've drawn on the Missouri guide for program development. Some states are using the program "as is," while others have selected their own subject-matter topic, but retained or added more emphasis to the selection and training volunteer portion.
Using Volunteer Marketing ProfessionalsCarole S. Fromer
When you need valid marketing advice, where do you find it? Should you contact an advertising agency or a television station? Would a marketing professional or a radio news director have the best insight? How about a corporate communicator or a public relations representative at a nonprofit agency? Each of these resources would offer a unique perspective, but which one would be most appropriate for your marketing needs? Sometimes, the nature of your project helps with your selection. At other times, your budget (or lack of one) makes the decision for you. In Connecticut, we decided not to choose between these viable alternatives. Instead, we asked them all to help us. We were forming a Cooperative Extension Public Information and Marketing Advisory (PIMA) Board and we contacted: the president of a media services firm, the program director of the state's public television station, the public information director of a nonprofit agency, a corporate communications administrator at a major insurance firm, the public affairs director of a network television station, the vice-president of an advertising agency, the marketing director of a management and development company, the director of institutional relations at the University of Connecticut, and the development director of a large conference facility. All agreed to serve as volunteer members of the board. We held the first PIMA Board meeting in Summer 1988 at the centrally located Hartford Cooperative Extension office. To accommodate busy schedules, we met from 5:00-7:30 p.m. and served a light meal. While some of the board members knew each other or the Extension visual media coordinator who chairs the group, few were acquainted with the Cooperative Extension System and its impact on people's lives through educational programming. As we provided a historical review and described the administrative and programmatic changes Extension was implementing, the nature of the board's marketing responsibilities became clearer. The additional requirement of publicizing Extension's upcoming 75th anniversary further clarified their task. Our work began with an assessment of Extension's mission, goals, the environment in which the program was functioning, and the current level of public awareness. We then analyzed the existing marketing brochures to see if they met our needs. A key shortcoming of these materials was the orientation of the content. "You're talking to yourselves," commented one board member. "Put the copy in language appropriate for those you're trying to reach." Another person offered, "Relate what you do to people's needs. Don't expect them to make those connections for you." The quarterly meetings of the PIMA Board which followed were essentially creative brainstorming sessions. Ideas were tossed out so quickly and with such enthusiasm that we found taperecording the discussions the only way to catch all the suggestions that were bouncing around the room. The thoughts of the marketing professionals were given immediate peer review by their colleagues. Approaches offered by Extension personnel received similar scrutiny. We didn't realize the full value of this interaction until it was identified by one board member. She said, "You're getting a little different advice from us as volunteers than if you hired us. As our client, we'd be trying to please you to keep your business. In this situation, we're free to be more candid." Topics on the PIMA Board's agenda included designing a new Extension logo, developing a new positioning line (slogan), editing a new general programming brochure, formatting an external newsletter, and designing a marketing strategy for Extension's 75th anniversary commemoration. As a result of these efforts, we have a better understanding of the Extension characteristics we should highlight. We're focusing our message in a different way to increase awareness and response to our offerings. Our updated program brochure incorporates the volunteer board's ideas in language suited to those we want to reach. Publications include a call to action that makes it easier for the public to contact us. Several thousand dollars were saved in developing our new logo because, through the volunteer board's connections, it was designed free at an advertising agency. The volunteers identified other pro bono opportunities as well. While final decisions on specific communication projects are made by Connecticut's Extension administrators, they're able to make more informed choices because of the insights and creative suggestions offered by the PIMA Board's volunteer marketing professionals. We couldn't possibly pay them for their time and inventiveness. But, because they're willing to donate their expertise, the impact of Extension's educational programming is intensified and an increased number of Connecticut residents reap the benefits.
Empowering Volunteers Through InvolvementJohn Balliette
Marilyn Goad Smith
The challenge was how to recruit and keep 4-H volunteers in a highly transient community. Battle Mountain, Nevada, is typical of many small, isolated towns in the West. Mining, the major industry in the community, and the boom/bust economy create a transient population of about 2,000 people. When commodity prices are good, the influx of new people creates stress on housing, schools, and community services. When times are bad, those who remain in the community struggle to keep it alive. Because of these factors, the turnover among adult volunteers in the local 4-H program averaged 42% a year from 1981-1988. The program was struggling and a series of new Extension agents had experienced varying degrees of success in attracting volunteers. However, the high turnover continued as people moved in and out of the community. In 1986, a new county agent implemented a program designed to increase volunteer involvement. The agent initiated a needs assessment survey among volunteer 4-H leaders and discussed his observations with the area 4-H specialist who'd worked in the community for more than 10 years. Based on the needs assessment survey, the knowledge of experienced individuals, and their perceptions about the community, a program design was conceived to retain volunteers. New Leader Orientation The new leader orientation program began when a 4-H leaders' manual called "Welcome to 4-H" was written and field-tested.1 Extension staff and volunteers cooperated in writing the publication that was designed to orient new leaders and obtain more leader involvement. The local agent made a point of involving every volunteer 4-H leader in the community. These leaders were asked to write portions of the manual and to review drafts of the publication. The agent used every opportunity to talk with volunteers. He stopped volunteers at chance meetings in the local grocery store, restaurants, and social events to discuss revisions and ask for their input. He used these opportunities to stress the importance of leader involvement in this process and explain the potential benefits derived from a publication for new leaders. Since few of the leaders had ever reviewed a manuscript for technical content, the agent developed an evaluation form that accompanied each draft. The evaluation was divided into five parts that corresponded with each section of the manuscript. Volunteer reviewers were asked: "What did you like about this section?" and "What did you dislike about this section?" While this was a simple technique, valuable information was obtained. User evaluation was one of the most successful parts of the program. Results of Involvement Although the leader reviews were time-consuming, several important results were achieved. Volunteer leaders provided valuable input on how they perceived the potential use of the manuscript. Furthermore, their comments on the manuscript's readability and applicability greatly influenced the final product. The review process also stimulated a new level of leader interest, support, and involvement in the 4-H program. Involvement of leaders in the peer review process proved to be the key in gaining support and involvement. By the time the "Welcome to 4-H" publication was completed, volunteers had learned to work together toward a common goal. Future programs proved easier to do because volunteers had learned to identify issues and work together to solve problems. Volunteers gained a better understanding of the role Extension plays in youth education and started looking at a program beyond their particular subject of interest. As people move in and out of the boom/bust mining community, leader turnover is expected. However, the successful completion of "Welcome to 4-H" and the leader training is an example of a process to empower leaders that worked. Program success in stable population areas might be increased by using this process as well. Leader training programs and careful prioritizing of issues relevant to the community are the keys to success. Footnote 1. M. Goad, J. Balliette, and B. Hooper, "Welcome to 4-H: An Orientation Guide for New Leaders" (Reno: University of Nevada, College of Agriculture, 1987).
How To Avoid "Firing" Your VolunteersBarbara M. O'Neill
Many Extension professionals feel obligated - even grateful - to accept the services of a volunteer. Some volunteers, however, are more trouble than they're worth. They take a large toll in time spent undoing their damage, in upsetting hassles, or in possible harm to your reputation as an unbiased adult educator and community leader. Thus, it's important to recruit volunteers selectively. Here are four problem volunteer personalities to avoid:
A few other tips that can head off volunteer-related problems before they occur are:
Careful recruitment and selection of volunteers prevents problems before they occur. The first time you turn away a prospective volunteer, you may feel a little uneasy. Relax. In the long run, you'll be much better off. As with most areas of life, it's quality - not quantity - that counts.
Reaching People with PeopleKeith G. Diem
Reaching People with People. A Guide to Marketing 4-H with Volunteers. Linda Kustka. Madison: University of Wisconsin- Extension, 1989. 339 pp. $20 (looseleaf). Reaching people with the practical education they need is a complex problem faced by all Extension professionals. A new resource notebook entitled, Reaching People with People (RPWP) provides eclectic approaches for recruiting and involving clientele. Extension marketing is essentially a modification of the program development process. It identifies needs, responds with programs, and evaluates the success of efforts and outcomes. RPWP is grounded in the philosophy that volunteers can and should perform important roles in marketing 4-H and Extension. RPWP is intended for self-study. It's bound in a looseleaf notebook to which the author encourages the user "to add information and strategies." It's a fine idea file for marketing Extension programs and a great reference. Beyond the "Introduction" section, the notebook is divided into 10 chapters: "Marketing," "Involving People," "Needs Assessment," "Developing the Plan," "Strategies," "Barrier Removal," "Recruitment," "Retention," "Staff Development," and "Evaluation." Each chapter is separated into subheadings, starting with a section called "Big Ideas in This Chapter," and ending with a "Self-Quiz." One of the most helpful features is each chapter's appendix, which contains ideas, examples, and practical tools pertaining to the chapter's subject. The notebook is grounded equally in research and practice, with many of the ideas experience-tested by seasoned and successful Extension personnel throughout the country. Overall, this notebook is a resource any Extension professional will find useful. Although it's based in 4-H, the principal ideas are applicable to all areas of Extension, making it an excellent reference or text for the orientation of Extension professionals in program planning and marketing or for a college course. The practical tools contained in the notebook are well worth the small investment involved.
Future of Extension WorldwideWilliam M. Rivera
The study and practice of Extension worldwide is at a turning point, one that represents the end of a major phase in the history of Extension's relatively recent beginning as a formalized institution. Three major developments confront Extension internationally: the first is disturbing, the second unsettling, and the third encouraging. These developments are: (1) attacks on Extension as an institution, (2) controversy about models of Extension, and (3) learning lessons about effective Extension. Each of these will affect Extension's future worldwide. Institutional Attack Public sector Extension has been, and still is, under attack from a wide spectrum of politicians and economists over its cost and financing. Public sector Extension worldwide has been criticized for not doing enough, not doing it well, and for not being relevant. Extension is criticized for insufficient impact, ineffectiveness, inefficiency, and, sometimes, for not pursuing programs that foster equity. Different systems have responded differently to these attacks. The United States Cooperative Extension System regrouped, reviewed what was needed, and advanced a powerful new set of National Initiatives designed to revitalize the relevance of the system. The Netherlands and some other systems decided to privatize. Some systems started moving toward cost-recovery approaches, as in Mexico. Still other responses encouraged alternative diffusion practices. System "Model" Controversy The fact of differing system models in different countries attests to the variety and complexity of Extension. "Extension" means different things in different places. Accordingly, system "model" preference is a major source of controversy raising both political and technical issues. Is the U.S. Cooperative Extension Service an adaptable model for developing countries, as some argue?1 Beal in a recent issue of INTERPAKS Interchange claims that attempts to transfer the U.S. land-grant university Extension System model have often resulted in only limited success or in failures. Is the World Bank's Training and Visit Extension Management Model (T&V) the right choice? Based on classical management principles, it says: (1) Extension agents should carry out Extension functions exclusively, (2) Extension should be closely linked with research, (3) training should be regular and continuous, (4) work should be time-bound, and (5) a field and farmer orientation should be maintained. Agricultural economist Leonard2 says the World Bank's system is the best approach in Africa, especially given management demands there. While Leonard thinks T&V is overly rigid and not without its problems, he says it has "at least enjoyed success in an area in which failure is most common." The Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR/E) approach raises other questions. Should Extension be a free-standing institution providing information to farmers about the entire agricultural development process? Or, should it be a component of farming systems research projects3 and essentially serve to transfer only adaptive technology? Taiwan's Farming Information Dissemination System has been called "an organizational alternative to land-grant universities."4 Taiwan is currently hastening to create a national institute for Extension education and training to help meet the challenge of keeping Extensionists updated in new technology. In short, the future of Extension worldwide will involve continuing debate about the strengths and weaknesses of different models. Learning Lessons The third, more positive, development falls into the lessons learned category. The worldwide Extension literature is bulging with project descriptions and research. Indeed, there's a great accumulation of lessons learned. The World Bank, the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture, the USAID, and other internationally directed organizations are continually integrating the lessons learned from their projects. USAID's analysis of project design and implementation5 provides important guidelines for project development. The Future What are the implications of these developments for the Cooperative Extension Service in the United States? First, domestic experience is both valuable and limited. For instance, the land-grant university and Cooperative Extension System exemplify important ideas and practice, such as, close linkages between the education and agricultural sectors and the technical, political, and democratic value of farmer participation in Extension. But transferring U.S. ideas of overlapping political authority and participatory democracy is difficult, in some cases perhaps impossible, at least for the moment. Problems exist with exporting parts of programs that build on democracy; this is the case with earlier efforts to transplant the land-grant university system to developing countries. Second, while it's important to know our own system's strengths and weaknesses, we also need to know more about other extension systems and their strengths and weaknesses. We need to develop a better understanding of models of international work, to study the lessons from international experience, and to be familiar with what works, what doesn't, and under what conditions. At the same time, we need to build a global perspective, not an attitude of transferring information "from the knowledgeable to the grateful,"6 but of a cooperative venture comparable to our domestic concept of cooperation. Third, there's no one best system/model. Varied systems exist and each is suited for different purposes. We can no longer sally forth with the Cooperative Extension "model" under our arm, and automatically expect to succeed in other countries. While it's important to understand individual systems, generic principles and guidelines exist that are more important than any one system/model.7 These principles - notably, situation specificity, economic sustainability, system flexibility, and systemwide participation - provide the basis for carrying out Extension functions effectively and successfully. Fourth, in principle, Extension is flexible, but procedures are needed to ensure that its organization evolves along with changes in its target audiences and technologies. Extension services in developing countries, often limited by lack of qualified professional staff and agents, initially provide a kind of "postal-service" delivery of pre-packaged information. To increase their professionalization, internationally trained U.S. land-grant faculty and Cooperative Extension specialists should consider further involvement in the study and practice of developing responsive Extension institutions. Fifth, the costs and financing of public Extension are paramount concerns. A number of concerns include the feasibility of public Extension reductions on both recurrent and capital accounts, changes in the tax effort, the introduction of charges for government services, and private sector alternatives.8 Sixth, economic sustainability is a main consideration in program/project development. Overseas projects must be built on solid financial footing, with adequate capital and recurrent costs built into these organizations. To know whether our expertise will be valid and viable, we must watch accounts and the sustainability of our efforts. Finally, it's time to stop ignoring our own organizational experience. We know that Extension Systems must be flexible and change as policies, technologies, and the needs of farmers change. We've learned at several turning points in Cooperative Extension's history to respond to new policy and public demands. We've gained good experience that's the essence of what all our work is about: development and change. A Turning Point It's a turning point for Extension worldwide. It's "the end of the beginning," because the great majority of public Extension Systems in developing countries, which began shortly before or after the 1950s, have now arrived either at a stage of consolidation or dissolution. Their future is in doubt in many cases. For the United States, the present represents an opportunity to prepare for taking the next step. And the ne | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
