Volume 27 Number 2
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Summer 1989 Volume 27 Number 2 |
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Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors Gail Shellberg, president, Colorado, Member at Large Editorial Committee Kirk Astroth, chairperson, Chanute, Kansas Research in Brief Editors William G. Boldt, Cornell University, educational marketing Futures Editor J. David Deshler, Cornell University
Extension System Change: Fact or Fiction?Patrick G. Boyle
Is the Cooperative Extension System (CES) ready to move into the 1990s, and the 21st century? Are the changes in CES that Myron Johnsrud, Roy Rauschkolb (Journal of Extension, Spring 1989), and others are talking about for real? Of course, I'd like to respond unequivocally "yes." But before we and the Cooperative Extension System can say "yes," we ourselves have to say "yes" to change. In other words, we can only bring about change in CES by changing ourselves. Changing Ourselves Changing ourselves-this sounds simple enough. But, it's perhaps the most difficult challenge we'll confront. I for one don't intend to minimize it. But, in addition to believing that it's necessary - critical - that we change, I'd like to point out that the world in which we live and the organizational changes we've already fostered in CES have combined to make it easier to change. Further, I believe that issues programming provides us with the best means to effect the necessary change within CES. Let's begin by looking at the environment we're all working in. Our society is currently encountering phenomenal - and unprecedented-change. In the world economy, demographics, the structure and function of the family, the environment, the nature of work, the vitality of rural communities, technology, and the access and quality of information, change is the common denominator. CES Response to Change To be sure, the Cooperative Extension System has been responding to this challenge for change. During the past two years, CES has undertaken, and completed, several significant actions affecting the future, including:
The Bottom Line: Valuing Change Each of these activities, and its attendant changes, have contributed to a vision, and a direction, for the future of CES. The "bottom line" for each of these endeavors is that the Cooperative Extension System shouldn't merely endure, but rather, it must come to value change as integral to its institutional environment. In other words, we - all of us - will have to change for CES itself to change. Therein lies the rub. Can we as individuals operationalize these societal and institutional changes in an environment that has got to remain flexible, creative, and receptive to constant change? Further, how do we get a system entrenched in traditional disciplines, methods, clientele, and support groups to move forward, especially when this forward movement involves a great deal of risk - and the possibility of failure? The answers reside with us. We - and by "we" I mean every agent, specialist, administrator, and employee - are the ones who will have to "institutionalize" change within CES. We are the ones who must clarify the issues and choices. We must establish coalitions. We must create and implement new, more responsive structures that employ nontraditional disciplines and delivery methods. The real test, then, is whether or not we're prepared to do this. Are we willing to value change as pivotal to a healthy, productive organization? Thus, the biggest, and most important, factor determining our existence is internal, and not external, change. In fact, I would argue that our clientele - rural leaders, farmers, small businessowners, youth, homemakers, and others - are ready and, in fact, expect us to change. To be sure, we all must contend with the tensions and fears associated with change. These intangibles - moving from the comfortable to the uncomfortable, from the known to the unknown, from the safe to the risky, from the traditional to the nontraditional - can create anxiety among us and some members of our clientele and support groups. But these tensions and fears can be overcome by those of us who have helped to bring about change and, in the process, changed ourselves and CES. Paucity of New Ideas Adding to the complexity and enormity of the challenge is the paucity of new ideas within the Cooperative Extension System. I think it's safe to say that as an organization we're rather low on new ideas. One possible explanation for this is that we're preoccupied with existing structures and traditional linkages that blind us from seeing the Extension System as it might be. As a result, our educational direction and programs are derived from these very structures, not from the rapidly changing needs of the outside world. Issues Programming All of this leads me to suggest that we have to understand - and to take seriously - issues programming. Many are already selling issues programming short by claiming that "it's nothing new," that "we've been doing it for years," and that "it will soon pass on." I wholeheartedly disagree. If you examine closely all of the recent CES efforts - the National Initiatives, the Futures Report, the ECOP restructuring, and the rest - you'll see that what's central to them is the concept of issues programming. By its design, issues programming changes our organizational approach to programming as well as the way we communicate what we're doing. And because it's based on external needs assessments rather than beginning with the limitations of existing program areas, its emphasis will be on looking outward before we look inward. Thus, issues programming will enable us to demonstrate that the Cooperative Extension System has indeed changed. Simply telling people that CES has changed won't cut it - the only way to convince people that we've changed is to change. And the best way to change is with issues programming. As I see it, issues programming begins with the identification of issues and then proceeds to tailor the organizational resources, delivery methods, and structure to meet the needs related to the issue. It places the primary "problem-solving" focus on teams of faculty/staff rather than individuals and demonstrates our "proactive" leadership role in addressing critical needs. For example, the CES reaction to the drought of 1988 was a response to current clientele groups as well as nonusers of Extension programs. Further, since it was a response to a crisis situation, drought assistance should be viewed as a "short-term" issue whereas a topic like water quality would be considered a "long-term" issue and biotechnology seen as an "emerging" issue. In addition, our issues programming approach to water quality doesn't mean that we'll necessarily be "teaching" water quality. Rather, we'll be taking our knowledge base and applying it to all the complex factors that contribute to the pollution of our water (that is, fertilizer, pesticides, acid rain). Similarly, we won't be teaching nutrition per se, but rather we'll be looking at the whole issue of proper diet and the factors (food additives, biotechnology, food safety, cholesterol) affecting nutrition and health. Risk and Controversy Obviously, there will be a great deal of risk, and controversy, involved. But I believe we need to take those risks, we need to adopt issues programming, because it's the only way to show the world that we've changed. Let me return to my initial question. Is the Cooperative Extension System serious about change? Judging from the direction we've taken in the past two years, I'd say "maybe." I'll say "yes" once we've gotten serious about adopting issues programming and changing ourselves. It's been said that every organization contains the seeds of its own destruction. So it is with our organization. If we fail to adjust the CES mission, program, and structure to meet the dramatic changes affecting society, then we'll be nurturing fertile ground for those seeds of destruction to grow. My greatest fear, then, isn't that CES will cease to exist. Rather, it's that, because of our caution, our inflexibility, and our reluctance to change, the Cooperative Extension System will become inconsequential.
Beyond TraditionByron K. Webb Dean and Director
The greatest obstacle we have to overcome in Extension is tradition. I agree with Boyle when he says, "... we're preoccupied with existing structures and traditional linkages that blind us from seeing the Extension System as it might be...." In establishing Extension's new agenda made up of initiatives and issues, we can't focus on the past and what Extension has been. We must focus on the future and what Extension can be. Extension will continue to focus on agriculture and natural resource issues with vigor, for we're essentially the lead agency for education in this area. However, we must also look beyond agriculture to social and human issues that concern a larger proportion of our clients and stakeholders. This will undoubtedly require new human and capital resources to adequately meet this expanded commitment. We'll also need to look beyond our traditional organizational alliances to form new partnerships as we engage in new ideas. A major change for Extension must be to become less insular, with less of a go-it-alone attitude. While we've often talked about cooperation with other partners, we've been afraid to genuinely work with others in effective alliances to attack major issues. Sometimes we've been afraid that cooperating with others would mean sharing the credit. At other times, we just haven't been willing to go through the time-consuming process of forming genuine partnerships. Our experience in South Carolina strongly suggests that other organizations and agencies in the human services sector are willing to cooperate. We don't have to treat those agencies as competitors. An agency providing primarily a service function is enthusiastic about joining with Extension to add prevention and education components. Our experience indicates they aren't threatened by such cooperation. We shouldn't be either. Another important area of change is that our response time must decrease substantially. We must overcome the inertia of our system. There are all kinds of excuses for why we don't and can't respond quicker. We must move beyond those excuses and our history of slow response to new developments and concerns. Our future must include more rapid responses. Another area where we've been bound by tradition is in the level of proof we've required before being willing to move into action. In the face of great needs and demands for response, we can't wait for the traditional process of scientific publication and academic debate to establish a firm research conclusion before we're willing to act. We'll have to take the risk of action on important issues of the day on the best data available without waiting for perfect knowledge and full scientific proof. Finally, in moving beyond tradition, we'll need to be flexible. Our past has too often been characterized by rigid thinking, rigid organization, and rigid programming. Rapid responses to major new issues will require flexibility. Boyle worries that Extension won't cease to exist but rather simply become "inconsequential." I couldn't agree more. Society's main needs are going to be met by somebody. Society won't wait until Extension is able to meet its needs. If we don't change to meet emerging needs, then society will look elsewhere to get those needs met. While we debate whether new initiatives are part of our mission, society will look elsewhere. The needs of society aren't bound by tradition; therefore, the Cooperative Extension System can't be bound by tradition.
Forward with the Original Land-Grant ConceptDaniel J. Decker
Lucinda A. Noble
David L. Call
We've heard and read a great deal lately about change in the Cooperative Extension System (CES), as if the notion of change was new to it. Boyle doubted that CES is capable of making the changes needed to be consequential to American society as we move into the 21st century. He notes correctly that CES won't change unless individuals in the system are willing to change. Fortunately, most of these individuals share at least some elements of a basic philosophy about the role of research and education in helping society overcome current problems and avoid problems in the future. Nevertheless, Boyle's article, essentially an admonition to CES that we must change to remain relevant, raises several important points. We will try to address a few of them briefly. It's important to do a careful analysis of what exactly needs to be changed. Some aspects of CES aren't broken, so they don't need fixing. This point seldom gets mentioned. Furthermore, most of the change needed isn't in the philosophical underpinnings of CES, but in how these have been operationalized, or in some cases not operationalized. For example, the involvement of local people in identifying Extension and research program priorities is an old way of doing business, but still sound. Another fundamental precept of CES that needn't change is that educational programming should be based on research of the land-grant universities and USDA. The degree to which the translation of research results to educational programming can occur is determined largely by the nature of the research, which in turn is determined by the priorities given to research topics. A change that's needed is to do a better job of integrating research and Extension, including the identification of research priorities. Assurance of this begins with faculty at land-grant universities who are committed to solving real-world problems and are recognized and rewarded for doing so. This doesn't mean employing only people with what has been called "applied" research interests. Given that we have faculty in the land-grant university who are predisposed to relevance in their research, CES needs a stronger role in identifying current and emerging research topics and in refining the research questions to be addressed. This is really a change back to the original concept of Extension, indeed that of the land-grant system as it evolved through the first 50 years of its existence, not a radical departure from that concept. Although we developed a system of integrated research and education functions envied and copied around the world, in the last two decades we have allowed those functions to drift apart into competitive sectors. Could it be that much of the current expressed desire for change in CES is a reflection of the fact that we've moved away from the historical conceptual roots of the system and we want to get back on track? Although we certainly have changed and will continue to change subject matter and program delivery methods, our conceptual traditions have the potential to be much more enduring (that is, have continuing relevance). This is reason to take heart about our ability to change. It's vastly more reasonable to expect that CES can continue to make needed changes in delivery methods and subject matter if the conceptual underpinnings of the entire system remain sound. We also need to be better evaluators of our programs' impacts on people. Through careful, comprehensive evaluation of programs - starting with critical analysis of theoretical frameworks, including assessments of implementation appropriateness, and then ultimately measuring impact-we can learn much about what should be changed and how to change. Is the CES ready for change? Fundamentally, yes. As we noted earlier, the system has the right philosophical foundation to allow change to occur. We need to address the following:
These will take commitments of time and other resources, but are entirely achievable. Possibly the most important prerequisite of change for our organization is one element that itself has remained unchanged - the philosophy and commitment of CES professionals to helping people through education. That commitment has perhaps been the most stable characteristic of our organization, and it's this devotion to helping people that has and will continue to provide impetus for us to change what we do and how we do it. If change is needed to continue to help people or to improve our ability to help them, we're confident change will occur. As you reflect on the many changes that have occurred in CES over the past 75 years, haven't they been largely at the level of subject matter, audience, focus, delivery method, etc., not at the level of fundamental purpose? We doubt that will change in the 1990s or the 21st century, so we answer Boyle's question about whether the CES is serious about change with a resounding "yes, as always." Today, more than ever before, faculty and Extension staff need to become better "futurists." We need to do a better job of educating local people about trends and forecasts relevant to social, economic, and environmental issues so they can anticipate potential future problems that programs and actions today could be designed to avoid or mitigate. This would reduce the amount of reactive programming in CES and help us avoid Boyle's concern of becoming "inconsequential."
Motivating Clients To Change: The Bottom LineMarjorie E. Jensen
As educators, we need to understand what motivates people to change. We must then build our educational programs on those understandings. My research indicates that clients are most highly motivated by bottom-line, economic considerations - how a proposed change will affect the purse or wallet. This finding has critical implications for how we develop and deliver Extension programs, especially issues-based programming. Understanding Client Priorities During the energy crisis we learned a lot about client motivation and competing priorities. In 1982, the University of Rhode Island Cooperative Extension and the Rhode Island Governor's Energy Offices cooperated to present 12 workshops on solar energy topics. During the energy crisis, it wasn't uncommon for solar enthusiasts to justify the costs of new technologies based on environmental and patriotic rationales. So, I wanted to know if members of that audience would make changes or take action for noneconomic reasons. The total audience for all programs was 404 adults, 74 (18%) of whom responded to a survey at the end of the workshops. Participants were asked to respond to each of the following possible reasons for investing in solar energy:
Eighty-two percent of the respondents indicated they expected to reduce fuel costs, 72% wanted to improve the environment, while 64% were motivated by the foreign oil issue (Table 1). But, when asked to rank the statements according to personal priorities, economy proved to be the most important factor. Fifty-seven percent of the respondents rated fuel-cost reduction as their number one reason for investing in solar energy; environmental concerns and the foreign oil issue were ranked first by only 18% and 13% of the respondents, respectively. So, although this group was aware of and concerned about public issues, personal economy was clearly its first priority. Table 1. Reasons for investing in solar energy.
Issue of Affordable Housing Economy was also the top priority for prospective homeowners at University of Rhode Island Extension programs for home buyers in 1986 and 1987. Participants at each of seven workshops were asked to list, in order of importance to them, six factors that would guide their selection of a new home. Program content focused on affordability (income, credit and debt, components of cost, and financing). A 30-minute segment was presented on environmental considerations (air and water quality, soils, and drainage conditions). Other topics included property inspections, the roles of brokers, lenders and other housing professionals, contracts, consumer rights, and family priorities. The participants' lists of selection factors were collected at the end of the workshop. In all, 60 responses listing 318 selection factors were received from a possible 239 participants (25% response). Factors relating to cost and affordability were named most frequently (93 times) and were ranked as the number one priority by almost half (47%) of the respondents. By contrast, environmental factors (clean water, no hazardous wastes) were listed only 13 times and were rated as the top priority by just two participants (Table 2). Table 2. Housing selection factors for home buyers.
Implications for Extension Program Development The responses to these surveys confirm that people are most likely to change if a change benefits them economically. These findings indicate that Extension needs to develop learning objectives based on cost and value factors. For example, what affect does a contaminated water supply have on a home or farm's resale value and how might this influence a buyer's spending decisions in regard to property location, inspections, or special-purpose water tests? How might property value factors linked to environmental quality affect an owner's willingness to follow recommended waste disposal practices, to pay assessments for public services, to support legislation or bond issue referenda? Beyond Crisis Programming These findings on client motivation also suggest how we can keep issues programming from becoming only crisis programming. Too often, a crisis is the catalyst for Extension education. A community crisis calls for a public forum with speakers, specialists, and affected community members who seek answers and demand change. Personal crises result in urgent requests for help from individuals and families. But, client needs are better served by educational strategies that prevent a crisis situation in advance. This means motivating clients in advance of the crisis. Trouble-shooting is an accepted practice for Extension educators. Program content is often based on hardships experienced elsewhere or on predictions for potential crises. For example, even though water quality isn't within the scope of the home economics area of expertise, it's an issue we need to include in our program planning. Home economists now address the environmental and health concerns about household waste disposal, building materials and practices, and water supplies. And, agricultural agents and specialists have restructured many recommendations about how chemicals are purchased, used, stored, and disposed of in farm operations. But, will "preventative education" be enough to modify client behavior before a social or environmental threat becomes a reality? Concern for public issues may not translate to action unless that action meets more immediate human needs and interests. As educators, we need to understand that economic considerations are most likely to motivate people to change. Issues programming should, therefore, be conceptualized and marketed in ways that directly address personal monetary incentives and economic interests. Whenever people use Extension information to make decisions, there are economic considerations. Census figures show that 41% of Americans' net worth is in home equity and 60% of American families would have no net worth except for their homes.1 The value of farmland and buildings in the United States exceeds $550 billion.2 By using an economic rationale to motivate clients to action, Extension should be able to have an impact and make a difference in people's lives. That's the bottom line! Footnotes 1. Susan M. Quiring, Package Your Home to Sell (College Station: Texas Agricultural Extension Service, 1987). 2. U.S., Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Resources: Agricultural Land Values and Markets: Situation and Outlook Report (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988).
Targeting Transitional ClientsWalter N. Taylor
Providing educational help to people displaced from agriculture is a major concern of Extension educators. Some essential questions need to be answered before designing educational programs for this special transitional target audience. What knowledge and skills do displaced workers desire? Are displaced agricultural workers willing to enroll in classes to attain needed knowledge and skills? If seeking work, what types of employment are displaced workers considering? What knowledge and skills do employers want in their workers? It isn't enough to be concerned about clients in transition. We need good data on these clients to plan effective Extension programs. Current Condition Agricultural employment in the United States declined 80% between 1940 and 1980. Most of this decline was due to technological change.1 In Mississippi, displacement from agricultural employment continues. Much of this displacement is due to a drop in the number of Mississippi farms. Between 1985 and 1987, the number of farms in Mississippi decreased by 6.25%.2 While many displaced workers get new work relatively quickly, a sizable number are jobless a year or longer.3 Some have turned to entrepreneurship, while others have accepted low-paying, non-benefit jobs. Underemployment may be reduced and earnings of persons with low incomes can be raised by human resource development programs of education, training, and job search help.4 But these programs must meet client interests and needs to be effective. To determine those interests and needs, we surveyed displaced agricultural workers. The Study A proportionate random sample of 41 counties, 10 each from three Mississippi Cooperative Extension Districts and 11 from the remaining district, were chosen for the study. The county agricultural agent in each of the 41 counties was asked to list names, addresses, and telephone numbers of displaced agricultural workers who agreed to participate in the study, and employers who were hiring or expected to be hiring in the near future. Twenty-eight agents identified 55 displaced agricultural workers and 29 prospective employers, who were mailed parallel forms of a questionnaire that was a modification of the one used by Buriak, Whitacre, and O'Rourke.5 Final response rates of 62% and 70% were obtained for displaced workers and employers, respectively. Telephone calls were made to a random sample of nonrespondents from both groups. Data obtained weren't different from those of the respondents and were included in the final analysis. Displaced workers were given areas of study and asked to indicate the ones they believed necessary to obtain the type of employment they wanted. Employers were given the same areas and asked to indicate the ones they believed necessary for their current and potential employees. Both rated the areas on a 1 to 4 scale with 1 being definitely not necessary and 4 being definitely necessary. The Results Table 1 shows the means and rankings assigned to the areas of study by both groups. Both groups rated personal development (problem solving and decision making) first and technical training second. The areas of small business management and sales training were rated third and fourth by displaced workers, while employers rated arithmetic third and speech fourth. A willingness to enroll in a class or classes to obtain skills for employment was indicated by 58% of the displaced workers. Most of the remainder weren't sure if they'd enroll. Table 2 indicates the mean ratings of types of employment displaced workers would consider. Employment in agricultural business was rated highest and employment for an agricultural producer was rated lowest. Formal education beyond high school didn't appear to be a requirement for employment in the types of businesses and companies in this study. Fifty-five percent of the employers reported that they did contribute to the educational expenses of their employees and many of them, 60%, conducted formal in-house educational and training programs for their workers. Employers also projected that their work force would increase by 21% between 1987 and 1990. Table 1. Areas of study believed necessary for employment.
Table 2. Displaced workers consideration of types of employment.
Conclusions and Implications Both displaced agricultural workers and employers in Mississippi believed that education designed to enhance personal development in the areas of problem solving and decision making and technical skills were most necessary for obtaining employment. Most of the displaced workers in the study were willing to take classes to get this education. When designing adult and continuing education courses, agricultural and Extension educators should include experiences that will enhance problem-solving and decision-making skills. When planning courses specifically for displaced agricultural workers, agriculture subject matter in areas other than production is a must with courses in agribusiness and related areas preferred. Learning activities to enhance math, speech, and writing skills should be incorporated into such courses. Study in most business and related areas will, by nature, contain math and writing. While the primary aim of many adult education programs in agriculture may be to increase technical competency in specific areas of production, subject matter and learning experiences within the programs need to enhance problem-solving and decision-making skills of enrollees. The displaced agricultural workers in Mississippi indicated that if they had had these skills at the time of displacement, their chances of finding new employment would be greater. Summary This study identified the education and training perceived necessary by displaced agricultural workers in Mississippi to gain employment in desired occupations. Prospective employers were also surveyed in an effort to identify the skills they want in their employees. It was found that educational efforts to help displaced agricultural workers acquire new employment should teach problem-solving and decision-making skills as well as technical skills. Footnotes 1. M. Tienda, "Industrial Restructuring in Metropolitan Labor Markets: Implications for Equity and Efficiency" (Symposium in Rural Labor Markets Research Issues, USDA, ERG, ARED Staff Report No. AGES 860721, September 1986), pp. 33-70. 2. Mississippi Department of Agriculture and Commerce and the U.S., Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service, Mississippi Agricultural Statistics, 1985-1986, Supplement 21 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986). 3. M. Podgursky and P. Swain, "Duration of Joblessness Following Displacement," Industrial Relations, XXVI (No. 3, 1987), 213-25. 4. L. Tweeten, "Rural Labor Market Performance" (Symposium in Rural Labor Markets Research Issues, USDA, ERG, ARED Staff Report No. AGES 860721, September 1986), pp. 33-70. 5. P. Buriak, R. Whitacre, and P. O'Rourke, "Demand for Part-Time or Full-Time Off-Farm Employment for Agricultural Producers and Their Spouses" (Staff study, Illinois State University, Normal, 1985).
Reaching Low-Income Audiences with Low-Income VolunteersCarol L. Bezold
Extension has a commitment to work with low-income and minority families, but this audience isn't easy to reach. Nevertheless, training low-income and minority volunteers to reach this audience is working well in Stevens County, Washington. Low-income people who are "making it" have credibility that professionals often can't match. Stevens County is located in the northeast corner of the state, bordering Canada on the north. It's a beautiful, scenic area with mountains, forests, rivers, and lakes. Recreation opportunities are plentiful, but undeveloped. Unfortunately, it's also a low-income area. The economic base is ranching, forest-related industries, and mining - all hard hit by the recession of the early '80s. The economy has improved, but unemployment continues well above the national average. The Spokane Indian Reservation occupies the southern end of the county. Unemployment there has hovered around 80%. Priority Need The Family Living Advisory Board identified up-to-date food preservation methods as a priority need. The staff decided to implement the Master Food Preserver program to meet this need. Since the county is nearly 100 miles long, volunteers were recruited as Master Food Preservers from all areas of the county. The goal was to have one or more highly trained volunteers who could be reached by a local call from any part of the county. Recruiting Volunteers Volunteers were recruited through local newspapers, Extension Homemakers newsletters, and other agencies, including the Spokane Indian Housing Authority. After the first year, the trained volunteers did most of the recruiting. Applicants weren't screened and anyone who filled out an application form and agreed to the commitment was accepted. The commitment included agreeing to: (1) attend all training sessions and pass a final exam, (2) give out only information that's approved by the USDA and Washington State University, and (3) give a minimum of 40 hours a year of volunteer teaching time. The current eight food advisors are representative of the volunteers over the years. Their annual incomes range from $6,000 to $15,000. Family size varies from a single parent with one child to a family of six. One of the volunteers is Native American. Hands-On Training The training was hands-on experiences along with a theoretical background, and was made as nonthreatening as possible. Part of the orientation was to discuss the questions that would be on the final exam. The information was presented at an easy pace that allowed time for personal sharing. (Goal-oriented people can become frustrated with this.) An important part of the process was for volunteers to get to know one another to form a strong support group. This resulted in some strong friendships and a group that works well together. There was no charge for the training or training materials. The participants brought their own supplies, including produce, and took the finished products home. They got a great feeling of accomplishment and pride in taking the food home to show and share with their friends and families. After the original 30 hours of training, volunteers continued to meet once a month for additional training in food safety, food-borne illnesses, and any area where they felt they needed more training. They actively participated in planning training sessions. The meetings were held in their homes, and everyone contributed to potluck lunches. Time was planned for inspecting gardens, root cellars, cold frames, etc. Food Advisors This year, volunteers with three to five years of Master Food Preserver training went into a food advisors program. In addition to food preservation, they'd already received extensive training in food safety and food-borne illnesses. As food advisors, they received further training on food safety, basic nutrition, food shopping, and preparation of donated and commodity foods, including textured vegetable protein. In addition, they were taught leadership skills to support them as they moved into their trainer roles. To date, food advisors have trained volunteer staff in six county food banks in methods of food preparation and food safety. They've done workshops in high school home economics classes, at senior centers, and at a day care center for the mentally ill. They've also set up displays at commodity distribution sites and at WIC (Women, Infants and Children Nutrition Program) Clinics. WIC is a program that provides supplemental food and counseling for low-income pregnant or lactating women and children who are diagnosed as nutritionally deficient. In addition to providing a tasting of the prepared food, a cookbook, and a sample of the dry food to take home, they also talked to WIC clientele about combining vegetable proteins and ways to stretch their food budget. Impact Over the past year, food advisors have reached 500 low-income, 25 mentally disabled, and 108 youth. Three volunteers have worked intensively with two families referred by the Spokane Indian Health Department. Evidence of practice change has been clientele calling volunteers for additional recipes. Our favorite success story is from the day care center for the mentally ill. Residents served lasagna made with textured vegetable protein to the candidates for the director of mental health position, with everyone saying the dish was very good. Expenses for this activity were covered by grants from Hands Across American and the Washington state Department of Community Development. The Washington and Idaho Dry Pea and Lentil Commission donated 20 pounds of lentils to be used for demonstrations. The commission has also supplied a variety of recipes for distribution. It's especially important to provide transportation expenses for low-income volunteers in rural areas. They're sometimes put in the position of having to choose between whether to volunteer or buy food. Summary The success of this program is due to a nontraditional training style that's comfortable for low-income and minority audiences. Reviewing the final exam sets the stage for a successful volunteer experience. The low-key training style and sharing personal experiences creates an atmosphere where friendships can develop. The personal sharing also validates each individual as being important and having something to contribute. For Extension staff, remembering that the volunteers have limited resources and that this has a direct impact on their ability to volunteer was vital to the program's success.
Youth Self-ProtectionSharon K. B. Wright
Minnesota youth engage in a wide variety of activities that are self-destructive and have long-term negative effects on both physical and mental health. That was the finding of a 1987 Adolescent Health Survey of over 36,000 Minnesota students conducted by the Adolescent Health Program, University of Minnesota. The survey dealt with health perceptions, behaviors, and attitudes of 7th to 12th graders. This article reports on the results of that survey and how the Minnesota 4-H Youth Development program is responding to the issues that emerged from the survey analysis. Minnesota Survey Here are some of the highlights of the Minnesota Adolescent Health Survey:
4-H Response The data just highlighted provided the basis for the Minnesota 4-H response to self-destructive behavior among adolescents. The Self-Protection programs deal directly with health issues and they incorporate: (1) prevention theory, (2) youth participation, (3) adult guidance, (4) starting early, and (5) collaborative efforts of a variety of agencies at state, county, and community levels. Each of these aspects of self-protection programming is discussed below. Prevention Theory Whether the issue is drug and alcohol abuse, early sexual activity, teen pregnancy, stress and depression, or delinquency, the most effective prevention programs incorporate:
When young people are equipped to communicate effectively, cope with stress, problem solve, be assertive, and choose friends, they're better able to resist pressures to adopt unhealthy behaviors. They're able to make wise decisions about their health and their lifestyle and take responsibility for themselves. Youth Participation An important component of the Self-Protection programs is the involvement of youth as both recipients and providers of information and skills for prevention. Adolescents have time, energy, and skills to share. Involvement in teaching and service projects can help them understand they can contribute, receive recognition, and affect their communities. It can also challenge them to expand their knowledge and skills and to carry responsibility. Community service experiences can lead to such benefits as decreased delinquency, improved academic achievement, enhanced self-esteem, and exposure to career opportunities. Training for teens is critical. They need to know about early adolescent development and the learning process. They need to learn appropriate methods for teaching and working with younger children. In the process of being trained to teach younger children about health issues, the teens receive information about relevant issues even as they practice skills they need to make wise decisions for themselves. Adult Guidance Self-protection topics can't typically be taught with a do-it-yourself manual. They need careful and sensitive planning and instruction by caring adults and/or teens who have been trained in the subject matter, as well as in educational principles and teaching strategies. Both pre-teens and teens need opportunities to think and talk about the changes occurring as part of their physical, intellectual, sexual, and emotional maturation. They need to interact with trusted adults and peers, be part of a comfortable social group, and see positive role models. They need to learn and practice some of these decision-making skills in safe environments with the guidance of adults and other teens. Youths need to feel a sense of power, of being trusted to lead, to take responsibility, to be held accountable, and to be rewarded. Starting Early Dealing with health issues must begin at an early age. This includes programs in alcohol and chemicals, safety, sexuality, nutrition and eating behaviors, physical and sexual abuse, and stress and depression. Research1 shows, for example, that youth begin experimenting with alcohol at about 11. The average age at which teens begin to be sexually active is 14. Body image is an issue with youth before they even reach junior high school. Collaborative Efforts Comprehensive and intensive educational programs that employ networks of agencies and resources at the state, county, and community levels can provide a broad support base for youth. By working cooperatively, parents, teachers, 4-H leaders, doctors, clergy, and peers can develop programs that touch many aspects of adolescents' lives and provide them with information and resources they need. They can provide teens with consistent positive messages of support in the decisions they have to make in health and lifestyle issues. Collaborative efforts allow 4-H to offer a wider variety of health programs and materials than would otherwise be possible. They also connect 4-H with related diagnostic, counseling, clinical, medical, and religious services that other agencies can more appropriately provide. This makes it possible to offer truly comprehensive prevention programs that simultaneously support intellectual, emotional, physical, psychological, and spiritual needs of youth in the community. Collaborative projects at the state level model for counties the advantages of networking. Advantages include expanding existing program services; efficient and economic sharing of staff, resources, and time; and support for current funding and future programming. Many state agencies and organizations have regional offices and staff who are eager to serve Extension districts across the state. Minnesota 4-H Self-Protection Programs Self-Protection is the theme for comprehensive and intensive educational programs that address critical health issues and employ networks of agencies and resources at the state, county, and community levels to provide a support base for youth. The programs listed below were developed in the first phase of the Self-Protection program dealing with issues of: (1) alcohol abuse and drinking and driving; (2) stress, depression, and suicide; (3) sexuality; and (4) violence in relationships.
Summary The Self-Protection programs developed by Minnesota 4-H deal far more with social than physical issues. The data from the Adolescent Health Survey suggest that adolescent health problems have shifted from biological to social causes. Accidents, homicides, and suicides are the three leading causes of deaths among Minnesota adolescents. All involve social factors around which individuals make personal decisions. Health issues addressed by the Self-Protection program were identified in the Adolescent Health Survey. Program strategies are based on recent prevention theories that recommend a combination of basic information, skill development, and self-esteem building. Most of the programs also include active involvement of youth as teachers and planners of local prevention programs with heavy reliance on adults to provide support to these youth. The programs can be delivered in a variety of ways through 4-H Clubs, schools, or other community organizations. Because it's based on critical issues, the Minnesota 4-H Self-Protection program content will change. Its mission to provide Minnesota adolescents with information and skills they need for wise personal choices about their health and their lifestyles will endure. Footnote 1. P. Benson and others,1983 Minnesota Survey on Drug Use and Drug-Related Attitudes (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Search Institute,1983).
Post-Then-Pre EvaluationS. Kay Rockwell
Harriet Kohn
What's an easy, simple, reliable, and valid way to measure whether a program has impact? This question is asked frequently by Extension agents and specialists as they respond to accountability needs within the Extension organization. The "post-then-pre" method of self-report evaluation offers one solution for documenting behavior change. The data collection instruments are relatively easy to develop, use, and analyze. Results are credible and indicate program impact even though the process seems backwards. Problems with Typical Approach In Extension, a typical approach has been to use a pretest-posttest research design to document behavior change. However, in certain types of self-report program evaluation, pretest-posttest comparison results may be an inaccurate assessment of instructional impact because participants may have limited knowledge at the beginning of a program that prevents them from accurately assessing baseline behaviors. By the end of the program, their new understanding of the program content may have an impact on the responses on their self-assessment. If a pretest was used at the beginning of the program, participants have no way to correct an answer at the end of the program if they made an inaccurate assessment in the baseline data.1 The evaluation problem, then, is that a pretest taken at the beginning of an Extension education program may be invalid because participants have limited knowledge in responding accurately to the questions being asked on the pretest. Consider the following pretest question for a nutrition program: "Do you include one food rich in vitamin C in your diet daily?" To answer this question accurately, the respondent must have some idea of which foods are rich in vitamin C. A participant who doesn't know which foods are rich in vitamin C may overestimate vitamin C intake on the pretest. After actually participating in the Extension program and learning about foods rich in vitamin C, the participant can validly answer the question. Now suppose the participant has increased vitamin C intake as a result of the program. On the posttest, aimed at measuring this change in behavior, the participant reports the same level of vitamin C intake as reported on the pretest. The posttest level is accurate, but because the pretest was an overestimate (due to the participant's lack of knowledge), it will appear that no change in behavior has occurred between pretest and posttest. Such an evaluation result makes it appear that the program had no effect on behavior when, in fact, the program significantly increased vitamin C intake. Correcting Problem The post-then-pre design corrects this problem. The problem is handled by not giving a pretest at the beginning of the program. Then, at the end of the program, the participant answers two questions. The first question asks about behavior as a result of the program. This is the posttest question. Then the participant is asked to report what the behavior had been before the program. This second question is really the pretest question, but it's asked after the program when the participant has sufficient knowledge to answer the question validly. That's why this approach is called post-then-pre. Table 1 illustrates both the traditional pre-then-post approach for the vitamin C example and the post-then-pre approach. In the pre-then-post example, the participant incorrectly reported "often" eating vitamin C rich foods on the pretest when the accurate answer should have been "seldom." The valid posttest answer is "often." With the pre-then-post approach, Table 1 shows no behavior change. However, with the post-then-pre approach, behavior change is demonstrated because the pretest response is "seldom" and the posttest response is "often." The "post-then-pre" design accounts for changes in learners' knowledge by allowing participants to first report present behaviors (post); and then rate how they perceived these same behaviors just before taking the course (then pre). The retrospective pretest at the end of the program is more accurate because it's answered in the same frame of reference as the posttest. Thus, the problem of what's called "response-shift bias" in self-report, pre-post designs is minimized.2 Using Post-Then-Pre for a Nutrition Course Finding ways of reaching today's audiences that will result in healthier nutritional habits is a challenge for nutrition educators. Recognizing that simply providing cognitive-based education won't necessarily mean positive dietary changes, a course entitled "Eating Today for a Healthier Tomorrow" (ETHT) was developed. The focus was to provide a learning environment that facilitated behavior change by involving participants in behavioral goal setting, providing correct nutritional facts, and teaching processes for evaluating dietary information. ETHT, targeted to adults, enabled participants to use food and nutrition practices that help reduce the risks of heart disease, cancer, osteoporosis, and obesity. An instructor's manual provided directions for teaching the material and a participant's manual included all the basic dietary information. An Extension home economist and a registered dietitian taught the course cooperatively in six sessions of 2 1/2 hours each. To assess the impact of ETHT, Extension specialists and agents developed a post-then-pre self-report instrument for instructors to use. Table 2 illustrates some of the 30 practices that represent types of behaviors to be maintained or changed as a result of taking the course. As part of the overview in the first session, instructors gave participants a copy of the 30-item list to keep in their course notebooks. At the final session, participants were asked to complete the self-evaluation instrument indicating how frequently they did each practice before the course and at the end of the course. Coding instructions were developed so staff could enter the data into a microcomputer file. Using SAS3 on a mainframe, a computer program was written to analyze the data and summarize the results for each practice. A chart format was used for the computer output and included the mean scores for post (present score) and then (pre score) along with the t-value and probability level of a paired t-test. The agents then graphed the results for their class on a standard form (Figure 1). Each of the Extension agents (13 in 1987 and 16 in 1988) who taught the ETHT course received the results for their class. Data from all courses taught across the state were collapsed into a statewide summary for use by the nutrition specialist and other Extension staff. Table 1. Comparing pre-post and post-then-pre scoring.
Table 2. Sample practices included on self-report post-then-pre instrument.
Figure 1. Sample of report for post-then-pre data. Using the Results The Extension agents used the results in three ways. First, they reviewed changes participants made and associated these changes with the course content and teaching methods. If participants made no change in certain behaviors, agents questioned whether they needed to alter their teaching method or amount of emphasis placed on the topic. Second, agents used the data indicating behavior change to support course impact. The impact findings provided accountability to local Extension boards and councils as well as to the Extension organization. Third, the results were shared with local residents through newspaper releases. And, they provided good testimonials as agents promoted new classes. The nutrition specialist and other state Extension staff used the statewide summary to report course impact to a funding agency as well as to ES-USDA. A summary of the findings have also been used by administrative staff with legislators, boards and councils, and other decision makers. Conclusions Using a post-then-pre design to identify self-reported behavioral changes can provide substantial evidence for program impact. Although a nutrition example was provided here, the methodology can be adapted and easily applied to other Extension programs. Theoretically, Extension specialists and agents develop programs from a set of behavioral objectives. The challenge in constructing a post-then-pre evaluation instrument is to identify specific behaviors that may change and then develop an appropriate measurement scale that tests the amount of self-perceived behavior change. Clientele can easily complete a post-then-pre instrument in a relatively short time frame. Computers are easily accessed for accurate data analysis. Results can be effectively reported simply without taking a great deal of staff time. Using a post-then-pre evaluation design greatly helps specialists and agents document how Extension programs effect change in people's lives. Footnotes 1. Robert L. Linn and Jeffrey A. Slinde, "The Determination of the Significance of Change Between Pre- and Posttesting Periods," Review of Educational Research, XLVII (Winter 1977), 121-50 and George S. Howard and others, "Internal Invalidity in Pretest-Posttest Self-Report Evaluations and a Reevaluation of Retrospective Pretests," Applied Psychological Measurement, III (Winter 1979), 1-23. 2. George S. Howard and Patrick R. Dailey, "Response-Shift Bias: A Source of Contamination of Self-Report Measures," Journal of Applied Psychology, LXVI (No. 2, 1979), 144-50; Ellen R. Benjamin, "Using the 'Post-Then' Method of Evaluation," Training (November 1982), p. 72 and Robert C. Preziosi and Lesile M. Legg, "Add 'Then' Testing To Prove Training's Effectiveness," Training (May 1983), pp. 48-49. 3. SAS Institute Inc., SAS User's Guide: Basics, Version 5 Edition (Cary, North Carolina: SAS Institute Inc., 1985).
Community Development Through Ethnographic Futures ResearchRobert Domaingue
One of the overriding concerns of community development is the question of how to get people more involved in deciding the fate of their community. Community developers have relied on many different approaches to organizing participation in the past. One approach offering promise, which should be more fully explored, is Ethnographic Futures Research (EFR).1 EFR taps into people's general interest in the future and can serve as a catalyst for community development. The process generates feelings of ownership in the type of future people want most for their community. Futures research is a systematic inquiry into possible or probable alternative futures. The methods are useful for: determining the state of knowledge about a particular trend, identifying implications and consequences of a possible future, and describing possible alternatives. EFR is one method concerned with the cultural aspects of studying the future. It's important to note that EFR doesn't study the future. There's no one predetermined future, but many potential futures. EFR is interested in people's perceptions of what the future will be and their preferences for what the future should be. Scenarios EFR is built around gathering scenarios. A scenario is an imagined "future history." It's a story that's usually complex and might contain a number of projections or forecasts. The scenario used in EFR contains a number of related elements, for example: natural resources, population, social institutions, economy. The first step of EFR is to define the population of people to be interviewed. In our case, we'll choose a group from the community we're working in. The group need not consist of experts in a particular area. We're seeking a broader social view of the future and not a specialized one. The direction for community development will come from the broader social view. A series of interviews make up the basis of EFR. Three scenarios are asked of each person interviewed. The interviewee will construct an optimistic, a pessimistic, and a most probable scenario for a particular time, say the year 2015. To help visualize the relationship between the scenarios, the interviewee is asked to imagine a scale of 1 to 100, with one representing the worst possible social future for the community and 100 representing the best possible social future. The most probable future for the community will presumably fall somewhere in between. The interviewee is asked to concentrate on a possible optimistic scenario, about 90 on the continuum. This isn't the very best (100), but it's desirable from the perspective of the interviewee. After the optimistic scenario is completed, a pessimistic scenario, about 10, is collected. Again, 10 isn't the very worst (1) that could happen, but it's clearly undesirable. The process of collecting optimistic and pessimistic scenarios can help clarify the interviewee's personal values. After the pessimistic scenario is completed, the most probable scenario is done. In this scenario, it's important to note that it's no longer what the interviewee wishes, but what he or she believes will happen. This tension between what's wanted and what's expected is potentially the greatest realm for learning. The interviewee is first "stretched" in an optimistic direction and then in a pessimistic direction. This results in a longer, richer, more interesting, most probable scenario than would be the case without the "stretching." It's important to keep the interview open-ended. The interviewee should feel free and spontaneous. Some categories may be used to direct the interview and to help solicit a well-rounded scenario. Examples of categories that can be used are: demography, natural resources, energy, economy, environment, politics and government, social structure, communication, education, religion, the arts, and community identity. In keeping with the open-ended nature of the interview, a copy of the summary of the interview should be sent to the interviewee as soon as possible after the interview. The interviewee should be encouraged to change anything that was said or add more after reflecting on it. After the revised material is received, it should be organized into a final report. The final report will examine commonalities and differences and point out some of the implications of the scenarios for the community. Community Involvement A team of volunteers could be trained in the methods of EFR and carry out the interviewing and writing of the final report. Once the document is released, it could provide the focal point for discussions about the community. Panels and forums could be formed to discuss the vision of what the community's future should be. The present conditions of the community, along with the most probable future of the community, should be discussed in public forums. The gaps between what is, what might be, and what should be are brought into public discussion through the EFR method. The question then becomes, how do we get from where we are to where we want to be? Volunteer action groups can form to explore the steps needed to be taken. Community development results from people putting their vision of what should be into practice. The future is of concern to all of us. The study of the future can serve as a rallying point for community development. By using EFR, members of a community will be guided into thinking more intently about the future.2 These views on the future of the community can be collected and used to spark a dialogue in the community. EFR can thus be one of the tools for Extension community development. Footnotes 1. EFR was developed by Robert Textor, Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305. For more detailed information on the method, see Robert B. Textor, A Handbook on Ethnographic Futures Research (Stanford, California: Cultural and Educational Futures Research Project, Stanford University, 1980). 2. Ethnographic Futures Research has excellent educational benefits for the interviewee. See Robert B. Textor, "Ethnographic Futures Research and Its Educational Potential," in Educational Futures: Sourcebook, Fred Kierstead and others, eds. (Washington, D. C.: World Future Society, 1979).
Anticipating IssuesLynda Cooper Harriman
Dynamic issues-focused programming requires a future-oriented vision rather than waiting for the future to unfold. It requires a proactive stance toward change rather than a reactive one. Extension educators skilled at dealing with client-identified issues must learn new skills in how to anticipate issues, a significant change in the program planning process for this grassroots, bottom-up organization. Anticipatory planning is the process we must learn to position ourselves for issues-focused programming. Central to this process is learning to detect signals of change, and thus the critical issues generated by change. Change seldom occurs unannounced. In fact, most changes are predictable. "There are distinct kinds of change; and these have patterns - with dimensions of direction, magnitude, pace and duration that can be seen and measured."1 Let us examine two types of change - cyclical and structural change-and the signals that distinguish them (see Table 1). Learning to detect the distinct signals of these two types of change will help us assess the critical nature of the issues they generate and determine how to most effectively approach those issues. Cyclical Change A cyclical change, as the name implies, often fluctuates up and down in some pattern, meaning it's temporary. Seasonal changes and crop-growing conditions affected by them are among the most common and regular types of cyclical changes that Extension agents have helped the agricultural community master. A cyclical change is generally quantitative, requiring a temporary or short-term response that has been made before and will be needed in the future when the cycle repeats itself. Other examples of cyclical changes include fluctuating marriage and divorce rates, supply and demand cycles, inflation, changing interest rates, fashion, and fad cycles. Cyclical changes often present themselves as trends. Trends rarely continue for long in the same direction and at the same pace. They may go up or they may go down and they may go faster or they may go slower; but seldom do they go on as before.2 This suggests that long-term program initiatives should not be based on issues arising from cyclical changes. Flexibility is the key to dealing with cyclical issues. Cyclical issues require the ability to gear up quickly with an educational response on the upward leg of the cycle, target the problem for impact, and change directions as the cycle declines. Cyclical changes can sometimes seem permanent, particularly when trends occur for an extended period in the same direction. It's their lack of permanence, however, that affects how we should approach the issues they generate. During the mid to late '70s, when the nation was experiencing the upward spiral of an inflationary cycle, a buy now/pay later approach to personal money management and farm management education may have seemed appropriate. Many believed the direction of this cyclical change was permanent, only to be caught suddenly by a change in direction of inflation and interest rates. In dealing with cyclical issues, Extension educators may not be able to predict when the cycle will change directions. However, education directed toward cyclical issues should make clientele aware of the need to prepare to move into, as well as out of, the cycle. Keeping up with changing fashion cycles, for example, can be costly. Teaching consumers to move into and out of fashion cycles on a limited budget is a far greater and more important challenge than simply informing them of the new and latest changes. Structural Change Structural changes, in contrast to cyclical changes, are detected by their long-term, permanent, and nonreversible nature. Consequently, critical issues that arise due to structural changes are often quality of life issues requiring new and different educational information and methods. New and different behaviors and attitudes are generally required to successfully adjust to and take advantage of the opportunities inherent in structural changes. New knowledge, information, products, techniques, and communications and information technology are signals of structural changes. Each structural change makes the future different in some way and brings with it critical new issues. Herein lies the challenge for Extension educators. Ours is the task of delineating those critical issues, predicting how they will make the future different, and preparing ourselves and our clientele to deal effectively with them. Structural changes don't occur overnight, but their impact over time is major. Dissecting structural changes and detecting the signals of long-term change they'll bring is a critical step in the anticipatory planning process. The current information/knowledge explosion is an example of a structural change. The implications of this structural change for Extension are multifaceted. First, it gives rise to the question of how best to disseminate research-based information and education. It has budget implications. How many dollars should be put into the printed word versus computer programs and/or video programs? Satellite transmission capabilities and the generation of more and more computerized data bases make the home a more viable learning laboratory. How will the use of these new technologies affect the educational roles of county staff? They have the potential of revolutionizing the way we do Extension's business. Our challenge is to use new communications technologies to better meet the needs of our clientele. Structural changes are the types of changes on which long-term program initiatives should be based. Consider, for example, the fact that increased life expectancy is creating record numbers in the population over 65 years of age. According to the American Association of Retired Persons, this segment of the population will represent 13% of the population by the year 2000 and about 21% by the year 2030. Structural changes like this provide clues on how Extension's resources should be shifted, how we should alter the way we do business, and how and where we deliver education. Can Extension serve as a catalyst to encourage key leaders to develop community-based plans to meet the needs and provide the care for this coming elderly population explosion? How are our educational programs preparing people for a longer life? Financing the later years, planning for housing, and promoting good health through nutrition are all issues that must be dealt with as this tremendous shift in population occurs. Consider the implication for Cooperative Extension of other structural changes, such as growing urbanization. Traditionally, Extension programs have been directed toward the rural family. As the number of farm families continues to decline, are we reorienting enough of our programming fast enough to broaden our support base and meet the needs of a changing population? According to Warner and Christenson, "Sixty-four percent of the users of Extension live in metropolitan counties (in a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area)."3 Yet they point out, "Extension continues to serve a larger proportion of non-metro residents than it does metro residents (42% versus 23%)."4 The urbanization of America is a structural change with far-reaching implications for Extension. During the first half of this century, agriculture dominated the well-being of rural America. "Today, most rural people do not depend on agriculture and USDA programs as principal sources of employment or income....Around 60% of total farmers' income now come from nonfarm sources."5 What does this structural change say about where our program emphasis should be or how some programs may need to be redirected? The increasing movement of women into the labor force also has major implications for Extension programs. This structural change is manifest in the majority of all women of working age, including parents, being employed. As a result, women aren't available from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. for educational programs. This suggests that the type of educational needs employed homemakers (men and women) have many differ from those of the traditional homemaker, who wasn't employed outside the home. For example, before-and-after school child care is a major concern to employed parents of young school-age children. The when, where, and how we reach employed homemakers are special challenges generated by this structural change. To ignore or deny the relevance of these and other structural changes to Extension programming is to bury our heads in the sand and lead Extension towards extinction. To have an impact on these changes through issues programming will require great investments and some redirection of Extension's resources. The signals of both cyclical and structural changes present short- and long-term challenges and opportunities to Cooperative Extension. With an eye focused on the critical issues each presents, and a willingness to broaden our vision and our mission, we can effectively anticipate change to provide issues-focused programming and create a dynamic future for the Cooperative Extension System. Table 1. Dimensions of cyclical and structural change.
Footnotes 1. L. Martel, Mastering Change: The Key to Business Success (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), pp. 11-12. 2. Ibid., p. 20. 3. P. D. Warner and J. S. Christenson, The Cooperative Extension Service: A National Assessment (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984), p. 61. 4. Ibid., p. 62. 5. M. L. Petrulis, "Effect of U.S. Farm Policy on Rural America," Rural Development Perspectives, I (June 1985), 31-37.
Separating Bed and Breakfast Facts from RumorsNancy E. Brown
James J. Huss
As a result of the farm crisis in Iowa, the Iowa Cooperative Extension Service has taken an active role in helping to promote small businesses, including those based in the home. The Bed and Breakfast (B&B) operation is a home-based business that also contributes to tourism. In 1984, the specialist in hotel, restaurant, and institution management at Iowa State University received requests from county and area Extension personnel to provide help to those interested in starting B&B operations - which led to the Extension publication, "Starting a Bed and Breakfast in Iowa."1 A videotape2 of interviews with four B&B owners in their homes/inns was developed by the specialist for general audiences and prospective B&B owners, with segments of the tape being shown on public and commercial television. Clarification and interpretation of B&B regulations, as well as modifications to existing laws pertaining to restaurants and hotels, were needed to meet the specific needs of the B&B industry and their guests. The Extension specialist served as a liaison for the various interest groups (regulatory agencies, Iowa Lodging Association, Iowa Restaurant and Beverage Association, B&B owners, and legislators) in developing concurrence and drafting legislation. The B&B industry in Iowa has been growing rapidly. We conducted Iowa's first comprehensive survey of B&B establishments in March 1987. Having figures available for the B&B industry in Iowa takes some of the guesswork out of responding to questions posed by potential operators. For example, information on the newness of the businesses and the low volume of demand helps reinforce some general rules of thumb shared by the specialist when giving programs, such as: "Don't invest a lot of money initially in getting ready." "It takes several years to become established." The importance of location to success is stressed, as is the need to focus on warm Iowa hospitality. A realistic picture of what it takes to operate a successful home business helps those considering such a business answer the question "Should I do this?" and helps a current operator evaluate "How am I doing in comparison to others?" Good visibility for the Extension specialist as an important source of information for small businesses has come from the televised videotapes as well as newspaper interviews. Our involvement in the survey, in addition to other contacts with B&B owners at their organizational and information meetings, also has helped to build credibility for Extension and Iowa State University. We're now perceived as a part of the communication network and a source of reliable information by those in the business, as well as by legislators, licensing agency personnel, and other business organizations. A survey of overnight guests staying in Iowa B&Bs has been conducted, additional videotapes will be produced that look at successful B&Bs and emphasize the contributions these businesses make to economic development in Iowa, and a follow-up survey of B&B operations in Iowa is planned to measure changes in operation and in the business climate. Footnotes 1. Jim Huss and Joy Banyas, "Starting a Bed and Breakfast in Iowa," Bulletin Pm 1263 (Ames: Iowa State University, Cooperative Extension Service, June 1986). 2. To obtain information about purchasing the videotape or receiving a survey instrument, contact Jim Huss, Department of Hotel, Restaurant, and Institution Management, 11 MacKay Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011-1120, 515-294-3527.
B&B Business ProgrammingChad P. Dawson
Tommy L. Brown
Interest in developing home-based businesses has been increasing as New York State's economy and employment patterns have shifted away from agriculture and manufacturing toward the service sector. One of the home-based business alternatives chosen by urban and rural individuals is opening a Bed and Breakfast (B&B) operation. A B&B business is a private home or renovated historic house that has been modified to provide overnight accommodations and a morning meal for several people. The difficulty of successfully starting and operating such a business is often overlooked because of the emotional appeal and romantic notions surrounding the concept. Cornell Cooperative Extension staff recognized the need to respond to this growing interest in these home-based businesses and to evaluate the changing Extension role with this targeted audience. Mail survey studies of B&B owners and Extension staff1 were conducted in 1987 to analyze the expressed educational needs of B&B owners, Extension staff perception of those needs, and Extension educational program response to those needs. As the number of B&B businesses increased and management skills developed, Extension's role has broadened to include teaching leadership and organizational process skills to help several regional associations and a statewide B&B association. Interaction with state tourism promotion and planning agencies and key legislators was encouraged. By 1987-88, Extension's method of delivering educational programs and materials was increasingly channeled through the existing B&B organizations. Extension's role changed as more successful operators became association officers, private consultants, published authors with books on how to open and operate B&Bs, or started reservation service organizations. The results of these studies with Extension staff and B&B owners suggest several concepts for designing and improving Extension programs for related home-based business target audiences:
Summary When Cornell Cooperative Extension staff were invited and challenged to respond to the growing interest in B&B businesses, most initial educational program efforts were reactive and consisted of reorienting existing programs for a new clientele. However, the ultimate success of the Extension programs for B&B businesses was the result of anticipatory and proactive program development supported by the applied research of Extension specialists. Footnotes 1. In 1987, mail surveys were sent to 495 people with appointments as state or regional specialists and county agents to evaluate staff involvement, number of contacts, perceived impacts, and perceived client needs. We had a 61% response rate. 2. B. T. Wilkins and B. DeYoung, "Negative Results? They May Not Be!" Journal of Extension, XXI (September/October 1983), 51-54.
Supporting Volunteers by ComputerRichard W. Clark
How well do you know the volunteers that help in your Extension programs? As we rely more and more on volunteer staff, increasing pressure exists to do a better job of volunteer management. Research has shown that the "personal touch" is what counts when it comes to motivating and retaining volunteers. Your volunteers want to know that you, the Extension professional, care about them and appreciate what they're doing. But how to you keep up with the 200 or more volunteers in your program and give them that "personal touch"? The answer: Computer files and ingenuity! Today's technology has given us the freedom to manage large amounts of data. With a little effort, you can soon have a computerized volunteer management system up and running in your office. Begin by creating personnel files for each volunteer. The files don't have to be extensive, but should contain the following information: name, address, phone numbers, spouse's and children's names, birthdays of volunteer and family members, interests and hobbies, brief job description, and length of time as a volunteer. Here a couple of ways that the computerized system can help you with your volunteer management.
The list of possible uses goes on and on. As volunteer managers, we need to treat our volunteers with the same "personal touch" that we expect from our boss or co-workers. The computer provides the means by which we can do this in even the largest volunteer system.
Preventing Child AbuseRuth M. Conone
In 1984, an average of 1,000 cases of child abuse and neglect were reported in Ohio each week. Social workers and other professionals estimate that up to five times that number went unreported. Working closely with other agencies serving families, Extension home economists are contributing significantly to child abuse/neglect prevention in Ohio. In 1985-86, seven counties received $49,852 for programming to implement abuse/neglect prevention; in 1986-87, nine counties received $74,120; and in 1987-88, 15 counties received $89,000 for the programming. Programming is carried out in a variety of ways, including the following:
Financing for child abuse prevention comes from the Children's Trust Fund established by the Ohio legislature. The legislation levies fees on copies of each birth and death certificate issued and on each divorce or dissolution filed. The funds collected from this surcharge are disbursed in grants to counties for use by public and private agencies, schools, and organizations for conducting programs intended to prevent child abuse and neglect. Extension is cooperating in this important effort to prevent child abuse.
The Why and How of Worksite Financial Management SeminarsBarbara O'Neill
More than 60% of pre-retirement age women are employed today. Over half of all married couples have two wage earners and 22% of households are headed by a single parent.1 This means some people simply don't have time to attend evening or weekend meetings on financial planning...or any other topic. When potential clients can't come to Extension, agents must go to them. An ideal place to do this is at the worksite. The key to successful worksite seminars is convincing the owner or personnel director of their value to the firm. One successful approach is to stress that seminars are an inexpensive way for employers to show workers they care. According to a study conducted by The Labor Relations Institute, the primary factors motivating employees are full appreciation of their work and a feeling of belonging at the worksite. Higher wages were a secondary factor. Ironically, employers thought their employees' primary motivators cost money. Employers listed higher wages first followed by job security, promotion within the company, and an improved benefit package. The job "satisfiers" listed first by employees were listed last by employers.2 When contacting employers about worksite seminars, it's important to stress that problems with personal finance can be reduced by education. People who handle money well often make better employees. Credit unions, labor unions, professional associations, civic and service groups, and Chambers of Commerce may also be receptive to this message. An explanatory letter is the best way to approach employers, followed by a phone call and/or an on-site visit. Be sure to stress the educational and generic content of your seminars, and be prepared to adjust your seminar plans to fit the employers' time constraints. Some will provide release time to workers, while others will ask that your program be confined to lunch breaks or after-shift hours. Another benefit to employers of worksite seminars is the opportunity it gives them to explain company benefit plans to a large number of workers at once. Team teaching with a representative of the local Social Security office and the employer's benefit administrator is recommended. No one knows the specifics of Social Security regulations and company benefit packages better than the people who administer them. And, an employer who's involved in the seminar is more likely to promote it to employees. Ask ahead about the salary levels of your employee audience. If you cite examples using inappropriate salary levels, you can alienate them, particularly if they earn less than the amounts you indicate. If your audience includes everyone from a teenage file clerk to the CEO, cite several examples in a variety of salary ranges. Be sure, also, to contact the local newspaper to arrange press coverage about your seminars. If they're unresponsive, write a press release yourself and send it along with a quality black and white photo. You might also ask about coverage in the employer's newsletter. Articles about your initial worksite seminars can be a useful tool to convince subsequent employers of their value. Financial management seminars at the worksite are an ideal way to reach busy potential clients. The prerequisites for success are convincing employers of their benefit and holding them at a convenient time and location. Footnotes 1. Lois Guthrie, "A Demographic Study: Meeting the Needs of a Changing Society" (Montclair, New Jersey: Montclair State College, 1987). 2. Paul Richard, "Productivity Increases Made Easy by Personal Motivation," The Retail Banking Report, I (March 1986), 24.
Interior Design Information NeedsKenneth R. Tremblay, Jr.
Eleanor J. Walls
The rising cost of housing has directed many families toward smaller homes or convinced them to remain in older homes that require remodeling. Recent changes in materials and treatments have made interior design decisions more complex than in the past. Home economics Extension has tried to help consumers with interior design information through a variety of educational programs, but are we on target? To determine an answer, a questionnaire was mailed to a representative sample of Arkansas households in July 1985. The statewide survey provided excellent generalization capability because it included both users and nonusers of Extension programs. The University of Arkansas conducted the surveys, using an existing panel of households. A total of 411 households returned completed questionnaires (69% response rate). Respondents were first asked to identify the extent to which they needed information about a variety of interior design items. Forty-four percent of respondents indicated a need for information on remodeling and using space more efficiently. Information on window, floor, and wall treatments that can enhance the aesthetic quality and maintenance of the home was selected as information needed by 40%. Finally, those items that contribute to a harmonious and functional interior such as fabrics, furniture, lighting, and appliances were considered a high information need by many. Percentages of respondents expressing information needs ranged from 44% for remodeling to 28% for color. These data are now being used to establish Extension home economics programming priorities. Second, survey participants were asked where they obtained interior design information. Of the eight sources listed, the Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service was the third most used source at 34%. This figure is below furniture (43%) and appliance stores (35%), but higher than state and local energy companies, lending institutions, and interior decorators and designers. These data demonstrate the extent to which Extension is used as a source of information in these areas. Third, respondents were asked to evaluate the quality of information obtained from the eight sources. The Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service received the highest evaluation with 89% of the respondents rating the information as "good." Clearly, those who have used Extension information on interior design found it helpful - an important piece of data to support the quality of Extension programs.
Self-Reliant YouthKirk A. Astroth
Raising Self-Reliant Children in a Self-Indulgent World. H. Stephen Glenn and Jane Nelsen. Rocklin, California: Prima Publishing & Communications, 1988. 243 pp. $16.95 hardcover. Every person is born into this world with only the potential to become capable, not with the capabilities themselves. Thus, Glenn and Nelsen choose "habilitation" to describe the process of developing these capabilities in young people. With this modification of the concept of "rehabilitation," Glenn and Nelsen begin their latest collaboration to explain how we can actively parent to raise healthy, capable young people. Like others, Glenn and Nelsen recognize that American society has experienced vast changes. Society and families are in transition, and in the process, we've eliminated critical dialogue and communication between parents and children. Schools at one time helped develop critical life skills in children in concert with families, but since the advent of the baby boom, increased class size has forced the elimination of such teaching in favor of covering the material. Accordingly, "there is only one antidote to the steady diminishment of dialogue and collaboration at school. That is the increase at home of these activities designed to encourage growth and learning in young people." Many in Extension are already familiar with Glenn's other works, which have been quite useful to those in home economics and 4-H. This latest book brings together some of the best of the past as well as some of the newest material from his workshops and seminars. Central to Glenn's theories on raising children for success are the "significant seven" - three beliefs and four skills that are the sense of fully functioning human beings:
Each of these skills is described in detail by the authors as well as the barriers that hold us back from developing the significant seven. Interestingly, research indicates that people who become chemically dependent become deficient in all seven areas. Rehabilitation occurs by going through a rebuilding process in all these same areas.
Creative Teaching: Simulations, Games, and Role PlayingKaren DeBord
Creative, participatory teaching techniques are important tools of the Extension trade. One such set of tools is simulation, games, and role playing. These approaches have high group member involvement while facilitating meaningful and fun learning. Adams defines simulation as "a controlled detailed mode intended to reflect a situation found in the real world. It is a dramatic view of life existing for the serious purpose of learning about real experiences."1 Experiences such as career day and mock marriages are examples. Role playing is like simulation, but often has winners and losers. Roles are more structured and have a defined set of participants with specific times, places, equipment, and rules. Games are like play, but have an end or a payoff and involve suspense. Games may be played with teams against one another or against some impersonal force. As long as no one is forced to participate, competition can be positive and encourage player discovery, examination, and learning.2 Often, educators will use games as ice breakers with new groups of any age. Active strategies for group involvement serve as warm-ups, to change people's attitudes, to speed up the establishment of rapport, and to ease the communication flow. Usable Ideas Borrowing from television game shows can stimulate ideas for group participation, by using educational questions designed to suit learning objectives. Learning games and drills can be implemented independently without a leader and conducted in small groups between peers, while role playing and simulation require more leadership and direction in assigning roles and outlining boundaries. Numerous life skills can be developed by participating in gaming or simulation situations. Students can be introduced to difficult concepts that will be meaningful and understandable when experienced. Problem-solving skills, self-motivation, and self-confidence are enhanced through simulation experiences. Below, I've summarized examples and ideas of games, simulations, and role-playing experiences suitable for various ages. Creative thinking and resourcefulness, as well as leader enthusiasm while presenting these strategies, are desirable in making these learning tools work effectively. How-To Descriptions Juniors Thanksgiving - Challenge participants to name the 12 plant foods that provide most of the calories for the world. Discover new tastes and textures through trial. TV Game Shows - Variation of the copyrighted shows such as Jeopardy, Win Lose or Draw, and Tic Tac Toe can be used as question/answer team games for introduction of units or review. Pose questions to individuals on the team and reward the team for correct responses. Casino - Large poker-type card games such as Black Jack may be adapted for the same reasons as above. Cards may picture items for identification such as wild plants, animals, or street signs. Adolescents Christmas in July - Schedule ski relays, tree decorating, ornament making, Santa's visit, cooking, and more to celebrate a holiday out of season. Incorporate planning, charity, disappointments, joy, and other emotions felt during holiday seasons. Dilemma - Teams work together to figure out a creative answer to given dilemmas. Examples: Your ship is being invaded by aliens. The captain and the crew are confined to the main deck. Everybody else is quarantined to their bunks with an infectious disease. What should the healthy crew members do? Treebuilding - For people involvement and to exemplify team efforts and leadership, build a tree of people with participants acting out the parts, complete with motions and sound effects. Begin with three people. Include the heartwood, roots, trunk, leaves, bark, and more. Narrate. Emphasize how each part is needed to form the whole. Electric Fence - An electric fence continues for miles. You can't dig under it. A big vat of hot chocolate is slowly closing in on you. Everyone needs to get out. Tie a string to two points for the fence. Give each team of 10 a 4x4 and an adult to supervise. Talk about leadership, who was involved, why, and what leadership evolved at the completion. Seniors/Adults IF - Students may participate verbally or written by completing open-ended statements such as: If I were older.... If I could teach everybody in the world one thing.... Sometimes I'm afraid of.... I'd like to change.... Job Interview - Videotaping enhances this real-life experience. Be sure to critique and give helpful hints following simulation. Mock Household - Much like a mock marriage, have this interaction continue for a length of time. Incorporate budgeting, relationships, child care, chores, and other real-life experiences. Summary To keep up with the educational expectations of today's youth, we're called on to use innovative teaching techniques. Where resources and training programs aren't available to keep pace with our growing technological expansion, methods must be developed and used that involve active learning without depending on high technology. Simulations, games, and role playing are viable alternatives for learning about and experiencing real-life situations. Footnotes 1. Dennis M. Adams, Simulation Games: An Approach to Learning (Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones Publishing Company, 1973). 2. Ibid.
Learning from State Fair ExhibitsArdis W. Koester
State and county fairs may be viewed from different perspectives by Extension professionals. Some persons may enjoy fairs, while others may dread them. We say that fairs are a learning experience for 4-H members. Also, fairs may be a learning experience for Extension professionals. Fair exhibits offer an often-overlooked source of data for observing changes and documenting information needs. In the late 1970s, the Oregon 4-H Clothing Project was revised. The project was divided into nine skill levels with five learning areas that included planning and evaluation; individual development and outreach; consumership, management, and wardrobe building; textiles; and construction. Resource leaders and fair judges were introduced to the revision in regional meetings around the state. A casual question on how many ideas we presented at the regional meetings would be seen at the next state fair inspired us to do a longitudinal study using fair exhibits. We developed an instrument to tally the types of garments, fabrics used, and construction techniques used on constructed garments sent to the state fair over a five-year period. (Clothing construction is only one of the five learning areas, but the one most visible during the state fair.) The tallies were taken by the textiles and clothing specialist on the same day the garments were judged for ribbons. While only a limited number of garments from each county are exhibited at the fair, it was believed that these garments would represent those constructed statewide. The tally wasn't designed to evaluate quality, but the judges' observations on construction techniques needing improvement were recorded. The tally of garments indicated that the largest effects of the resource leader trainings could be seen during the first three years after the workshops. The results indicated that resource leaders needed time to share the information. Supporting this conclusion were the observations and notes from the fair judges. The influence of changing fashion (including selection of pattern styles, fabrics, and techniques) was evident over the five-year period. The changing fashion made the tally of garment and fabric types difficult because the categories changed each year. At the same time, it was pleasing to see that members were responding to fashion changes. While the tally of types of garments, types of fabrics, and types of construction techniques used was less successful than expected because of the fashion changes, the yearly observation of garments and the notes from the judges were very useful. These notes were used to suggest topics for newsletters, workshops, and other training opportunities for members, leaders, agents, and judges. Trends observed during the tallying process have also helped determine the frequency and timing of training. The state fair has been a useful source of data for monitoring information needs.
This article is online at http://www.joe.org/joe/1989summer/ent.html.
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