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September 1984
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Contents
Editor's Page Extension: Working in the 80'sIn 1983, the Board of Directors selected "Extension and You: Unchanging, But Changing" as the theme for the 1984 special issue. In our call for manuscripts, we suggested that while we recognize we're in a period of rapid change, we also recognize there are certain basics in Extension. We wanted to focus on these basics and how they're being implemented in the 80's. However, when we looked at the manuscripts submitted, we found few that discussed the basics, but several that focused on programs and processes being implemented under these changing conditions. We were excited about what was submitted and decided that the profession would be best served by printing these articles and changing the theme. So we did. "Extension: Working in the 80's" is what this issue is all about. We're fortunate that Brice Ratchford, an experienced Extension administrator and participant in three of the four national evaluation studies, was willing to analyze and interpret these reports for us. He helps us see the changing emphases that have evolved to where we are today. The other articles convince us that Extension is alive and well, adjusting programs and processes in spite of future shock, megatrends, the information glut, the breakup of the family, the demise of the community, inconsiderate youth, and star wars. Lifelong learning is still the fastest growing part of education and Extension has the organization, knowledge base, staff, and experience to continue to play a major role. Clientele needs are being met, but Michael Patton challenges us to enlarge our program content as we realize the setting in which we live and work and in which this education occurs. We want to continue to present articles highlighting Extension today and in the future. Please share your ideas through the pages of this Journal. Roger L. Lawrence
Extension: Unchanging, but Changing C. Brice Ratchford
This article traces some of the important changes in Extension in the past 35 years. It examines and compares: (1) the motivations for the studies, (2) the approaches used, (3) key issues addressed, and (4) the impact of the studies. A summary of the major points is shown in Table 1. Motivations for Studies1948 StudyThe fact that the reports are about 10 years apart is an accident. Each was a response to a set of circumstances that seriously questioned the role of the Cooperative Extension Service. The 1948 study was prompted by the following facts: for the preceding 20 years, Extension efforts had been devoted to the national emergencies of depression, drought,and war; the majority of the staff was either new or had been on leave for an extended period in the military services; a host of new agencies created during the emergencies had to be accommodated; and the relationship of Extension to farm organizations was increasingly in question. 1958 StudyThe 1958 study was motivated by 3 conditions. There had been relatively large additions to federal appropriations by an administration highly supportive of Extension, which prompted questions particularly by related agencies. The agricultural community was facing large surpluses and low prices, with no end in sight. The sharp increase in interest in science and graduate education resulting from Sputnik, along with bulging enrollments, was at least perceived as lowering the priority for agriculture and particularly Extension with the land-grant universities. 1968 StudyThe 1968 study was prompted by the numerous programs initiated under the New and Great Societies. The emphasis was on "social"programs rather than technology. Extension was widely accused of being disinterested in and incapable of mounting programs consistent with the goals of the Great Society. Surpluses continued to plague agriculture and it became conventional wisdom "that the last thing needed was efforts to increase output-the long suit of Extension." The administration actually tried to substantially cut federal appropriations. 1983 StudyThe most recent study was proposed in 1979, but the initiation was delayed by a change in administration. It was prompted not as much by an identifiable crisis as it was by chronic questioning by some farm organizations, some congressmen, USDA and Office of Management and Budget (OMB) administrators, and land-grant university administrators. Some farm organizations continued to question all Extension work not related to commercial agriculture. Some members of Congress had concerns about the distribution of funds. USDA and OMB administrators continued to question why the federal government should put money into a program that it didn't control and that often didn't contribute to stated administration goals. The acute funding situation in the universities prompted questions about the value and relevance of Extension work. An underlying, but generally unstated, concern throughout the years related to who controlled Extension. Such questioning was inevitable when control was, by design,divided among local, state, and federal institutions and implemented through a series of generalized partnership agreements. Approaches UsedAll except the 1958 study used a joint USDA-National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges (NASULGC) committee. The 1948 study was initiated by a letter from Secretary of Agriculture Clinton Anderson to the association requesting that a joint study committee be established. The committee consisted of five people named by the secretary and five by the association with John Hannah, president of Michigan State University, serving as chairman and P. V. Cardon, of the USDA, serving as vice chairman. P. V. Kepner, of the FES, provided staff support and the report was popularly called the "Kepner Report." There was also an advisory committee of five stated directors. Formal hearings weren't conducted, but a number of governmental agency heads and farm organization heads were consulted. The 1968 study was initiated by a letter from NASULGC to Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman requesting that a joint committee be established to outline the future role of Extension. Both the association and the secretary appointed eight members. Robert Parks, president of Iowa State University, and Assistant Secretary of Agriculture George Mehren served as co-chairmen. A staff task force of 12 people, 6 from the states and 6 from USDA, was named to provide staff assistance. Extensive surveying was done as part of the study with essentially every segment of society being included in some manner. The writing was done by Lowell Watts, director of Extension in Colorado and a member of the committee.
The 1983 study was also initiated by a letter from NASULGC to Secretary of Agriculture John Block asking that a joint study committee be appointed. A 22-person committee was appointed and included in addition to representatives of the association and USDA, a representative of the governors (Albert Quie of Minnesota), a representative of county government (Charles Tollander of Wisconsin), a representative of the Extension agents (Leslie Firth of Pennsylvania), and 4 representatives of USDA's Users Advisory Board. Chancellor Daniel Aldrich of the Irvine Campus, University of California and Ray Lett, executive assistant to the secretary, served as co-chairs. An eight-person staff/design team was appointed with membership representing both the USDA and the universities. Laverne Forest, University of Wisconsin, served as project coordinator. The committee made it possible for everyone interested to make suggestions in person or in writing. Extension personnel and people with an interest in Extension with emphasis on advisory groups were extensively surveyed. The writing was done by a number of people, but Aldrich was responsible for the last draft. Unlike the other 3, the 1958 study was an effort that included only Extension. The "Scope Report" was written by a subcommittee of the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP), chaired by Paul Miller, who was director of Extension in Michigan at the time. It was a short statement and had a recommendation that more detailed direction and specific recommendations be developed. Subsequently, nine task forces consisting of Extension administrators of all types were organized under the overall leadership of Henry Ahigren of Wisconsin and Brice Ratchford of North Carolina. A total of 75 people served on the task forces and their reports were published in A Guide to Extension Programs for the Future.2 Key IssuesEach of the reports had at least one unique feature, but the continuity in terms of issues addressed is of greater significance. While relative emphasis changed, each study addressed scope of subject matter, clientele, Extension methods, training, financing, and relationships of Extension within the university and USDA. Introductory statements consistently stressed that the environment in which Extension operated was changing and that Extension programs and methods surely had to change. The recommendations for the future would lead the cynic to conclude "that the more things change the more they stay the same." Continuing ThemesPhilosophy. Let's first look at the continuing themes and then identify the unique features of each study. A similar basic philosophy about Extension work has been stated in the four studies. The 1948 report stated this philosophy: "in short, whereas extension has done much for people, it is what extension has helped people do for themselves that achieves the greatest results."3 All studies stressed the necessity of involving target clientele in program planning. All reports have also reminded readers that the words "useful information" and "encouraging application of information" that were part of the language of the original Smith-Lever Act had continuing significance. Program Scope. The trend in scope of programs has been to consistently broaden the mission. In the 1948 study, the scope was restricted primarily to agriculture, home economics, and 4-H Club work. Even that report mentioned as important, however, "development of rural leadership, aiding esthetic and cultural growth of farm people, contributing to the science of government and education, solving problems through group action and understanding economic and social factors."4 The 1958 report retained the 1948 thrusts and added specifically farm and home management,marketing, conservation of resources, community development, and public affairs. The youth program was broadened beyond 4-H and development of leadership was given added emphasis. The 1968 report defined agriculture to include agribusiness and defined natural resources more broadly than soil and water. The traditional family living and home economics issues were broadened to include the general area "quality of living." Two major additions were the concern about poverty and low-income citizens and international programs. The last report, prompted in part by concern about the broad scope of Extension programs, didn't broaden the scope, but in no way retreated from the positions outlined in earlier reports. Clientele. Clientele were treated in much the same way as program scope. The 1948 report talked primarily about farmers and rural youth and families, but acknowledged urban dwellers couldn't be ignored. The 1958 report stated that first priority should go to farm families, but listed as additional important groups non-farm rural residents, urban residents, farm, commodity and related organizations and individuals, and firms and organizations involved in agribusiness. The 1968 report came close to saying that all people were appropriate clientele and low-income urban people were given almost equal priority with agriculture. The 1983 report stated that the first priority was the agricultural system. It also recognized that Extension couldn't be all things to all people, but felt clientele should be determined by the types of problems addressed and research results available rather than by occupation or place of residence. The trend has been to broaden the clientele to be served by Extension. Methodology. All the studies dealt with methodology. Radio was the only electronic medium available in 1948. By 1958, television was available; by 1968, audio and video teleconferencing was available; in 1982, computers were widely available. The advent of new media was recognized and their use endorsed. All reports emphasized that new media were simply another tool and that there continued to be a need for one-on-one contacts, meetings, demonstrations, and other labor-intensive activities. The 1983 report made a distinction between technology transfer and education and discussed the suitability of various methods to these two objectives. Unique FeaturesWhile the reports had much in common, each had some unique features. The 1958 report was devoted almost exclusively to the programmatic concerns of program areas, clientele, and methodology. All except the 1958 report addressed relationships of Extension and the land-grant university to the Federal Extension Service and USDA. The three reports acknowledged the need for a strong positive relationship and offered recommendations for achieving the goal. Table 1.
A feature unique to the 1983 report was its treatment of the partnership of the USDA, land-grant university, and local government. The nature of the partnership was described and credited with being a major contributor to the success of Extension work. Both the 1968 and 1983 reports recognized that Extension had relations with federal agencies beyond USDA, with the 1968 report treating the subject in some depth. All except the 1958 report discussed relationships within the land-grant university and agreed that Extension should have close ties to researchers and be an integral part of the university. The 1968 report was the first to acknowledge the existence of the 1890 land-grant institutions and to state a role for them. The concern was continued in the 1983 report. The 1968 and 1983 reports also indicated that the concerns of Extension went beyond the College of Agriculture and that the organization needed a positive relationship with the entire university. A unique feature of the 1968 report was the discuss* of Extension to non-land-grant universities. A major issue in the 1948 report was its treatment of the relationship with farm organizations. This was prompted by the fact that in a number of states a farm organization was Extension's local sponsoring group. The report recommended that the relationship be changed. Another distinguishing feature of the 1948 study was the attention devoted to training Extension staff. The uniqueness of the 1968 report lies in its strong emphasis on what has become known as "social programs." A continuing theme was giving priority to the "disadvantaged." The theme was the rationale for bringing the 1890 institutions into the picture. It was partially the reaction against this philosophy that prompted the 1983 study. While the 1983 study took the emphasis away, the role of Extension with the disadvantaged wasn't forgotten.Impact of StudiesPeople who expected "revolutionary" changes to happen as a result of the studies have been disappointed. On the other hand, a majority of the significant recommendations have been incorporated into programs and policies. For example, the 1948 recommendations on training and integration of specialists into academic departments are now standard procedures. The program recommendations of 1958 have been incorporated, although emphasis assigned to individual program areas varies with the national administration and the economic and political situation. An unanswerable question is whether the reports led to the changes or simply were a recognition of the existence of exogenous factors and trends that had to be accommodated. Some insight into the answer lies in the fact that many of the recommendations were at the time controversial and far from the accepted norm. Only a true cynic would conclude that the reports haven't contributed to change in a strongly decentralized institution-one designed not to accept top down direction through orders. Even the 1968 report, which received less acceptance and recognition than the others, resulted in appreciation of social issues that continue to be addressed by Extension programs. I believe the 1948 and 1958 reports had greater impact than the 1968 report. The main reason for the difference is the amount of follow-up provided by ECOP and Extension Service, USDA. There was quite a delay in the printing of the 1968 report and by the time the recommendations were available for discussion, considerable change in personnel in ECOP and USDA had taken place. Also, the 1968 report moved beyond policy concerns and became largely a blueprint for implementation. Policy concerns became obscured. The results from the 1983 report are still to be determined. It was produced promptly, is concerned with policy matters, and did have wide involvement in preparation. Both USDA and ECOP have an interest in following through on many of the recommendations. There is cause for optimism. Footnotes
The Low-Income Single Parent Nancy Wells Gladow Margaret P. Ray Washington StudyOur 1983 Washington study examined the problems and support systems of 64 single parents living in Whitman County, Washington -those with an income below 125% of the nationally established poverty level. This 1983 study involved interviewing single parents in their homes and asking questions about some selected problems they have, their relationships with friends and relatives, community support, agency services, and interest in taking various educational courses. The sample was obtained from the Whitman County Regional Planning Council (WCRPC), the county agency administering the programs of rent subsidy, energy assistance, weatherization, and community services provided through the Community Services State Block Grant. The sample was primarily rural female single parents who were divorced or separated and had sole legal custody of their children. Two of the parents were widowed and eight unmarried. Seventy-three percent had been single parents over two years. The subjects ranged between 20 and 55 years of age with a median category of 30-34 years. The median educational level was graduation from high school, with a range between eighth grade and graduate school. There was a fairly even split between the number of single parents who were employed, not employed, or students. Single-Parent ProblemsAnalysis of the interviews revealed that out of 20 specified potential problems, the most pervasive problems of these low-income single parents were, in order:
Notice that these highest rated problems or difficulties generally deal with the parent's responsibilities to the family rather than the individual's personal needs. It wasn't that these single parents had all their personal needs met, because 86% said they could somewhat or strongly relate to the statement, "I feel isolated from other people-like I'm the only one who really cares about what's going on in my life and with my children." Apparently these parents downplayed their own needs and put the needs of their family first. Although the researchers found the vast majority to be deeply committed to their families and role as parents, many seemed so caught up in survival that they didn't have or take the time and energy to recognize and meet their own personal needs as individuals. The results showed that interaction with friends, perceived emotional support from friends, and perceived community support were strongly related to feelings of loneliness, isolation, and happiness in the single parents. Those who had more close friends, more frequent and satisfying conversations with friends about personal matters and problems, and greater perceived emotional support from friends and the community felt less lonely, less isolated, and happier. In turn, the single parents who felt the least lonely and isolated and the happiest were also those who had the fewest frequent problems. The relationship between the well-being of the single parent as an individual and the parent's ability to cope with problems seems only common sense to professionals who work with families. The support single parents receive from others is bound to affect their ability to cope with life's challenges. Therefore, the tendency of the low-income single parents in this study to downplay or perhaps not recognize their own needs is cause for concern. These single parents may need help to realize that taking time to meet some of their own needs can also be of benefit to their children. Course InterestThe participants were asked about their interest in taking 11 specific classes, if there were no cost involved and child care were provided. The interviewer didn't specify who d would be teaching the classes or where they would be hel I trying only to assess the interest these parents had in increasing their knowledge and skills in certain areas. The relative interest in these 11 courses, from most to least, was:
Note that the courses in which the greatest interest was shown correspond with the areas that caused the most problems for these single parents. Gap in SupportAlthough some resources are already available to low-income single parents, noticeable gaps exist. Public assistance or employment helps meet critical basic financial needs, yet isn't likely to provide the personal sense of support necessary to improve the emotional well-being of the single parent. Also, negative effects associated with public assistance may exist.1 Although some single parents can develop support systems with friends and relatives, many others don't have these resources or may have moved away from their family and friends.2 Single-parent support groups are sometimes suggested to help provide support and understanding for single parents. 3 Yet members of Parents Without Partners, the most widespread organization specifically for single parents, are primarily middle-income and middle-class. 4 In the present study, only one person was currently involved in any group for singles or single parents, although one-third were close enough to attend one of these groups if they had a car. The lack of involvement of low-income single parents in these groups may be due to a number of factors, including transportation problems, financial considerations of child care or activity expenses when going to meetings, or not feeling comfortable in a primarily middle-class setting. Indeed, transportation and finances were common problems for these single parents. However, the comments about single-parent groups these subjects volunteered most often dealt with the negative associations they have about these groups. One woman said, "I've always thought those types of groups were for when you got really desperate." Several parents said they'd attended one social event of a single-parent organization and felt so uncomfortable with the dating emphasis of the group that they wouldn't return. Other women commented that they didn't want to put themselves in a position to be "looked over," and would prefer a group that wasn't oriented to dating. Community college classes geared to single parents have been suggested as a possible support group for this population.5 Such classes may avoid the negative associations of single-parent organizations. However, financial problems of paying tuition or child care, transportation, or hesitancy to enroll in a formal college class might inhibit low-income single parents from becoming involved in such a class. Also, these courses aren't available in many communities. Extension's RoleExtension and the,family living Extension agent in the county office are i4'ideal position to fill some of the gaps in support for low-income single parents. Programs offered through Extension would have several advantages over those through community colleges or single-parent groups. Unlike most community college courses, Extension programs can be offered free and may not generate the fear possibly associated with a college-sponsored class. Extension programs also wouldn't have the negative stereotypes associated with formal single-parents' groups or organizations. The background of the family living Extension agent provides him/her with skills in the areas that seem to be causing low-income single parents the most problems-the topics in which the subjects showed the most interest in taking classes. Another important skill agents have is the ability to generate trust and support among a group. The more interaction and emotional support single parents receive from those around them, the less isolated, less lonely, and happier they seem to be. Building support among a group of low-income single parents may be a challenge at first, as many of the subjects in the present research commented on the gossipy or cliquish nature of their community. Yet, Extension agents are among the most skilled of family professionals when it comes to group process. Also, transportation is a real problem for most low-income single parents. About 16% of our sample had no car and another 30% said their car was unreliable. The expense of gas was a commonly mentioned problem. However, Extension agents can offer programs in the community in which they're needed. In the majority of small towns in our rural county, if a program were offered in a local community building, the single parents in that community would be close enough to walk or at least to get to the location with an unreliable car and with little gas money involved. In our information explosion society, the importance of human contact and support is sometimes forgotten. With low-income single parents, the personal dimension available through face-to-face classes is critical. Although other methods used by Extension (such as correspondence courses, publications, and newsletters) may also benefit low-income single parents, these methods involving reading would probably have much greater meaning and inspire more motivation after a trusting relationship has developed with the agent and other single parents in the community. Thus, the family living Extension agent can attract lowincome single parents into classes by holding the programs locally, teaching topics of particular relevance and interest, and hopefully offering or arranging for child care, if possible. The agent can help the participants become a supportive group that in turn provides a source of support and new friends that may enrich the single parent's life past the duration of the class. Skills taught in the course would directly apply to the life of the single parent, thereby improving the quality of life for the entire single-parent family. Other information resources available through Extension may then be used by these parents to enhance their own lives and those of their children.
SummaryA recent Washington study on the problems and support systems of low-income single parents suggests a gap exists in support for these families that Extension seems ideal to fill. Through locally taught classes, agents could provide expertise in the areas that create the most problem for single parents, while at the same time facilitating feelings of group trust and supportiveness. Building support systems among the single parents may provide them with the greatest benefit-the feeling they have friends in their local community who understand their situation and to whom they can turn for friendship and support. This research project shows a link exists between the support the single parent feels and the overall well-being of the family. Extension has the structure and expertise to provide this link and enhance the quality of life for the low-income single parent. Footnotes
Microcomputers...for Better Listening James S. Long Barbara D. Long With one ear to the ground, we listen to people's problems. With the other, we listen for research that matches these problems. And with our "third ear," we sometimes take time to listen to our colleagues in Extension who have made the match. Listening to ResearchersOn our sabbatical in West Virginia and during the interviews in a dozen other states, we met a number of Extension professionals who use microcomputers (micros) to find bibliographical research cited in computerized databases. These include AGRICOLA, the "electronic memory" of USDA's National Agricultural Library,1 FNIC (Foodand Nutrition Information Center, a part of AGRICOLA), NPIRS (National Pesticide Information Retrieval System, based at Purdue University), BIOSIS, and ENVIROLINE. One estimate2 is that there are now over 1,200 computer readable databases, including subjects related to most Extension projects, like forest regeneration, organic pesticides, adolescent nutrition, water quality, funding community radio. The staff of each database is trained in the disciplines represented by that database. They review hundreds of periodicals and other sources of research information; they select studies that fit its domain, prepare a citation, and, sometimes, an abstract; they index the study according to a set of key words. And that's the key-the key words, those words Extension staff use to instruct the computer to locate all the study titles/abstracts containing those key wordsbut only those studies. Having quickly found titles, authors, and sources, and perhaps having read their abstracts, the Extension professional can get selected references from the local university library, through an interlibrary loan system, or as a last resort for AGRICOLA citations, at the National Agricultural Library (NAL). NAL also offers "hunting" and duplicating services for Extension. What equipment does it take to search a database? A common set of hardware includes: the microcomputer (or a printer terminal, or a communicating word processor); a modem (the box that translates computer signals into phone signals, and vice versa); a printer (to type the desired citations/abstracts); a telephone and phone communications, by wire, microwave, or satellite. This communicating ability of the microcomputer enables the user from anywhere there's a micro and a phone to reach the computer that searches the database-often up to 20 hours a day. Frequently, a commercial vendor, such as Dialog3 or BRSM4 makes available to subscribers a "menu" of databases. Their fees vary and are based on phone charges, the database searched, and computer search time. In addition, phone networks, such as TYMNET, TELENET, or UNINET, place long distance calls at local rates, usually at much lower costs during "off hours." So, in effect, the microcomputer-and our friendly phone-help us listen to researchers anywhere in the world who have published studies important to us in Extension and cited in one of hundreds of computerized databases. Whereas before, we may have asked a library to run a search for us, we observed that Extension staff, perhaps with an assistant, are beginning to use micros to search databases interactively, incrementally. Listening to ClienteleAlso, we met Extension staff who use computers to listen effectively to clientele. Here are several examples. First, two "Answer Lines" in Iowa enable clients anywhere in the state to call toll free to ask questions about home economics and gardening. This saves county agents' time in answeringroutine questions because knowledgeable listeners on campus have some answers to anticipated questions in their computers.5 Second, they used computer decision aids. A computer decision aid supplied, for example, by Nebraska's AGNET6 or Indiana's FACTS,7 identifies a whole set of "if ... thens...." The "if ... then . . ."relationship has been established by research and built into a formula. The decision aid prompts the Extension professional to ask the decision maker for information about the objective (to reduce heat loss, to plan a balanced diet, to minimize soil erosion) and about available resources. It identifies the information that the decision maker-now a "co-searcher"-needs to supply and it provides a research-based framework to interpret that information. A third development is the potential of using optical scanning to directly enter, say, survey data into computers for summarizing and analysis. Here's an example. Through a program called C D-Dial,8 Extension in Iowa helps neighborhood leaders size up their community. The Extension faculty member helps the leaders:
Similardata from other communities may establish ranges within which the leaders of a given community can interpret local data, for example, public expenditures for emergency medical care. Fourth, the microcomputer, with its growing storage capacity, is a repository for experience-based knowledge, the experiences of our clientele. We believe a neat example of this ability comes from the EPA-supported National Small Wastewater Flows Clearinghouse9 at West Virginia University. The clearinghouse helps users access research information related to the technology of treating water in small communities. But, more than that, it collects experiences of consultants and communities that have tried the alternative technologies. This clearinghouse, then, collects both research- and experience-based knowledge. In short, microcomputers enable us to listen more carefully to busy clientele who need a quick tip, individual decision makers, leaders struggling to set community goals appropriate to preferences of its residents, and practitioners who can contribute experience-based knowledge.Listening to ColleaguesOne of the most complex tasks is to match research findings to people problems. When a colleague succeeds, or at least gives it a "good college try," we'd like to know about it! Through microcomputers, we, in Extension, can now better listen to each other in all 50 states and territories. We contribute and enjoy ready access to yet another set of experience-based information -- the reports in the National Accomplishment Reporting System (NARS), made available by Extension Service, USDA.10 Extension staff who access NARS by microcomputer find reports useful throughout the program development process:
And, we also observed computer conf erenci ng -electronic mail addressed to colleagues who have micros and with whom the Extension worker may want to interact quickly to draft a cooperative grant proposal, prepare a workshop agenda, or solicit association news.
Conclusion"Matchmakers." That's us. It's tough matching useful kernels from the ever-widening spectrum of research to the ever-changing problems of people. It requires a lot of listening. We have a newer listening tool-the microcomputer. It can help us listen to researchers comprehensively, efficiently,,purposefully. It can help us listen to clientele with more insight and with more power to integrate timely research with their goals and resources. It can help us listen to colleagues who have experimented and reported their experiences. Extension is not so old that it needs a hearing aid to amplify the signal! But it does face the challenge of using a newer tool to listen more sensitively to people's problems, researchand experience-based alternatives, and co-workers. We can extend our power to hear if through microcomputers we choose to extend our listening. Footnotes
Teleconferencing Randall G. Rogan Gary A. Simmons
Teleconferencing is interactive group communication (three or more people in two or more locations) through an electronic medium.2 In general terms, teleconferencing can bring people together under one roof even though they're separated by hundreds of miles. Teleconferencing was first introduced in the 1960's with American Telephone and Telegraph's Picturephone. At that time, however, no demand existed for the new technology. Travel costs were reasonable and consumers were unwilling to pay the monthly service charge for using the picturephone, which was regarded as more of a novelty than as an actual means for everyday communication. But things have changed in the past 10 years. Basic TypesToday, teleconferencing is used in many ways. There are three basic types:
In some state Extension programs (Wisconsin and Illinois), teleconferencing is a basic communication technique. Yet, the verdict is still out in many other states. This article highlights some of the major advantages and disadvantages of teleconferencing and answers some questions for those uncertain about using teleconferencing in their Extension activities. AdvantagesOne of the major advantages of teleconferencing is its potential to reduce the cost of group meetings. Savings come primarily from reduced travel costs. In fact, teleconferencing can reduce national business travel-associated costs by about 30% annually-a $4.5 billion savings. 4 A good example of the dollars that can be saved is a teleconference conducted by the Spruce Budworm Technology Transfer (SBWTT) Program for the Lake States Region-part of the Canada/United States Spruce Budworm Program. The SBWTT project is a forest entomology research effort concerned with disseminating information about the spruce budworm to forest managers in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Part of the project involved a cost comparison between a 14-person audioconference and a comparable FTF meeting in St. Paul, Minnesota. The comparison revealed that the audioconference cost 42% less that the FTF meeting.5 The major difference between the two was the travel-related expenses. Although saving money is a big advantage of teleconferencing, there are several other advantages:
DisadvantagesWhile teleconferencing is characterized by many advantages, it does have disadvantages:
To minimize some of the potential problems, users should carefully evaluate their meeting needs and goals to determine if teleconferencing is appropriate. Users should also assess their audience. For example, consider the size of the group, their level of experience with teleconferencing, and the extent of their familiarity with each other. These precautions won't eliminate all the problems that could arise, but they should reduce the likelihood of their occurring. Unique AlternativeTeleconferencing represents a unique alternative to the traditional FTF meeting. Most of the time, a teleconference is an appropriate substitute. Every meeting is unique, with different goals, objectives, and purpose. Teleconferencing can't satisfy the individual needs of every type of meeting. Teleconferencing and FTF meetings involve different patterns of interaction and social codes of behavior. As we develop and refine new communication patterns appropriate for teleconferencing, we'll be modifying future human communication patterns. Researchers at the Institute for the Future in Menlo Park, California, offer some suggestions as we make this transition:
Teleconferencing has vast potential for increasing the efficiency of human communication. For those of us in Extension, this means less time away from home, more money to devote to other activities, and more time to spend on other projects. Yet, teleconferencing for all it's worth can never totally replace FTF meetings. FTF interaction is an important part of human communication. Furthermore, teleconferencing can only facilitate the linking of people-it does not alter the complexity of group communication. Although it may be easier for us to communicate with teleconferencing, it may also be easier for us to miscommunicate. Footnotes
Examining Rural Unemployment Paul Lasley Peter F. Korsching A serious problem facing many rural communities is unemployment. With the decline in the farm population, closing of businesses, and temporary or permanent layoffs in industry, families face the situation of having one or both of the wage earners without employment. Extension can be a valuable resource in helping communities tackle this problem. The response, however, is often reactive, such as helping the unemployed and their families cope with the problem. This article describes a recent Iowa research project that demonstrates a more proactive role Extension can play in addressing the rural unemployment problem.1
Uniqueness of Rural UnemploymentProblemsOfficial unemployment statistics are calculated with formulas. The information base used to estimate unemployment is unemployment compensation claims. These claims may be adequate in urban, industrial settings, but they're less meaningful in rural areas because self-employment and farming are major occupations that frequently don't qualify for unemployment compensation. A second problem of current estimating procedures is in the formulas used. The formulas were developed from base-line surveys conducted nearly two decades ago. Since then, the industrial mix and employment patterns of rural and urban areas have changed radically, but the formulas haven't adjusted to reflect those changes. Experts on employment and unemployment statistics contend the 2 formulas have a bias favoring the urban, industrial areas.2 Finally, the problem of the discouraged or chronically unemployed further reduces the validity of rural unemployment statistics. Unemployment rates rely on estimates of the total work force. Standard measures of the work force include those who are working (the employed) and those who are actively seeking a job (the unemployed). However, when a person quits actively looking for a job, he/she is no longer considered a member of the work force. In rural areas, where access to an employment office is limited or requires greater expenditure of resources (longdistance travel or long-distance phone calls), the worker, depressed after many unsuccessful tries, may eventually quit checking with the employment office. This operational definition of actively seeking employment also ignores the informal network that characterizes rural areas where job openings are passed along through family and friendship networks. Negative ConsequencesThere are two major negative consequences of the underestimation of rural unemployment. The most direct consequence is the inability of the rural community to attract new prospective industries and employers. A low unemployment rate shows that most residents have a job and, hence, that only a small labor pool is available. The second consequence of unreliable unemployment data is the rural bias created in the distribution of state and federal funds. Many of the funds available to communities for industrial development, job training, and other development programs use the unemployment rates as a primary indicator of "need." When reported rates underestimate the number of unemployed, the area is disadvantaged in qualifying for and receiving its equitable share of public monies. MethodologyIn January, 1982, local leaders and the Extension staff in an 8-county region in southern Iowa initiated a discussion on their perceptions of the unemployment problem in the region. Through meetings of the Extension staff, Extension Councils, and community leaders, local citizens expressed the need for increasing employment opportunities for the seemingly growing number of unemployed. They soon discovered, however, that the official rates of unemployment were generally low, ranging from 3% to 7% across the 8 counties. The question they raised with the state Extension staff was, "Is our perception of the unemployment mentsituation in our region wrong, or is the official unemployment rate in error?" Based on local input and consultation with Iowa State University researchers, a needs assessment study was proposed to the community leaders in the eight counties. The survey would provide not only answers to their questions about the level of unemployment, but also information useful in obtaining financial assistance from government sources and recruiting new employment opportunities. Extension partially funded the study and each of the counties agreed to provide some funding and recruit volunteers to collect the data. A random sample of about 390 households was selected from each county. More than 200 local resident volunteers received training on how to conduct telephone interviews and carried out the data collection. Work history information was obtained for each adult eligible for the labor market (16 years and older) in the households. All data were collected during the same time as the monthly official rates were calculated so a direct comparison could be made. Data processing and analysis were done by the state Extension staff. FindingsThe sample size for the entire region was 3,125 randomly selected households. After adjusting for vacant households, the sample was reduced to 2,744 households. A completion rate of 67.8% was obtained by successfully contacting 1,861 households. Living in these 1,861 households were 3,733 individuals 16 years or older eligible for the labor force. Of those individuals eligible for the labor force, 1,916 were employed, 402 were unemployed, and 1,415 were retired or disabled or, for other reasons, not considered part of the labor force. Based on these data, the 17.3% unemployment rate across the 8-county region was computed this way: 402 (number unemployed) / 2,318 (1,916 employed + 402 unemployed) = 17.3% (unemployment) By using the same formula for the computations, computed unemployment rates for the 8 counties ranged from 14.3% to 20.2%. During the same time these data were collected, the official reported unemployment rates for the 8 counties ranged from 4.7% to 7.9%, with an area unemployment rate of 6.5%. Study BenefitsThe most obvious benefit of the study was documenting the bias in official government unemployment statistics that works to the detriment of rural areas. These findings are important to the communities' efforts in attracting new industry and employers. They indicate an available labor force that's willing to go to work. Secondly, the data are being used to help communities in the area gain state and federal resources to address the problem -manpower training, industrial recruitment, and development grants. A series of workshops has been organized in the communities to help them understand the data and how to use them in efforts to recruit industry and employers and to secure state and federal resources. Another important benefit of this study was the spirit of cooperation and synergism instilled in the local communities by cooperatively addressing a locally relevant problem. The linkages established between communities, organizations, and residents in working together on a common problem will facilitate future cooperative problem solving. This participatory model of research will have long-lasting impacts through building capacity to analyze and act on local problems. The project demonstrates a more proactive role for Extension in future activities that warrant additional consideration. PostscriptThe benefits of this project can be shown in the activities that have occurred since the survey. In the past 12 months:
While it's difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of the project, several promising developments have occurred or are in process. A $500,000 federal water treatment proposal is very close to f inal approval. Without the study, the application for the funds couldn't have been made because the funds were earmarked for regions with unemployment in excess of 10%. In the past few months, two new manufacturing plants have announced their intention to locate in the area. Initially, these 2 plants will create 50 new jobs. In addition to these accomplishments, several other economic development grant proposals are being written. In summary, the project is responsible for creating awareness of the need for additional employment and stimulating the communities to work together in solving their problems. We feel certain this project between the communities and Extension will generate other economic development activities. Footnotes
Extension - A Citizen of the World Michael Quinn Patton "I am a citizen of the world." An international dimension is basic to effective Extension programs. Not secondary. Not a luxury. Not an afterthought. Not an add-on. But basic. An international dimension is basic to Extension because the future of American agriculture is inextricably linked to international markets and world development. United States agricultural exports increased fivefold in value from 1971 to 1981 and more than doubled in physical volume. Schuh, head of Agricultural and Applied Economics of the University of Minnesota, recently commented on the importance of international markets to American agriculture: Our farm economy is in bad shape now, but think of where we'd be without the tremendous increase in exports during the past 10 years. Agricultural exports to centrally planned countries increased 740 percent and those to lesser-developed countries 650 percent in the last 10 years.... We live in a dramatically different world now compared to 10 years ago. The U.S. economy, and particularly agriculture, has become internationalized. That's why things like exports, budget deficits, currency exchange rates and interest rates are so important to U.S. farmers.1 Today, the United States is the world's largest exporter of agricultural products. Our share of the world's export of major farm products demonstrates our dependence on international markets: wheat, 40%; feed grains, 72%; soybeans, 80%; tobacco, 20%; and cotton, 30%. Of the total value of world agricultural exports, the United States accounts for nearly one-fifth. In fiscal year 1981, we exported $43 billion of agricultural products, equaling 19% of total exports, and imported just $17 billion for an enormous $26 billion net surplus from agricultural trade.2 We export the output of about 40% of the total cropland of the United States.3 The economic prosperity of American farm families is directly linked to the world economy. That's why an international development perspective is basic to effective Extension programs. Freeh, director for International Development with Land O'Lakes, has consistently made this point. In a 1981 speech to Minnesota Extension staff, he said: All of the plans, programs, and personal aspirations we may have in the area of international development will continue to be relegated to a position of secondary or minor importance until and unless we are willing to make our own international development efforts an integral part of our total Extension commitment and then reflect that commitment in our plans, in our programs, in our budgets, in our reports, in our materials-and in our requests to the Legisiature-the same as we do for our domestic programs.4 Local International ConnectionSantayana said, "A man's feet must be planted in his country, but his eyes should survey the world." Building support at the local level for an international dimension to Extension means educating participants in Extension programs on issues of international importance. The remainder of this article is a modest agenda for international Extension education efforts at the local level. Extension specialists and county agents will need to educate themselves on these issues if they're to incorporate an international dimension into all phases of Extension activity. I'll purposefully illustrate these issues in the context of Minnesota, my own state, to show how the local-international connection can reduce the seemingly abstract and distant nature of these international dimensions by placing them in a context close to home. International MarketsThe statistics on American agricultural exports document the importance of international markets to the prosperity of American agriculture.5 In Minnesota, for example, 1 of every 3 acres is producing for international markets; it exported $2 billion of commodity exports in 1981. State and local Extension staff should have up-to-date statistics on the extent to which local products are exported. They should use statistics to demonstrate the international importance of local activities. World HungerHunger is a fact of life for over 500 million people in the world-twice the total U.S. population. Every minute, according to the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), 200 people are born on this planet. Half will die before they're a year old. Of those that live, half will die before their 16th birthday, most from hunger, malnutrition, and disease. Twenty-one people die of starvation every minute of the day and night.6 Hunger is a complex issue with serious moral, political, and economic implications. Extension can provide opportunities for increased understanding of world hunger. Extension nutrition and food preparation programs can include information about the nature and dimensions of world hunger. World Food Day is a special opportunity each October to plan subsistence meals to educate homemakers and youth about the realities of a famine diet. 4-H groups might participate in a "Walk for the Hungry." Minnesota's walk last October was a 20-kilometer effort coordinated by the Hunger Action Coalition and Church World Service with funds designated for specific places. The American Freedom from Hunger Foundation publishes a guide to materials and organizations involved in combating hunger.7 Global InterdependenceExtension staff can help make awareness of our global interdependence more than a tired cliche. Lifestock special- ists, for example, can make farmers aware of the foreign origins of "American "breeds; few originated in the United States. Young people need to understand the global roots of local populations and the continuing international move- ments of people. Minnesota Extension is working intensively with over 50 recent Hmong refugee families from Laos, helping them become economically self-supporting. EFNEP nutrition educators in Minnesota include special assistants to Hmong, Laotians, Cambodians, Vietnamese, and Hispanics. In addition to these recent immigrants, Minnesota's interdependence with other states and the world is reflected in the state's historically diverse population origins and the fact that, despite being an agricultural state, only 11 % of the produce unloaded in the Twin Cities in 1979 was grown in the state. What happens elsewhere in the world, as with the Mideast oil crisis, affects life in local communities. Extension staff can help build international awareness and understanding by deliberately looking for and building into programs local evidence of our global interdependence. Resource Distribution & ConsumptionOur global interdependence is partly a function of the world's finite resources and the uneven distribution of those resources. United States energy consumption per capita is 10 times higher than the world average and more than 100 times greater than that of most developing countries.8 With roughly 5% of the world's population, the United States accounts for about 40% of the world's annual resource consumption.9 In opening a 1983 conference on "Youth Home Economics, Agriculture and Third World Development," Magrath, president of the University of Minnesota and board member of the Board for International Food and Agricultural Development (BI FAD), observed that "the disparity between wealthy and impoverished nations has led to 43 wars and the loss of 8.3 million lives over the past 14 years."10 Philosopher and futurist Fuller was one of the earliest writers to analyze the problems of uneven resource distribution and consumption using the metaphor of "Spaceship Earth." We're at a point now where we have one spaceship earth, and the only way you can possibly run it is on behalf of everybody. The way it is now we have 150 admirals-the 150 nations of the world and the admirals who happen to have the stateroom on board that's nearest the dining room of the ship say that they own all the food; and the admirals near the dynamo claim all the electricity and the admirals near the lightbulbs claim all the light. But nobody's paying attention to where the ship's going! All of them are fighting over the ship' and it's going nowhere. We are going to have to look at our planet as a total ship: the resources are where they are most logically positionable by nature, but they belong to everybody.11 Extension staff can help build a community sense of responsibility for wise resource and energy use in the context of global needs and shortages. We're determining now how well Spaceship Earth will operate in the future. As Fuller notes: "The most important fact about Spaceship Earth: an instruction book didn't come with it." World DiversityAn international perspective on Spaceship Earth includes a recognition that the American way is neither the only way nor, necessarily, the best way. American agricultural systems may be generally the most productive per unit of labor but are decidedly not the most efficient in terms of total resources used per unit of yield or outcome. American farmers would be surprised to find that many small farming systems in less-developed countries are more efficiently integrated in the use of resources than large-scale American commercial farms. Of course, such comparisons depend on the definitions used, criteria applied, and values held. And that's precisely the point! People with different values will judge the same thing in different ways. An international perspective helps us examine our values and lifestyles with a f uller appreciation of the rich diversity of choices the world offers. Nations, peoples, and cultures vary tremendously in the relative value they attach to time, wealth, family, land, youth, the elderly, religion, law, freedom, tradition-and life itself. The Western industrialized way of life includes only 24% of the world's population of 4.5 billion people. By the year 2100, the United Nations Fund for Population Activities estimates that the world's population will stabilize at 10.5 billion people with only 13% in industrialized societies. American ignorance about the rest of the world is legend. Among modern nations, the United States stands out in its neglect of language study, a neglect which is symptomatic of our larger international ignorance. The Educational Testing Service surveyed high school seniors the year after the Middle East War of 1973: half the students were unable to identify which of these four countries is Arabic-India, Israel, Egypt, or Mexico. Although the 1973 Middle East War precipitated our own energy crisis, a 1977 Gallup poll showed that half the U.S. population was still unaware that the United States imports petroleum. There is no shortage of data documenting the extent to which Americans are woefully ignorant about international facts and issues, and our global interdependence.12
Increasing International AwarenessMany opportunities exist locally for Extension to help increase international awareness and understanding. Exchange programs, presentations by foreign visitors, and involving international students and faculty in local Extension activities can help build global awareness. One third of the graduate students in the University of Minnesota's College of Agriculture are international students-nearly 250 from 53 countries, most of them from developing countries. All land-grant colleges have similarly significant numbers of international students who can serve as windows to the world for people in our local communities. I found these students are anxious to get out in the state, share perceptions, and learn more about the United States while sharing their own perspectives and experiences. But they have to be invited! There are myriad ways Extension staff can build international awareness into their programs: international food and craft fairs; pairings of U.S. and foreign groups for exchanges of information and visits, for example, farmer organizations, homemaker groups, or 4-H groups being paired with similar units abroad; featuring foreign holidays to enliven and add an international dimension to routine Extension meetings; and regular use of visual displays to educate people about global issues related to food, agriculture, nutrition, child care, and young people. Such efforts to increase international understanding are most effective when consciously and fully integrated into basic Extension activities, not as an afterthought, but as an integral part of Extension's larger educational mission. Making the International Dimension RealTaking seriously the idea that an international dimension is basic to Extension has important implications for Extension at all levels of effort:
The actions outlined above are aimed at making internationalism a basic theme in Extension programs at all levels of activity. While we often feel helpless to affect the global course of history, Extension has a tradition of belief in education as the most powerful force for shaping the future. The story is told that Einstein was once asked what the scientific antidote was to the atom bomb. "There is no scientific antidote," he replied, "only education. You have got to change the way people think. I am not interested in disarmament talks between nations. What I want to do is disarm the mind. After that, everything else will automatically follow. The ultimate weapon for such mental disarmament is international education."13 I don't know where Einstein made these observations, but I wouldn't be at all surprised to learn that he was talking to a group of Extension people. Footnotes
Teaching Coastal Property Owners
Frank R. Lichtkoppler Ohio coastal property owners in the central basin of Lake Erie have been faced with serious coastal erosion-related problems for many years. These problems include loss of recreational beaches, storm and wave damage to coastal property, bluff erosion and landslides, and in severe cases, total destruction of lakefront homes. Coastal property owner losses have been accelerated by a lack of knowledge of coastal erosion processes. Extension Sea Grant teaching efforts to address the problems of this group began in earnest in Ohio in 1982. A series of mini-schools were conducted for 59 program participants. Lecture demonstrations, lakefront site surveys, printed references, and telephone conversations were used to teach interested clients about lakefront erosion. A post-program mail survey evaluated the effectiveness of the teaching efforts. After 2 reminders, 39 surveys (66%) were returned. Respondents reported living on the lakeshore an average of 19 years and had mean annual incomes of $30,000-34,999. Twenty respondents (51 %) used their property as a permanent residence, 11 (28%) as a summer residence, 3 (8%) for commercial income purposes, and the rest for other reasons. Participants thought the information was valuable and helpful to them. Most ranked their general level of knowledge of coastal erosion significantly higher following the Extension Sea Grant mini-schools. Thirty-three mini-school participants have shared the information with others. Seventeen have taken action based on the knowledge they gained. Twelve haven't taken action that may be only marginally useful in erosion control as a result of knowledge gained from the Extension Sea Grant program. Reactions to Extension Sea Grant educational efforts were favorable. Indirect measurements indicated a knowledge, skills, attitude, and/or aspiration change. Results of the survey demonstrate the effectiveness of using proven Extension teaching methods with this new Extension audience.
Made in Alabama
Lenda Jo Anderson Developing and cultivating Extension support groups is an important challenge. Traditionally, agriculture and 4-H have developed these resources more extensively than home economics. Home economics has worked primarily with consumer groups that haven't generally been organized to contribute financial support. A program called "Made in Alabama" has been successful in breaking our home economics unit out of the traditional mold. The program consists of a fashion show of garments manufactured within our state. It has provided a direct relationship between Extension, the apparel industry, and Alabama consumers. A proposal for a fashion show was sent to all manufacturers listed in a state industrial directory. Manufacturers were asked to contribute garments representative of their line. Twenty-four firms responded positively to the idea and donated 61 garments to the show. Garments in the show include something for everyone ... men, women, and children ... activewear and sleepwear. These garments are packaged in a trunk show that Extension agents can request for county programs such as mall shows and Extension Homemaker Days. Special presentations have included invitations to legislators and media tapings. Before receiving the trunk, agents are sent a packet of information detailing how to plan, present, and evaluate the program. The informative script for "Made in Alabama" helps educate consumers to industry-related information about plant locations and numbers of employees. Further, consumers understand the relationship between consumer decisions and the economic health of the textile/apparel industry in Alabama. Blending the interests of industry and the educational concepts of Extension heightens consumer awareness of Alabama products, taps community pride, and offers a positive approach to economic awareness. Because of interest shown in "Made in Alabama" by consumers and the media, manufacturers are enthusiastic about continued cooperation with Extension educational programs.
Answer Line
Mary Jo Williams How do I cook tiger meat? Can a freezer that no longer works be used as a big ice chest? How can duck eggs be hatched using an electric skillet? Since 1975, Iowa residents have called Answer Line, a toll-free number, to find answers to these and more conventional home economics questions. The Answer Line office, located on the Iowa State University campus, has grown from a six-month pilot program. It was designed to help county home economists answer their routine daily calls, thus giving them more time for program development to an ongoing Extension program. Clients are still referred by county offices, but the service has developed its own clientele. For many callers, their use of Answer Line is their first contact with Extension. Clients talk with a home economist who may respond to their request in one of three ways: answer the question immediately, return the call after researching the request, or send printed information. Extension publications, textbooks, professional journals, and campus specialists in a variety of fields serve as part of the resources used to answer questions. Answer Line's clientele has grown from 1 calI the first day of service, March, 1975, to as many as 250 calls on the busiest of days. Since its beginning, almost 188,000 requests have been received. A publicity campaign wasn't launched to advertise this new service; rather, the county home economists were asked to publicize the telephone number in any way they saw fit. It was done primarily through newspaper columns, radio programs, and county newsletters. We still rely on this advertising to keep the telephone lines ringing. Because the daily number of calls continues to increase, particularly in the summer months, the service has had to make a few changes. The first was to expand for the summer months by adding a second telephone line and having two fulltime home economists. The second change was to add a computer. The information stored on computer disks was selected based on frequency of use and on the information itself - how detailed it is and how difficult it is to find. The information is grouped by subject (food preservation or stain removal) and isn't, in most cases, cross-referenced. After the Answer Line home economists decided what to record on the disks, sources were checked, information was written, and then approved by the state specialists. The system was tested during the summer of 1983. Computerizing many of the files has made it easier to find accurate answers quickly. It also allows for more consistent answers. This is especially important when more than one staff member is answering questions. Also, the computer's printing capabiIities make it easier to send information quickly. Several county home economists requested we make our computer files available to them. At present, 90% of Iowa county Extension offices have computers and the first copies of the Answer Line computer files have been sent to county home economists. Plans are to update the disks twice yearly or as needed. This project is totally voluntary for the home economists. Their cost is to purchase the eight floppy disks. "Answer Line was never intended to replace the county home economists, but rather to serve as a support for them," says Janet Sigmund, Answer Line home economist. "We have always tried to provide the home economists with information that will help them answer their daily requests. The computer disks are another source at their disposal."
Lifelong LearningConnie McKenna Lifelong Learning Research Conference Proceedings. This publication packs 41 tightly written papers on current theory and practice about non-formal adult education into 1 highly readable volume. The conference proceedings include a wide range of Extension-related topics, such as volunteerism, Extension education, community development, international education, aging, teaching methods, and research methodology. The busy reader will appreciate the scanning and screening help provided by the alphabetized content groupings in the table of contents and the 100-word abstracts preceding each paper. The conference itself was designed to facilitate dialogue between researchers and practitioners, to help bridge the gap between theory and practice, and build linkages among agencies and institutions dealing with adult education. The fact that nearly a dozen entities co-sponsored the conference gives solid evidence of the groundwork laid to accomplish this goal. The fact that papers presented were selected "blind" by a peer review committee attests to the openness, objectivity, and quality control built into the conference. Opening this publication is like lifting the lid of a small box and finding a surprising number of treasures. Individual tastes dictate which contents will be most appealing. Those looking for new insights into Extension work will gravitate toward in-house papers: "Development of a Career Life/Work Planning Workshop for Washington State University Cooperative Extension Faculty," and the North Carolina study on "Self -Perceived Changes in Leadership Capabilities of Participants in an Extension Training Program." Because of Extension's recent emphasis on accountability and evaluation, many will be attracted to McNiff's "Impact Study: Community Education in Maryland" and Moore's "Summarative Scales for Measuring Attitudes Toward Community Satisfaction." There are other treasures, too, with an integral, but perhaps less immediately visible, Extension potential. One of these is "Farming Systems Research and Development: A Participating Approach to Development" in the international section and others on television and interactive video in the technology section. An unexpected, if eclectic, treasure is the list of references with each paper. Twenty-four papers present research results and 17 are descriptive. The studies evolve from literature searches, implications of current theory and/or practice, or suggested new approaches to adult and continuing education. For Extension professionals unable to attend the conference, the proceedings serve as an update on recent research and provide stimulating challenges to traditional thinking-as well as some justification for Extension's existing "cultural beliefs."
Extension Journal, Inc.Extension Journal, Inc. is a quasi-official body of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges and the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy (ECOP). It is a nonprofit corporation organized for the purpose of publishing a journal for professional Extension staff, adult educators, and community developers. Board of Directors J. Cordell Hatch, president, Pennsylvania, Member at Large Editorial Committee David D. Eigenbrode, Maryland, Editorial Committee Research in Brief Editors Mary Andrews, Michigan State University, evaluation Tools of the Trade Editor James Long, Washington State University This article is online at http://joe.org/joe/1984september/ent.html. Copyright © by Extension Journal, Inc. ISSN 1077-5315. Articles appearing in the Journal become the property of the Journal. Single copies of articles may be reproduced in electronic or print form for use in educational or training activities. Inclusion of articles in other publications, electronic sources, or systematic large-scale distribution may be done only with prior electronic or written permission of the Journal Editorial Office, joe-ed@joe.org. |
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